Difference between revisions of "Magic (Sorcery)" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:John William Waterhouse - Circe (The Sorceress).JPG|right|300 px|thumb|"The Sorceress" by [[John William Waterhouse]]]]
 
[[Image:John William Waterhouse - Circe (The Sorceress).JPG|right|300 px|thumb|"The Sorceress" by [[John William Waterhouse]]]]
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'''''Magic''''' and '''''sorcery''''' are the influencing of events, objects, people and physical phenomena by [[Mysticism|mystical]], [[paranormal]] or [[supernatural]] means. The terms can also refer to the practices employed by a person to wield this influence, and to beliefs that explain various events and phenomena in such terms.
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'''''Magic''''' and '''''sorcery''''' are the influencing of events, objects, people and physical phenomena through [[Mysticism|mystical]], [[paranormal]] or [[supernatural]] means. To differentiate between "real" magic and [[conjuring|magic performed for entertainment value]], the term is often spelt "magick". Magic has been used throughout history, in attempts to heal or harm others, to influence crops, and as part of religious practices like [[shamanism]] and [[paganism]].  
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==Examples==
 
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===Healing or harming others===
 
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* One of the most widespread magical procedures for healing, harming or otherwise influencing someone from a distance involves making an effigy of him or her from any  material. Actions performed on the effigy are believed to result in analogous effects upon the target person, so that, for example, a part of the effigy's body may be damaged in order to cause pain or disease in the same part of the target's body. This magical technique may be employed for maleficent or beneficent ends, and even for giving help to gods against malignant demons.<ref>Freud (1950, 79).</ref>
 
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* Another similar procedure by which an enemy can be injured is to gain possession of some of the enemy's hair, nails or other bodily by-products, or a piece of clothing, and treat these in some hostile way.<ref>Freud (1950, 81).</ref>
 
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Although these magical actions may often prove effective, this can in many cases be explained by [[placebo]] or [[Nocebo#Ambiguity of anthropological usage|nocebo]], without requiring a paranormal explanation.
 
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===Fertility of earth===
 
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In some cultures the fertility of the earth is magically promoted by a dramatic representation of human intercourse:
 
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* In some parts of [[Java]], at the season when the bloom will soon be on the rice, the husband and his wife visit their fields by night and there engage in sexual intercourse to encourage the fertility of the rice by their example. There is a dread, however, that prohibited incestuous sexual relations may cause a failure of the crops and make the earth sterile.<ref>Freud (1950, 80), quoting Frazer (1911, '''2''', 98).</ref>
 
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==Origin==
 
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===Psychical history===
 
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[[James George Frazer]] associates the folly of magical observations to an internal dysfunction: "Men mistook the order of their ideas for the order of nature, and hence imagined that the control which they have, or seem to have, over their thoughts, permitted them to exercise a corresponding control over things."<ref>[[Freud]] (1950, 83), quoting Frazer (1911, '''1''', 420).</ref>
 
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Others, such as [[N. W. Thomas]]<ref>Thomas (1910&ndash;11).</ref> and [[Sigmund Freud]] have rejected this explanation. [[Freud]] explains that "the associated theory of magic merely explains the paths along which magic proceeds; it does not explain its true essence, namely the misunderstanding which leads it to replace the laws of nature by psychological ones"<ref>Freud (1950, 83).</ref> Freud empresentation is of a satisfied wish is quite comparable to children's play, which succeeds their earlier purely sensory technique of satisfaction. [...] As time goes on, the psychological accent shifts from the ''motives'' for the magical act on to the ''measures'' by which it is carried out&mdash;that is, on to the act itself. [...] It thus comes to appear as though it is the magical act itself which, owing to its similarity with the desired result, alone determines the occurrence of that result."<ref>Freud (1950, 84).</ref>
 
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(see also [[shamanism]])
 
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===Etymology===
 
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The word ''magic'' ultimately derives from [[Magus]] ([[Old Persian]] ''maguš''), one of the [[Zoroastrian]] astrologer priests of the [[Medes]]. In the Hellenistic period, [[Greek language|Greek]] μάγος (''magos'') could be used as an adjective, but an adjective μαγικός (''magikos'', Latin ''magicus'') is also attested from the [[1st century]] ([[Plutarchus]]), typically appearing in the feminine, in μαγική τέχνη (''magike techne'', Latin ''ars magica'') "magical art." The word entered the English language in the late [[14th century]] from [[Old French]] ''magique''.
 
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Likewise, ''sorcery'' was taken in ca. 1300 from Old French ''sorcerie'', which is  from [[Vulgar Latin]] ''*sortiarius'', from ''sors'' "fate," apparently meaning "one who influences fate." ''Sorceress'' appears also in the late [[14th century]], while ''sorcerer'' is attested only from 1526.
 
