Prophet

A prophet is a person who is believed to communicate with God, or with a deity. Prophets are thought to speak for God (or the gods), with the purpose of delivering a divinely inspired message. A prophet often operates through some means of divination or channeling. The process of receiving a message is known either as prophecy or as revelation. In popular usage, a prophet is believed to be someone foretelling the future. In fact, the majority of messages from Biblical prophets in the Hebrew Bible were social or religious messages and warnings concerning the consequences of sin.

The concept of a prophet is an old one and is important in several religions. The Greek oracles were based on sacred sites that preceded the Greeks' arrival in the Aegean. The word prophet itself derives from the Greek word προφήτης, referring to one who "utters forth". In Greek religion the interpreters of Zeus, Apollo, and other gods were the oracles at various ancient sites, where the god or goddess typically spoke through women.

illustration: The oracle of Apollo at Delphi:http://www.sikyon.com/Delphi/images/pythia_sm.jpg

The Hebrew bible refers to numerous prophets of God, or Yahweh, as well as false prophets speaking in God's name, prophets of Baal, and various regional deities. Well known Christian prophets include Jesus and John the Baptist. Several other Christian prophets are refered to in the Gospels, the Book of Acts, and the letters of Paul. Muslims accept many of the Hebrew prophets, recognize Jesus as a prophets, and believe that Muhammad was the last and greatest of the prophets of Allah. Newer religions, such as the Latter Day Saints, Baha'is, the Unification Church, and others view their leaders as prophets as well.

Because of the influence of the bible, the Hebrew concept of prophecy is of great significance. The biblical prophets provided the world with a sense of history as the progressive unfolding of God's will, rather than a never-ending cycle based on the rhythms of nature. They stressed the idea that there is only one true God worthy of worship. Furthermore, they stood up to kings and priests alike to proclaim that without morality and social justice, religion itself is meaningless. Finally, they left us with the eduring hope of a better world to come, a messianic age of peace and good will both in this life and the next.

Prophets in the Bible

Who is a prophet?

In Hebrew, the word traditionally translated as prophet is נְבִיא (navi). According to 1 Samuel 9:9, the old term for navi is ro'eh, ראה, which literally means "seer". In Deuteronomy 18:18, God declares: "I will put my words in his mouth and he will speak to them all that I command him." Thus, the navi was thought to be the mouthpiece of God. Nevertheless, prophets are not infallible, and they are capable of sin. The prophet Aaron sinned by making the golden calf while Moses is receiving the ten commandments. Miriam sinned by challenging the authority of Moses. Jonah ran from away from his calling, and then complained because God ultimately did not fulfill Jonah's prophecy. Both men and women could act as prophets. Biblical prophetesses include Sarah, Miriam, Deborah, Abigail, the unnamed prophetess of Isaiah 8:3, Huldah, Noadiah, and Esther. Prophets could also be patriarchs (Abraham), kings (David and Solomon), humble hersdmen and tree dresses, and court officials. Even gentiles could be prophets(Balaam), and in one case even an animal temporarily became a prophet (Balaam's ass).

Moses, the first great prophet

illustration: Michaelangeolo's Moses http://www.rainfall.com/posters/images/landscape/06612u.jpg

Although several of the patriarchs — such as Abraham, Issac, Jacob, and Joseph — were prophets and seers, the prototype of the prophet is Moses. According to the bible, he knew God very personally, so much so that he spoke to God face to face (Exodus 33:11). Moses could even argue successfully with God about policy (Numbers 12:12-20). In God's name, he stood before the king of Egypt and demanded liberation for the people of Israel (Exodus 10:3). Moses tangibly represented God (Exodus 4:16). Just as a prophet is a mouthpiece of God, so God gave Aaron to Moses as his mouthpiece (Exodus 7:1). In fact prophecy ran in his family, as both of his siblings, Aaron and Miriam, were also prophets.

Although a prophet does not need to do miracles — and indeed miracles can be done by mere magicians — Moses God performed the greatest miracles, such as parting the Red Sea, instigating ten horrific plagues against Egypt, and making water appear in the desert to feed the Israelites during the exodus. More important, the bible says he was the first man to whom God revealed his true name, YHWH, or Yahweh (Ex. 6:3); and it was through Moses that God revealed the Ten Commandments and the rudiments of the Jewish religious law. Even to millions of non-Jews, this revelation of what came to be called the Mosic Law became a foundational principle of both morality and religion. Moses also embodied the archetype of the liberator, inspiring social movements for such diverse causes as nationalism, the abolition of slavery, civil rights, and even Marxism.

The prophetic guilds

Prophetic activity is seen during the period of Judges in figures such as Deborah, a remarkable woman who in addition to being a prophetess was also a judge, military commander, psalmist, wife, and mother.

illustration: "The Song of Deborah" http://associate.com/photos/The-Bible-and-its-Story—1909/The_Bible_and_Its_Story_3/10.html

The last judge, Samuel, likewise combined the function of prophet, priest, warrior, and political leader. Samuel united the Israelite tribes and prepared them for nationhood. Though personally opposed to the principle of kingship, it was Samuel himself who, under God's inspiration, recognized and anointed both Saul and David as king of Israel.

In this period also emerged the phenomenon of prophetic schools or guilds. Samuel himself was a leading figure among the bands of roaming prophets (I Sam. 19:20). These "seers" and "sons of the prophets" (ben navim) prophesied in a trance-like state induced as they played varioius musical instruments and engaged in ecstatic dancing. They also attended the sacred altars of the "high places" such as Beth-El, Jericho, Shiloh, and Gibeon. King Saul is described as participating in their prophetic rites (1 Sam 10). King David appeared to act likwise when he stripped and danced "with all his might" during the procession which brought the Ark of the Covenant into Jesusalem for the first time (2 Sam 6:14).

Other indivually named prophets during this period of early Israelite prophecy include Gad, a seer to David prior to his becoming king; Nathan, who dramatically condemned David's adultery with Bathsheba but later helped Bathesheba's son Solomon gain the throne; and Ahijah, the wandering prophet who predicted that Israel would be divided because of Solomon's idolatry.

The phenomenon of prophetic bands continued until at least the time of the prophet Elisha at the end of King Ahab's reign. Nor was every prophetic group was devoted to the same deity. Some may have served several gods as part of their duties attending local shrines. These, along with Israelite prophets who spoke untruth in the name of Yahweh, came to be known as "false prophets."

Northern reforming prophets

Starting with the powerful man of God, Elijah, the bible tells of prophets who did battle on behalf of Yahweh against the prophets and priests of other gods. These prophets spoke boldly to the kings of Israel and Judah to urge them to worship Yahweh alone. Elijah and his protege, Elisha, operated during the northern dynasty of Omri, urging Israel to turn away from foreign gods. These two prophets are portrayed as powerful miracle-workers, and they were not above bloodying their own hands as well. When the Baal-worshipping northern queen of Israel, Jezebel, put to death hundreds of the prophets of Yahweh, Elijah responded in kind by slaying four hundred and fifty prophets devoted to Baal (1 Kings 18). Elisha continued the powerful ministry of his master, facilitating numerous impressive miracles and predicting dire consequences for the Northern Kingdom if it did not repent of its sin of idolatry. To chastize the North, he commissioned Israel's future nemesis Hazael to seize the kingship of Syria (2 Kings 8:12-13) and encouraged the violent Judean zealot Jehu, son of Jehoshaphat, to ursurp the kingdom of the wicked King Ahab (2 King 9:1).