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== History ==
 
== History ==
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{{cite-section|date=December 2006}}
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===Magic and Early Religion===
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===Magic and early religion===
 
 
{{see|Myth and ritual}}
 
{{see|Myth and ritual}}
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The belief that influence can be taken on supernatural powers, by [[prayer]], [[sacrifice]] or [[invocation]] goes back to [[prehistoric religion]], and is consequently present from the earliest records of a cultic nature, including the Egyptian [[pyramid texts]] and the Indian [[Vedas]], among which the [[Atharvaveda]] in particularly addresses magic in the classical sense, and the position of the Vedic [[Brahmins]], like that of any ancient priesthood, can be compared to that of magicians. <ref>magic in ancient India (page 51)</ref>
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The belief that influence can be exerted on supernatural powers through [[sacrifice]] or [[invocation]] goes back to [[prehistoric times]], and is present in the Egyptian [[pyramid texts]] and the Indian [[Vedas]], specifically the [[Atharvaveda]] ("knowledge of magic formulas"), which contains a number of [[charms]], sacrifices, hymns, and uses of herbs, and addresses topics like constipation, disease, [[possession]] by demons, and the glorification of the sun.<ref>Bloomfield, Maurice (translator). 1897. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/av.htm "Hymns of the Atharva-Veda"] Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref>
  
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===Classical antiquity ===
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The prototypical "magicians" were a class of priests, the Iranian [[Magi]] of [[Zoroastrianism]], who were highly learned and advanced in knowledge and crafts. This knowledge was likely mysterious to others, giving the Magi a reputation for sorcery and alchemy. <ref>Williamson, Stephan. [http://www.efn.org/~opal/templeofthemagi.html "The Real Magi (Wise Men) and the True Star of Bethlehem"] Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref> The ancient Greek [[mystery religion]]s had strongly magical components, and in Egypt, a large number of magical [[papyrus|papyri]] have been recovered. Dating as early as the second century B.C.E., the scrolls contain early instances of spells, incantations and magical words composed of long strings of vowels, and self-identification with a deity (the chanting of "I am [deity]", for example.) The roots of European magical practice are often claimed to originate in such Greek or Egyptian magic, but other scholors contest this theory, arguing that European magic may have drawn from a generalized magical tradition, but not from Egyptian magic specifically.<ref>Holmstrom, Laurel. [http://www.sonoma.edu/users/h/holmstrl/EGmagic.html "Self-identification with Deity and Voces Magicae in Ancient Egyptian and Greek Magic"] Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref>
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Belief in various magical practices has waxed and waned in [[Europe]]an and Western [[history]], under pressure from either organised monotheistic religions or from [[scepticism]] about the reality of magic, and the ascendancy of [[scientism]].
 
  
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The prototypical "magicians" were a class of priests, the [[Magi]] of [[Zoroastrianism]], and their reputation together with that of [[Ancient Egypt]] shaped the [[hermeticism]] of [[Hellenistic religion]].
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In Europe, the [[Celts]] played a large role in early European magical tradition. Living between 700 B.C.E. and 100 C.E., Celtic priests, known as [[Druids]], served as priests, teachers, judges, astrologers, healers, and more. Rituals were often connected with agricultural events and aspects of nature; trees in particular were sacred to the Celts. Over time, the Celtic beliefs and practices grew into what would become known as [[Paganism]], mixed with other Indo-European beliefs, and became part of a set of beliefs and practices that were known collectively as "witchcraft". These practices included the concoction of [[potions]] and ointments, [[spell]] casting, as well as other works of magic.<ref>[http://www.magickalmeltingpot.com/History "History of Magick"] Magikal Melting Pot. Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref>
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The Greek [[mystery religion]]s had strongly magical components, and in Egypt, a large number of magical [[papyrus|papyri]], in [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], and [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]], have been recovered.  These sources contain early instances of much of the magical lore that later became part of Western cultural expectations about the practice of magic, especially [[ceremonial magic]].  They contain early instances of:
 
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*the use of "[[magic word]]s" said to have the power to command [[spirit]]s;
 
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*the use of [[wand]]s and other ritual tools;
 
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*the use of a magic circle to defend the magician against the spirits he is [[invocation|invoking]] or [[evocation|evoking]]; and
 
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*the use of mysterious [[symbol]]s or [[sigil (magic)|sigil]]s thought useful to invoke or evoke spirits.
 
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The use of [[Medium (spirituality)|spirit mediums]] is also documented in these texts; many of the spells call for a child to be brought to the magic circle to act as a conduit for messages from the spirits. The time of the Emperor [[Julian of Rome]], marked by a reaction against the influence of Christianity, saw a revival of magical practices associated with [[neo-Platonism]] under the guise of [[theurgy]].
 
  
 
===Middle Ages ===
 
===Middle Ages ===
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Medieval authors, under the control of the Church, confined their magic to compilations of wonderlore and collections of spells.  [[Albertus Magnus]] was credited, rightly or wrongly, with a number of such compilations.  Specifically Christianised varieties of magic were devised at this period.  During the early Middle Ages, the cult of [[relic]]s as objects not only of [[veneration]] but also of supernatural power arose.  Miraculous tales were told of the power of relics of the [[saint]]s to work [[miracle]]s, not only to heal the sick, but for purposes like swaying the outcome of a [[battle]].  The relics had become [[amulet]]s, and various [[church]]es strove to purchase scarce or valuable examples, hoping to become places of [[pilgrimage]]. As in any other economic endeavour, demand gave rise to supply.  Tales of the miracle-working relics of the saints were compiled later into quite popular collections like the ''[[Golden Legend]]'' of [[Jacobus de Voragine]] or the ''Dialogus miraculorum'' of [[Caesar of Heisterbach]].
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The [[Middle Ages]] were characterized by the ubiquitousness and power of the [[Catholic Church]]. In the beginning of Europe's conversion to [[Christianity]], religious practices and beliefs were often appropriated and Christianized; Christian rites and formulas were combined with Germanic folk rituals to cure ailments. Christian [[relics]] replaced [[amulet]]s, and tales were told of the miracles these relics wrought. Churches that housed these relics became places of [[pilgramage]]. Magic cooexisted, often uneasily, with Christian theology for much of the early Middle Ages. By the 15th century, magicians were persecuted, as magical rites and beliefs were considered [[heresy]], a distortion of Christian rites to do the [[Devil]]'s work. Magicians were accused of ritualistic baby-killing , and of having gained magical powers through pacts with the Devil.<ref>2007. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-215622 "Magic."] Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved May 21, 2007</ref>
  
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There were other, officially proscribed varieties of Christianized magic.  The [[demonology]] and [[angel]]ology contained in the earliest [[grimoire]]s assume a life surrounded by Christian implements and sacred rituals. The underlying [[theology]] in these works of Christian demonology encourages the magician to fortify himself with [[fasting]], [[prayer]]s, and [[sacrament]]s, so that by using the holy names of [[God]] in the sacred languages, he could use divine power to coërce [[demon]]s into appearing and serving his usually lustful or avaricious magical goals.  Not surprisingly, the Church disapproved of these rites.
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Despite this widespread condemnation of magical practice, a great number of magic formulas and books from the Middle Ages suggest that magic was widely practiced. Charms, [[amulets]], [[divination]], [[astrology]], and the magical use of herbs and animals existed, as well as higher forms of magic such as [[alchemy]], [[necromancy]], [[astral]] magic, and more advanced forms of astrology. Magic also played a role in literature; most notably in the [[Arthurian romances]], where the magician [[Merlin]] advised [[King Arthur]].<ref>2007. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-215622 "Magic."] Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved May 21, 2007</ref> [[Grimoires]], books of magical knowledge, like [[The Sworn Book of Honorius]], provided instructions on the conjuring and command of demons, among other information.
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In the [[13th century]], [[astrology]] had some great names: in [[England]] [[Johannes de Sacrobosco]], in [[Europe]] the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Guido Bonatti]] from [[Forlì]].
 
  
 
===Renaissance ===
 
===Renaissance ===
 
{{see|Alchemy}}
 
{{see|Alchemy}}
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[[Renaissance]] [[humanism]] saw a resurgence in [[hermeticism]] and [[Neo-Platonic]] varieties of ceremonial magic.  The Renaissance and the [[Industrial Revolution]], on the other hand, saw the rise of [[scientism]], in such forms as the substitution of chemistry for alchemy, the dethronement of the [[Ptolemaic theory]] of the universe assumed by astrology, the development of the [[germ theory]] of disease, that restricted the scope of applied magic and threatened the belief systems it relied on. Tensions roused by the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Reformation]] led to an upswing in [[witch-hunt|witch-hunting]], especially in [[Germany]], [[England]], and [[Scotland]]; but ultimately, the new [[theology]] of Protestantism proved a worse foe to magic by undermining belief in the sort of [[ritual]]ism that allowed religious rites to be re-purposed towards earthly, magical ends.  Scientism, more than religion, proved to be magic's deadliest foe.
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The [[Renaissance]] saw a resurgence in occultism, which was saturated with the teachings of [[hermeticism]], which, along with [[Gnosticism]] and [[Neo-Platonism]], has formed the basis of most Western occult practices.<ref>Hoeller, Stephan. [http://www.gnosis.org/hermes.htm "On the Trail of the Winged God: Hermes and Hermeticism Throughout the Ages"] Gnosis.org. Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref> With the [[Industrial Revolution]], on the other hand, there was the rise of [[scientism]], in such forms as the substitution of chemistry for alchemy, the dethronement of the [[Ptolemaic theory]] of the universe assumed by astrology, and the development of the [[germ theory]] of disease. These developments both restricted the scope of applied magic and threatened the belief systems it relied on. Additionally, tensions roused by the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Reformation]] led to an upswing in [[witch-hunt|witch-hunting]], especially in [[Germany]], [[England]], and [[Scotland]].
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=== Magic and Romanticism ===
 
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From 1756 to 1781, [[Jacob Philadelphia]] performed feats of magic, sometimes under the guise of scientific exhibitions, throughout [[Europe]] and [[Russia]]. Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]]'s experiments with his [[Odic force]] appeared to be an attempt to bridge the gap between magic and science. More recent periods of renewed interest in magic occurred around the end of the [[nineteenth century]], where [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] and other offshoots of [[Romanticism]] cultivated a renewed interest in exotic spiritualities. European [[colonialism]], which put Westerners in contact with [[India]] and [[Egypt]], re-introduced exotic beliefs to Europeans at this time. [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Egyptian mythology]] frequently feature in nineteenth century magical texts. The late [[19th century]] spawned a large number of [[magical organization]]s, including the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], the [[Theosophical Society]], and specifically magical variants on [[Freemasonry]]. The Golden Dawn represented perhaps the peak of this wave of magic, attracting cultural celebrities like [[William Butler Yeats]], [[Algernon Blackwood]], and [[Arthur Machen]] to its banner.
 