During this period, the "court prophets", seers who advised the kings, also arose. The best of these, such as Nathan and Isaiah, gave good advice to the monarchs they served. Others occasionally found themselves in verbal battle against other prophets of God. A classic example is seen in the confrontation between the independant prophet Micaiah son of Imlah and the court prophet Zedekiah son of Kenaanah during an important political conference btween King Ahab of Israel and King Jehoshaphat of Judah (1 Kings 22).

http://oneyearbible.blogs.com/photos/uncategorized/micaiah20and20the20false20prophets20befo_1.jpg

Duelling prophets: Micaiah and Zedekiah before Kings Ahab and Jehoshaphat

Up until this point, the activities of the prophets were preserved in the form of colorful stories with a few sparse quotations from the prophets themselves. Starting with Amos, Micah, and Hosea, longer sayings of some of the prophets were preserved by scribes, and some prophets contributed to major literary works.

Early literary prophets

The first of the literary prophets was Amos. He prophesied in the mid-eighth century B.C.E. when Israel's power was at its zenith after the power of the Syrian empire had waned. Amos appeared seemingly out of nowhere to denounce the royal shrine at Beth-El as corrupt and idolatrous, declaring:

"I hate, I despise your religious feasts; I cannot stand your assemblies. Even though you bring me burnt offerings and grain offerings, I will not accept them. Though you bring choice fellowship offerings, I will have no regard for them. Away with the noise of your songs! I will not listen to the music of your harps. But let justice roll on like a river, righteousness like a never-failing stream!" (Amos 5:21-24)

illsutration: The Prophet Amos http://www.sonntagsblatt-bayern.de/img03/2004_38_19_01_01.jpg (also at www.royaltyfreeart.com)

Amos' sayings are characteristic of the prophetic emphasis on justice as opposed to formalized religion. His verses are among the most quoted in the bible. They found particular resonance in the American civil rights movement and were put to good use to preachers such as the Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr.

The last of the northern prophets was Hosea. His ministry is dated to about 735 B.C.E. A man of deep pathos, he reported that God commanded him to marry an adulterous woman to symbolize God's own feelings of having been betrayed by Israel's love affair with foreign gods. Like Amos, he disparaged formal religion without sincere devotion to God and warned of impending disaster for Israel if it did not repent. It was from Hosea 6:6 that Jesus quoted when he said, "Go and learn what this means: 'I desire mercy, not sacrifice'" (Mt. 9:13). Tragically, Hosea's warnings of doom proved true when the Northern Kingdom was invaded by Assyrian forces and its people forced into exile.

Classical Prophets

By the time of the later kings of Judah and Israel, priests and prophets were becoming clearly separated offices. After the fall of the Northern Kingdom to Assyria, Jerusalem emerged as the center of the priesthood, with only priests of the Levite tribe considered as authorized to offer sacrifice. Thus, priesthood was inherited, but prophecy was conferred directly by God. Eventually sacrifices outside of the Jerusalem Temple were banned. Prophets who did not conform to this principle were considered false prophets. On the other hand, prophets often crticized the practices of corrupt priests, even in Jerusalem. The prophets whose words are preserved in the bible are particularly harsh in condemning the local shrines or "high places" where unauthorized priests serve not only Yahweh but tribal and local deities as well. They warn that unless such practices cease, Israel and Judah will face dire consequences, including invasion, subjugation, and exile. In this context they also begin to prophesy about the future restoration of the Davidic monarchy, centering on one of David's anointed descendants. Thus the concept of the Messiah was born. Among these, three prophets are particularly outstanding for their literary works as well as their political, religioius, and spiritual influence: Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel.

Isaiah

Isaiah's dates are controversial. The Book of Kings records him as beginning his ministry at the end of the reign of King Uzziah, with his most important prophecies coming during the reign of Hezekiah. However, most scholars now believe that only some of the prophecies and hymns recorded in the Book of Isaiah are authentic sayings of the historical prophet. These are referred to as "first Isaiah". This historical Isaiah counseled King Hezekiah to keep faith during the seige of Jerusalem by the Assyrian forces that had already captured all of the other walled cities of Judah as well as previously conquering the Northern Kingdom of Israel. Like his predecessors, Isaiah stressed the importance of worshipping Yahweh only, urged repentance from idolatry, and warned of tragic consquences otherwise. The idea of a "remnant" returning from exile under the leadership of a messianic king begins to take form in Isaiah's prophecies, although whether these belong to "first" or "second" Isaiah is debated.