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=== Magic in the twentieth century ===
 
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A further revival of interest in magic was heralded by the repeal, in [[England]], of the last [[Witchcraft Act]] in 1951.  This was the cue for [[Gerald Gardner]] to publish his first non-fiction book ''Witchcraft Today'', in which he claimed to reveal the existence of a [[witch]]-cult that dated back to pre-Christian Europe.  Gardner combined magic and [[religion]] in a way that was later to cause people to question [[The Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]]'s boundaries between the two subjects.
 
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Gardner's newly publicized religion, and many others, took off in the atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s, when the [[counterculture]] of the [[hippie]]s also spawned another period of renewed interest in magic, divination, and other occult practices.  The various branches of [[Neopaganism]] and other [[Earth religion]]s that have been publicized since Gardner's publication tend to follow a pattern in combining the practice of magic and religion.  Following the trend of magic associated with counterculture, some [[feminism|feminists]] launched an independent revival of [[goddess worship]]. This brought them into contact with the [[Gardnerian Wicca|Gardnerian]] tradition of magical religion, and deeply influenced that tradition in return.
 
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Some people in the West believe in or practice various forms of magic. The [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], [[Aleister Crowley]], and their followers are most often credited with the resurgence of magical tradition in the [[English language|English]] speaking world of the [[20th century]]. Other, similar movements took place at roughly the same time, centered in [[France]] and [[Germany]].  Most Western traditions acknowledging the natural elements, the seasons, and the practitioner's relationship with the Earth, [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], or the [[Goddess]] have derived at least in part from these magical groups, and are considered [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]]. Long-standing indigenous traditions of magic are regarded as [[Paganism|Pagan]].
 
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[[Aleister Crowley]] preferred the spelling [[Magick|''magick'']], defining it as "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with the will."  By this, he included "mundane" acts of will as well as [[ritual magic]]. In ''Magick in Theory and Practice'', Chapter XIV, Crowley says:
 
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:''What is a Magical Operation? It may be defined as any event in nature which is brought to pass by Will. We must not exclude potato-growing or banking from our definition. Let us take a very simple example of a Magical Act: that of a man blowing his nose.''
 
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Western magical traditions include ceremonial magic, as well as [[Wicca]] and some other [[Neopagan]] religions. Definitions and uses of magic tend to vary even within magical traditions.
 
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Wicca is one of the more famous traditions within Neopaganism, a magical religion of [[witchcraft]] with influences including the Golden Dawn and Crowley. Ruickbie (2004:193-209) shows that Wiccans and Witches define magic in many different ways and use it for a number of different purposes. Despite that diversity of opinion, he concludes that the general result upon the practitioner is a positive one.
 
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The belief in Magic is often considered [[Superstition|superstitious]], although some magical practices rely on widely accepted psychological principles and are only intended to promote internal personal changes within the practitioner themselves. Visualization techniques, for instance, widely used by magicians, are also used in fields such as clinical psychology and sports training.
 
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== Theories of magic ==
 
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{{cite-section|date=December 2006}}
 
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{{cquote|O Thou thunderbolt of Science, that flashest from the dark clouds of Magic! I adore Thee, Evoe! I adore Thee, IAO!|30px|30px|[[J. F. C. Fuller]], ''The Treasure House of Images''}}
 
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A survey of writings by believers in magic shows that adherents believe that it may work by one or more of these basic principles:
 
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* '''Natural forces that cannot be detected by science''' at present, and in fact may not be detectable at all.  These magical forces are said to exist in addition to and alongside the four [[fundamental forces]] of nature: [[gravity]], [[electromagnetism]], the [[strong force]] and the [[weak force]].
 
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* '''Intervention of spirits''' similar to these hypothetical natural forces, but with their own consciousness and intelligence. Believers in [[spirit]]s will often describe a whole [[cosmos]] of beings of many different kinds, sometimes organized into a [[hierarchy]].
 
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* A '''mystical power''', such as [[mana]] or [[numen]], that exists in all things. Sometimes this power is contained in a magical object, such as a stone, charm, or [[dehk]], which the magician can manipulate.
 
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* '''Manipulation of the Elements''' by using the will of the magician and/or with symbols or objects representative of the element(s). Western practitioners typically use the [[Classical elements]] of Earth, Air, Water, and Fire.
 
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* '''Manipulation of symbols'''. Adherents of [[magical thinking]] believe that symbols can be used for more than representation: they can magically take on a physical quality of the phenomenon or object that they represent. By manipulating symbols (as well as [[sigils]]), one is said to be able to manipulate the reality that this symbol represents. 
 
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* The principles of '''[[sympathetic magic]]''' of Sir [[James George Frazer]], explicated in his ''[[The Golden Bough]]'' (third edition, 1911-1915). These principles include the "law of similarity" and the "law of contact" or "contagion."  These are systematized versions of the manipulation of symbols.  Frazer defined them this way:
 
  
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::''If we analyse the principles of thought on which magic is based, they will probably be found to resolve themselves into two: first, that like produces like, or that an effect resembles its cause; and, second, that things which have once been in contact with each other continue to act on each other at a distance after the physical contact has been severed. The former principle may be called the Law of Similarity, the latter the Law of Contact or Contagion. From the first of these principles, namely the Law of Similarity, the magician infers that he can produce any effect he desires merely by imitating it: from the second he infers that whatever he does to a material object will affect equally the person with whom the object was once in contact, whether it formed part of his body or not.'' [http://www.bartleby.com/196/5.html]
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===The Revival of Magic in the 20th Century===
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The [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] is often cited as one of the twentieth centuries most significant influences on Western occultism. The secret society, which included members like [[Aleister Crowley]] and [[W. B. Yeats]], taught astral travel, [[scrying]], alchemy, astrology, the [[Tarot]], and geomancy.<ref>[http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/h/hermetic_order_of_the_golden_dawn.html "Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn"] The Mystica. Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref>
  
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* '''Concentration or meditation'''. A certain amount of focusing or restricting the mind to some imagined object (or will), according to [[Aleister Crowley]], produces mystical attainment or "an occurrence in the brain characterized essentially by the uniting of subject and object." (Book Four, Part 1: Mysticism) Magic, as defined previously, seeks to aid concentration by constantly recalling the attention to the chosen object (or Will), thereby producing said attainment. For example, if one wishes to concentrate on a God, one might memorize a system of correspondences (perhaps chosen arbitrarily, as this would not affect its usefulness for mystical purposes) and then make every object that one sees "correspond" to said God.
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The twentieth century saw a dramatic revival of magical interest, particularly with the advent of [[neopaganism]]. In 1951, [[England]] repealed the last of the [[Witchcraft Acts]], which had previously made it against the law to practice witchcraft in the country. [[Gerald Gardner]], often referred to as the "father of modern witchcraft", published his first non-fiction book on magic, entitled "Witchcraft Today", in 1954, which claimed modern witchcraft is the surviving remnant of an ancient Pagan religion. Gardner's novel inspired the formation of covens, and "Gardnerian Wicca" was firmly established.<ref>Knowles, George. May 26, 2001. [http://www.controverscial.com/Gerald%20Brosseau%20Gardner.htm "Gerald Brosseau Gardner (1884-1964)"] Retrieved May 21, 2007.</ref>
  
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:[[Aleister Crowley]] wrote that ''." . . the exaltation of the mind by means of magickal practices leads (as one may say, in spite of itself) to the same results as occur in straightforward [[Yoga]]."''  Crowley's [[magick]] thus becomes a form of mental, mystical, or spiritual discipline, designed to train the mind to achieve greater concentration. Crowley also made claims for the paranormal effects of magick, suggesting a connection with the first principle in this list. However, he defined any attempt to use this power for a purpose other than aiding mental or mystical attainment as "black magick."
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The atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s was conducive to the revival of interest in magic; the [[hippie]] [[counterculture]] sparked renewed interest in magic, divination, and other occult practices such as astrology. Various branches of [[Neopaganism]] and other [[Earth religion]]s combined magic with religion, and influenced each other. For instance, feminists launched an independant revival of [[goddess worship]], both influencing and being influenced by [[Gardnerian Wicca]]. Traditions and beliefs of different branches of neopaganism tend to vary, even within a particular group. Most focus on the development of the individual practitioner, not a need for strongly defined universal traditions or beliefs.
  
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* '''The magical power of the subconscious mind'''. To believers who think they need to convince their [[subconscious mind]] to make the changes they want, all spirits and energies are projections and [[symbol]]s that make sense to the subconscious. A variant of this belief is that the subconscious is capable of contacting spirits, who in turn can work magic.
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==Magical Beliefs==
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Practitioners of magic attribute the workings of magic to a number of different causes. Some believe in a undetectable, magical, natural force that exists in addition to forces like [[gravity]]. Others believe in a [[heirarchy]] of intervening spirits, or mystical powers often contained in magical objects. Some believe in manipulation of the elements (fire, air, earth, water); others believe that the manipulation of symbols can alter the reality that the symbols represent.
  
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* A mysterious '''interconnection in the cosmos''' that connects and binds all things, above and beyond the natural forces, or in some cases though to be an as-yet undiscovered or unquantifiable natural force.
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Many, including famed magician [[Aleister Crowley]], believed that concentration or meditation can produce mental or mystical atttainment; Crowley likened the effect to that which occured in "straightforward" [[Yoga]]. In addition to concentration, visualisation is often used by practitioners of magic; some spells are cast while the practitioner is in a [[trance]] state. The power of the subconcious mind and the interconnectedness of all things are also concepts often found in magical thinking.
  