"The Lion Shall Lie Down with the Lamb" http://www.ordination.org/Isaiah-11-6.jpg

Second Isaiah, or Deutero-Isaiah, is the title given to the writings that comprise a major part of the Book of Isaiah. Either as an individual or a collective body of prophetic writings later collected into a single volume, Deutero-Isaiah is thought to have been written during the period of exile in Babylon. It includes the great messianic prophecy of Isaiah 60 as well as the Servant Songs concerning Israel's suffering and redemption. These hymns, especially Isaiah 52, were later interpreted by Christians to refer to Jesus rather than to the Jews as a people. A "Third Isaiah" is also posited, refering to writings incorporated into the Book of Isaiah from post-exilic times. Some evangelical scholars, it should be noted, deny the thesis of "two Isaiahs," insisting that virtually the entire Book of Isaiah, except for a few narrative sections obviously added by a later scribe, are the work of the historical Isaiah of Jerusalem.

Regardless of the actual date of Isaiah's writings, they represent the most sublime expression of the messianic ideal. In his prophecies are expressed not only the hope of redemption for Israel, but also a vision of universal salvation in which gentiles as well as Jews are included. Isaiah's words have inspired religious figures, poets, artists, and composers throughout the centuries. It was from Isaiah that Jesus is portrayed as reading in his first public declaration of his ministry (Luke 4:17); it is Isaiah who inspired several of the most powerful lines of Handel's Messiah; and it is Isaiah's vision of the kingdom of the "Prince and Peace" that inspires Jews and Christians alike when they pray for the coming — or the return — of the Messiah.

Jeremiah

Jeremiah's minstry spanned the reigns of several kings. The book that bears his name seems to be largely the work of his personal secretary, Baruch. It records not only a large number of Jeremiah's oracles and prophetic hymns, but also a good deal of historical material and even a letter from Jeremiah to the exiles in Babylon. Lamentations, traditionally attributed to Jeremiah, is probably by another writer, although it refers to Jeremiah's time.

Jeremiah began his ministry during the reign of King Josiah and apparently supported the young king's strict Yahwistic reforms (Jer 11:1-10; 26: 1-6). Like all recorded Hebrew prophets of the period he harshly condemned idolatry. However, he was just as strong in criticizing the Temple itself for corruption. He warned rulers and priests alike that they must do justice and care for widows and orphans, not simply offer up the required sacrifices and trust that the holy city of Jerusalem would be protected (Jer. 7:5-8). His career at court was a stormy one; he was flogged, threatened with exectuion, and imprisoned for his outspoken views.

illustraiton: Rembrandt's Jeremiah http://choo.fis.utoronto.ca/Rembrandt/Jeremiah.sm.JPG

After Josiah's death in battle against Egypt and Judah's vassalage to Babylon, Jeremiah urged accomodation with the Babylonian Empire, which he saw as God's instrument to punish Judah for her sins. He was opposed by a leading court prophet, Hananiah, who predicted that the Babylonian yolk will be broken within two years. Jeremiah countered with a prophecy of his own predicting Hananiah's own impending death (Jer 28). After this, there is preserved a copy of a letter from Jeremiah to those Judeans already in exile in Babylon, urging them to ignore the advice other prophets. He advises them to settle down, buy houses, and pray for the Babylonian king, for it is God's will that they remain there for seventy years.

His advice regarding accommodation was not heeded. The vassal king Zedekiah rebelled against Babylon, provoking a brutal reprisal. The city was sacked and burned to the ground, and the king himself was blinded and exiled to Babylon. Jeremiah, from his own exile in Egypt, continued his prophetic activity until his death.