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*''"The Oneness in All''"; based on the fundamental concepts of [[monism]] and [[Non-duality]], this philosophy holds that Magic is little more than the application of one's own inherent unity with the Universe. The central idea is that on realizing that the Self is limitless, one may live as such, seeking to preserve the Balance of Nature and live as a servant/extension thereof.
 
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Many more theories exist. Practitioners will often mix these concepts, and sometimes even invent some themselves. In the contemporary current of [[chaos magic]] in particular, it is not unusual to believe that any concept of magic works.
 
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Key principles of utilizing Magic are often said to be Concentration and Visualization. Many of those who cast spells attain a mental state called the "[[Trance]] State" to enable the spell. The Trance State is often described as an emptying of the mind, akin to [[meditation]].
 
  
 
== Magic, ritual and religion ==
 
== Magic, ritual and religion ==
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{{see|Magic and religion|Myth and ritual}}
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Viewed from a non-theistic perspective, many religious [[ritual]]s and beliefs seem similar to, or identical to, [[magical thinking]]. The repetition of [[prayer]] may seem closely related to the repetition of a charm or spell, however there are important differences. Relgious beliefs and rituals may involve prayer or even [[sacrifice]] to a deity, where the deity is petitioned to intervene on behalf of the supplicant. In this case, the deity has the choice: to grant or deny the request.  
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{{cite-section|date=December 2006}}
 
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Viewed from a non-theistic perspective, many religious [[ritual]]s and beliefs seem similar to, or identical to, [[magical thinking]].  
 
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Related to both magic and [[prayer]] is religious [[supplication]]. This involves a prayer, or even a [[sacrifice]] to a supernatural being or god.  This god or being is then asked to intervene on behalf of the person offering the prayer.
 
  
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The difference, in theory, is that prayer requires the assent of a deity with an independent will, who can deny the request. Magic, by contrast is thought to be effective:
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Magic, in contrast, is effective in and of itself. In some cases, the magical rite itself contains the power. In others, the strength of the magician's will achieves the desired result, or the ability of the magician to command spiritual beings addressed by his/her spells. The power is contained in the magician or the magical rites, not a deity with a free will.
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*by virtue of the operation itself;
 
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*or by the strength of the magician's will;
 
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*or because the magician believes he can command the spiritual beings addressed by his spells.
 
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In practice, when prayer doesn't work, it means that the god has chosen not to hear nor grant it; when magic fails, it is because of some defect in the casting of the spell itself.  It is no wonder that magic tends to be more formulaic and less ''extempore'' than prayer.  Ritual is the magician's failsafe, the key to any hope for success, and the explanation for failure.
 
  
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A possible exception is the practice of [[word of faith]], where it is often held that it is the exercise of faith ''in itself'' that brings about a desired result.
+
==Types of Magical Rites==
  
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== Varieties of magical practice ==
+
The best-known type of magical practice is the [[spell]], a [[ritual]]istic formula intended to bring about a specific effect. Spells are often spoken or written or physically constructed using a particular set of ingredients. The failure of a spell to work may be attributed to many causes, such as failure to follow the exact formula, general circumstances being unconducive, lack of magical ability, or downright fraud.
−
{{cite-section|date=December 2006}}
 
  
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The best-known type of magical practice is the '''spell''', a [[ritual]]istic formula intended to bring about a specific effect. Spells are often spoken or written or physically constructed using a particular set of ingredients. The failure of a spell to work may be attributed to many causes, such as failure to follow the exact formula, general circumstances being unconducive, lack of magical ability or downright fraud.  
+
Another well-known magical practice is '''[[divination]]''', which seeks to reveal information about the past, present or future. Varieties of divination include: [[Astrology]], [[Cartomancy]], [[Chiromancy]], [[Dowsing]], [[Fortune telling]], [[Geomancy]], [[I Ching]], [[Omen]]s, [[Scrying]] and [[Tarot]]. [[Necromancy], the pracice of summoning the dead, can also be used for divination, as well as an attempt to command the spirits of the dead for one's own purposes.
  
−
Another well-known magical practice is '''[[divination]]''', which seeks to reveal information about the past, present or future.  Varieties of divination include: [[Astrology]], [[Augur]]y, [[Cartomancy]], [[Chiromancy]], [[Dowsing]], [[Fortune telling]], [[Geomancy]], [[I Ching]], [[Omen]]s, [[Scrying]] and [[Tarot]].
+
8888*****88888
−
 
 
−
'''[[Necromancy]]''' is another practice involving the summoning of and conversation with spirits of the dead (''necros'').  This is sometimes done simply to commune with deceased loved ones; it can also be done to gain information from the spirits, as a type of divination; or to command the aid of those spirits in accomplishing some goal, as part of casting a spell.
 