Jeremiah's passionate tone earned him the title "the weeping prophet" as well as "the prophet of doom". His verses are among the most poignant in the bible, demonstrating such themes as God's love, the dire consequences of sin, God's seething anger at Israel's betrayal, the concept of a "new covenant" between man and God, the promise of redemption, and the hope that repentance will bring salvation.

Ezekiel

Ezekiel is the great prophet of the Jewish exile in Babylon. Ezekiel was apparently a younger contemporary of Jeremiah and may have heard the older prophet preach in Jerusalem. A former priest with no temple in which to offer sacrifice, he bemoaned the fate of Israel and Judah and called for a revival of faith. This faith centered on the hope of a rebuilt temple in Jerusalem and a messianic king. Although his book gives a good deal of attention to priestly issues, like the other great works of prophetic literature it also deals with the moral principles of what later become known as "ethical monotheism". Ezekiel also gives enouragement to the exiles, assuring them that God has not abandoned them and that the sins of their immediate ancestors will not be held against them (Ezekiel 18).

Many of Ezekiel's prophecies take the form of poetry. He partipated viscerally in his prophetic pronouncements through fasts and other mortifications of the flesh. The death of his own wife was, to Ezekiel, directly associated with the destruction of Jerusalem's Temple, which God Himself ordained (Ezek. 24:15-24). His expressions of God's pain and anger are striking, even disturbing, to modern readers in the violent sexual imagery the prophet uses to describe God's rage against Israel's and Judah's idolatrous "fornication" (Ezek. 16).

More than any other prophet, Ezekiel was a visionary. His several visions of aneglic beings and vehicles are particularly vivid (Ezek. 1, 10). His revelation of the restored Temple in Jerusalem goes into minute architectural detail (Ezek. 40-44). Moreover his vision of the Valley of Dry Bones (Ezek. 37), although originally refering to the revival of Israel as a people, became an important basis for the belief in the resurrection of the dead.

Illustration Ezekiel's vision http://home.halden.net/rolf/merian/m125.jpg

The exiled elders of Judah consulted Ezekiel, and it is possbile that his prophecies, together with Isaiah's and Jeremiah's, had great impact on the consciousness of exile community. His writings certainly became very important in later Jewish life. They also had great significance in kabbalistic thought and Christian apocalypticism.

Other literary prophets

The other prohetic books in the bible are the following:

Joel — Probably a post-exilic prophet, Joel presents a powerful vision of ravaging locuts as a sign that the day of the Lord is near at hand. Deliverance from doom is possible if Israel turns wholeheartedly to God, in which case an outpouring of His spirit on "on flesh" will occur. This prophecy became influential in Christian times as prediction of the Pentacost event of Acts 2, and in modern times because of its implications of the significance of the Pentacostal movement.

Obadiah — His short book, probably written shortly after the Assyrian invasion of Israel, consists primarily of a denuncation of the sin of Edom. Although highly nationalistic in tone, it does not spare either Isael or Judah from a wrathful justice in the soon approaching day of the Lord.

Jonah — Probably written after the peiod of Babylonian exile, this book tells the ironic stoy of a prophet who runs from his mission, gets swallowed by a huge fish, and finally goes to a great gentile city of to deliver God's word: "yet forty days and Nineveh will be destoryed". When the city repents, God changes his mind and Jonah ends up pouting. The book serves as a counterbalance to Jewish exclusivism, showing that God wants to bring redemption to gentiles as well as Jews.

Micah — A southern prophet, probably a contemporary of Isaiah, his message shows an affinity with the themes of his northern counterparts, Amos and Hosea, as well as with the Isaiah himself. When Jeremiah was threatened with execution for his prophecies against King Jehoiakim, his defenders appealed to Micah's example to exonerate Jeremiah (Jer. 26: 17-19).

Nahum — This prophet was a master of poetic imagery with strong nationalistic overtones and fierce devotion to Yahweh. Nothing is known of his personal life, but his oracles seem to refer to the impending defeat of the Assyrian empire as the Babylonian power was on the rise.

Habakkuk — One of many prophets active during the short reign of Jehoiakim, the second son of Josiah, just prior to the fall of Jerusalem to Babylon. He initially shared Jereimiah's optimism toward the Babylonian power as God's instrument, but later portrayed King Nebuchadrezzer as a cruel tyrant who will ultimately by judged by God.

Zephaniah — Possibly a man of royal lineage descended from King Hezekiah, this prophet lived the reign of King Josiah. He seems to have had strong connections to the Temple in Jerusalem and some scholars believe he could have been instrumental in effecting the reform program of Joisah.

Haggai — A post-exilic Jew who helped Ezra the Scribe rebuild the Temple, his few surviving verses look with excitement to the reestablishment of the sacred sanctuary. Unlike Amos, Hosea, and Micah before him, he stresses that God's blessing will be given primarily on the basis of properly performed religious rites.

illlustration -------http://www.thebiblestudypage.com/images/zphoto.gif Zecahriah 8:22 — 'Many peoples and powerful nations will come to Jerusalem to seek the Lord Almighty and to entreat him'

Zechariah — A contemporary of Haggai who, like him, emphasized the rebuilding of the Temple, Zechariah seemed to pin his messianianic hope on Jerusalem's governor, Zerubbabel, who supervised the rebuilding of the Temple: "What are you, O mighty mountain? Before Zerubbabel you will become level ground. Then he will bring out the capstone to shouts of 'God bless it!'" (Zechariah 4:7)

Malachi — Writing after the Temple had been completed but the hopes of earlier prophets had given way to corruption and despair, Malachi's message is that true relgion bears fruit in true morality. His promise of the return of Elijah before the coming day of the Lord is a fitting close to the collection of prophetic books.

Daniel — It should be noted that The Book of Daniel is not considered one of the prophetic books, but one of the "writings", in the Hebrew bible. Whether he was a prophet belonging to history or a literary figure of a later era is a subject of debate. Modern scholars tend to think that Daniel was written during the period of the Hasmonean revolt in the second century B.C.E. as an encouargement to resist the Greek profanation of the Temple. Like Jonah, Daniel is not a book by a prophet, but a story about a prophet.

The story itself begins during early part of the Babylonian exile and continues into the Persian period. Although loyally cooperating with the king of Babylon, Daniel nevertheless refuses to bow to several royal commands. God delivers him miraculously from punishment. Following the pattern of the story of Joseph, he later becomes the greatest Wise Man in the empire and even becomes a royal governor. Daniel also has several apocalyptic visions regarding the coming of a powerful "son of man" who would establish an eternal, universal kingdom encompassing all nations (Dan. 7: 13-14). Like Ezekiel, he also used the term "son of man" to refer to himself as a human being. In the New Testament, Jesus also used the term frequently to refer to himself. This section of the Book of Daniel strongly influenced later apocalypstic writing, both Jewish and Christian, including the Book of Revelation. Because his vision relates to the "end times," commentators throughout history have interpreted Daniel's prophecies as being fulfilled in the events of their days.

Critical View

Biblical critics point out that the bible is biased toward the view of the "Yahweh only" party that became normative from the period of the Babylonian exile onward. The bible contains a few words of from the many "false prophets" of Yahweh and none of the words of the prophets of Baal or other deities. Because the biblical prophets were often political partisans, this situation is analogous to having access to the arguments of only one side in a civil war.

The prophets were an intolerant lot, cursing and sometimes plotting the ovethrow of those kings who would not violently purge society of the prophets' religious rivals. Feminist theologians point out that the prophets enthusiastically supported the male-only priesthood in its campaign to stamp out female depictions of God, such as the goddesses Astarte and Ashera, who may have originally been conceived of as feminine counterparts to the Israelite deities El or Yahweh. While the prophetic emphasis on social justice is to be commended, the fact of the prophets' support for religious repression, warfare against other tribes and races, and male dominance must not be ignored.