  
 
Varieties of magic can also be categorised by the techniques involved in their operation. One common means of categorisation distinguishes between '''contagious''' magic and '''sympathetic''' magic, one or both of which may be employed in any magical work. Contagious magic involves the use of physical ingredients which were once in contact with the person or thing the practitioner intends to influence. Sympathetic magic involves the use of images or physical objects which in some way resemble the person or thing one hopes to influence; [[voodoo doll]]s are an example.
 
Varieties of magic can also be categorised by the techniques involved in their operation. One common means of categorisation distinguishes between '''contagious''' magic and '''sympathetic''' magic, one or both of which may be employed in any magical work. Contagious magic involves the use of physical ingredients which were once in contact with the person or thing the practitioner intends to influence. Sympathetic magic involves the use of images or physical objects which in some way resemble the person or thing one hopes to influence; [[voodoo doll]]s are an example.
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{{cite-section|date=December 2006}}
 
{{cite-section|date=December 2006}}
  
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=== In Judaism and Christianity ===
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{{further|[[Kabbalah]], [[Christian views on witchcraft]]}}
 
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Officially, [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] characterize magic as forbidden [[witchcraft]], and have often prosecuted practitioners of it with varying degrees of severity. Other trends in monotheistic thought have dismissed all such manifestations as trickery and illusion, nothing more than dishonest gimmicks.  When "witchcraft" is believed, its power may be blamed on the manipulation of demons or evil spirits to work the witch's will.  European witch-hunter lore popularly stated that magic was only possible through a pact with Satan himself, or one of his agents.  The incriminating signs of witchery, as seen in the [[Malleus Maleficarum]], were many and varied; therefore, it is difficult to tell how many condemned "witches" actually practiced magic or paganism.
 
  
 
=== In Islam ===
 
=== In Islam ===
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However, whereas performing ''miracles'' in Islamic thought and belief are reserved for only Messengers (al-Rusul - those Prophets who came with a new Revealed Text) and Prophets (al-Anbiyaa - those Prophets who came to continue the specific law and Revelation of a previous Messenger) ; supernatural acts are also believed to be performed by Awliyaa - the spiritually accomplished, through Ma'rifah - and referred to as Karaamaat (extraordinary acts). Disbelief in the miracles of the Prophets is considered an act of disbelief; belief in the miracles of any given pious individual is not. Neither are regarded as magic, but as signs of Allah at the hands of those close to Him that occur by His will and His alone. Contrary to recent writings on the topic, Islamic esoterica, or Tasawwuf (also called Sufism), does not originate in the teachings of the Greek, Persian or Roman spiritual traditions spreading into Islamic thought with Muslim conquest{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. ''Tasawwuf '' is based on the cognizance of Allah - al-Ma'rifah - and like ''Fiqh'', was codified by the learned as time passed and the Muslim masses became less knowledgeable about their faith and thus thoght to have required a codified method (Manhaj) of following it in their day-to-day lives. As is said by the 'Ulamaa; 'Tasawwuf was once a reality without a name and is now a name without reality' - referring to what they saw as the general moral decay and growing ignorance of Muslims of spirituality.
 
However, whereas performing ''miracles'' in Islamic thought and belief are reserved for only Messengers (al-Rusul - those Prophets who came with a new Revealed Text) and Prophets (al-Anbiyaa - those Prophets who came to continue the specific law and Revelation of a previous Messenger) ; supernatural acts are also believed to be performed by Awliyaa - the spiritually accomplished, through Ma'rifah - and referred to as Karaamaat (extraordinary acts). Disbelief in the miracles of the Prophets is considered an act of disbelief; belief in the miracles of any given pious individual is not. Neither are regarded as magic, but as signs of Allah at the hands of those close to Him that occur by His will and His alone. Contrary to recent writings on the topic, Islamic esoterica, or Tasawwuf (also called Sufism), does not originate in the teachings of the Greek, Persian or Roman spiritual traditions spreading into Islamic thought with Muslim conquest{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. ''Tasawwuf '' is based on the cognizance of Allah - al-Ma'rifah - and like ''Fiqh'', was codified by the learned as time passed and the Muslim masses became less knowledgeable about their faith and thus thoght to have required a codified method (Manhaj) of following it in their day-to-day lives. As is said by the 'Ulamaa; 'Tasawwuf was once a reality without a name and is now a name without reality' - referring to what they saw as the general moral decay and growing ignorance of Muslims of spirituality.
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−
Some people, especially during the Middle Ages, believed in topics such as [[Magic carpet|flying carpets]] and the esoteric sciences such as [[alchemy]] and [[astrology]], where a student under the proper master could obtain this knowledge. The [[Persian Empire|Persian]] scientist [[Biruni]], for example, is said to have been famed for his knowledge of using astrology to foretell the near future with [[astrolabe]]s.
 
  
  
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
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Revision as of 19:17, 21 May 2007


"The Sorceress" by John William Waterhouse

Magic and sorcery are the influencing of events, objects, people and physical phenomena through mystical, paranormal or supernatural means. To differentiate between "real" magic and magic performed for entertainment value, the term is often spelt "magick". Magic has been used throughout history, in attempts to heal or harm others, to influence crops, and as part of religious practices like shamanism and paganism.