Christian Prophets

Like Jews, Christians believe a prophet is a person who speaks for God. For Christians, the authenticity of a prophet is judged by their fruits as Jesus said that one should judge a prophet by his fruits, (Gospel of Matthew 7) and by checking whether his predictions come true. A false prophet is considered to be someone who is purposely trying to deceive, or is delusional, or is under the influence of Satan (for detail, see main article False prophet).

Catholic, Orthodox and most Protestant Christians hold that prophecy ended at the close of the Apostolic Age; that is, around the end of the fist century CE. Prophets mentioned as active in the Gospels include: Zechariah, Elizabeth, Mary, Joseph, Anna, Simeon, John the Baptist, Jesus, and others. John the Baptist is a particularly powerful prophetic figure who is also mentioned by the Jewish historian Josephus as influential among the masses. His ministry involved the prophetic call to social justice and confronted the sin of Herod Antipas regarding an illegal marriage. For this public criticism, the Baptist was arrested and eventually beheaded.

The Gospels portray Jesus as uttering numerous prophecies, both social and apocaltyptic. Like all prophets, he calls Israel to repentance; and he joins John the Baptist in declaring the immediacy of the Kingdom of God. However, the Gospels declare Jesus to be much more than simply a great prophet. He is declared to be the Messiah himself, the son of David, the son of God, and in some accounts, even God the Son.

The Book of Acts tells of several itinerant Christian prophets who operated in apostolic times: Judas, Silas, Agabus and others. Paul refers to prophets as one of the three important charismatic offices of the church, together with apostles and teachers (1 Cor. 12:28). The Book of Revelation is a work of apocayltipc prophecy by John of Patmos instructing Christians to resist accomodation with Rome even to the point of martyrdom and predicting the imminent return of Christ to judge the world.

The Didache, also called the Teaching of Twelve, represents a transition to a more settled time, recommending that prophets be elected to serve as local bishops. The Shepherd of Hermas is a Christian prophetic calling the Church to repentance and purification in preparation for the coming of Christ. While not accepted into the New Testament canon, it represents a late example of Christian prophecy. Apocryphal and heretical works of Christian prophecy are evident in such writings as the apocalyses of Peter, Paul, John, and James as well as prophecies contained in various Gnostic gospels and other works. The Montanist movement of the second century, which centered on the prophetesses Prisca and Aquilla, brought the era of Christian prophecy to a close when it was condemned as heretical.

Heretical prophetic movements arose sporadically throughout the Christian era but were repressed by church authorities and the state. After the Protestant Reformation, several protestant sects have affirmed their leaders or members to be prophets. [see below: "Other Prophets"]

Islamic Prophets

The Qur'an specifically mentions the names of twenty-five prophets and indicates that there have been many others sent to humanity throughout time. These include Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus and Muhammad. Muhammad is held to be the last and greatest prophet. While Muslims deny the divinity of Jesus, they accept the biblical teaching that Isa (Jesus) will return on the Last Day.

The primary characteristic of a prophet in Islam is his absolute submission to Allah. Once a person attains prophetic status, he does not deviate from God's will. Therefore Muslims reject the idea that prophets such as King David sinned, believing instead that stories such as David's adultery with Bathsheba represent tampering with the authentic text of the scripture. Muslims also hold that a prophet will be protected by God and cannot be executed unjustly. They therefore reject the idea that Prophet Jesus in fact died on the cross.

The sect of the Ahmadiyya consider Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian to be a prophet. However, as he comes after the prophet Muhammad, their teachings are considered heretical and un-Islamic by most Muslims. The same may be said of Baha'u'lah, the prophet of the Baha'is, which began as a unveralizing reform movment within Islam.

Most Muslims distinguish between prophets per se (نبي nabi) and messengers (رسول rasul), the latter being those prophets who have brought a holy book rasila (such as the Qur'an or Bible).