History

Magic and Early Religion

The belief that influence can be exerted on supernatural powers through sacrifice or invocation goes back to prehistoric times, and is present in the Egyptian pyramid texts and the Indian Vedas, specifically the Atharvaveda ("knowledge of magic formulas"), which contains a number of charms, sacrifices, hymns, and uses of herbs, and addresses topics like constipation, disease, possession by demons, and the glorification of the sun.[1]

The prototypical "magicians" were a class of priests, the Iranian Magi of Zoroastrianism, who were highly learned and advanced in knowledge and crafts. This knowledge was likely mysterious to others, giving the Magi a reputation for sorcery and alchemy. [2] The ancient Greek mystery religions had strongly magical components, and in Egypt, a large number of magical papyri have been recovered. Dating as early as the second century B.C.E., the scrolls contain early instances of spells, incantations and magical words composed of long strings of vowels, and self-identification with a deity (the chanting of "I am [deity]", for example.) The roots of European magical practice are often claimed to originate in such Greek or Egyptian magic, but other scholors contest this theory, arguing that European magic may have drawn from a generalized magical tradition, but not from Egyptian magic specifically.[3]

In Europe, the Celts played a large role in early European magical tradition. Living between 700 B.C.E. and 100 C.E., Celtic priests, known as Druids, served as priests, teachers, judges, astrologers, healers, and more. Rituals were often connected with agricultural events and aspects of nature; trees in particular were sacred to the Celts. Over time, the Celtic beliefs and practices grew into what would become known as Paganism, mixed with other Indo-European beliefs, and became part of a set of beliefs and practices that were known collectively as "witchcraft". These practices included the concoction of potions and ointments, spell casting, as well as other works of magic.[4]

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages were characterized by the ubiquitousness and power of the Catholic Church. In the beginning of Europe's conversion to Christianity, religious practices and beliefs were often appropriated and Christianized; Christian rites and formulas were combined with Germanic folk rituals to cure ailments. Christian relics replaced amulets, and tales were told of the miracles these relics wrought. Churches that housed these relics became places of pilgramage. Magic cooexisted, often uneasily, with Christian theology for much of the early Middle Ages. By the 15th century, magicians were persecuted, as magical rites and beliefs were considered heresy, a distortion of Christian rites to do the Devil's work. Magicians were accused of ritualistic baby-killing , and of having gained magical powers through pacts with the Devil.[5]

Despite this widespread condemnation of magical practice, a great number of magic formulas and books from the Middle Ages suggest that magic was widely practiced. Charms, amulets, divination, astrology, and the magical use of herbs and animals existed, as well as higher forms of magic such as alchemy, necromancy, astral magic, and more advanced forms of astrology. Magic also played a role in literature; most notably in the Arthurian romances, where the magician Merlin advised King Arthur.[6] Grimoires, books of magical knowledge, like The Sworn Book of Honorius, provided instructions on the conjuring and command of demons, among other information.

Renaissance

Further information: Alchemy

The Renaissance saw a resurgence in occultism, which was saturated with the teachings of hermeticism, which, along with Gnosticism and Neo-Platonism, has formed the basis of most Western occult practices.[7] With the Industrial Revolution, on the other hand, there was the rise of scientism, in such forms as the substitution of chemistry for alchemy, the dethronement of the Ptolemaic theory of the universe assumed by astrology, and the development of the germ theory of disease. These developments both restricted the scope of applied magic and threatened the belief systems it relied on. Additionally, tensions roused by the Protestant Reformation led to an upswing in witch-hunting, especially in Germany, England, and Scotland.

The Revival of Magic in the 20th Century

The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn is often cited as one of the twentieth centuries most significant influences on Western occultism. The secret society, which included members like Aleister Crowley and W. B. Yeats, taught astral travel, scrying, alchemy, astrology, the Tarot, and geomancy.[8]

The twentieth century saw a dramatic revival of magical interest, particularly with the advent of neopaganism. In 1951, England repealed the last of the Witchcraft Acts, which had previously made it against the law to practice witchcraft in the country. Gerald Gardner, often referred to as the "father of modern witchcraft", published his first non-fiction book on magic, entitled "Witchcraft Today", in 1954, which claimed modern witchcraft is the surviving remnant of an ancient Pagan religion. Gardner's novel inspired the formation of covens, and "Gardnerian Wicca" was firmly established.[9]

The atmosphere of the 1960s and 1970s was conducive to the revival of interest in magic; the hippie counterculture sparked renewed interest in magic, divination, and other occult practices such as astrology. Various branches of Neopaganism and other Earth religions combined magic with religion, and influenced each other. For instance, feminists launched an independant revival of goddess worship, both influencing and being influenced by Gardnerian Wicca. Traditions and beliefs of different branches of neopaganism tend to vary, even within a particular group. Most focus on the development of the individual practitioner, not a need for strongly defined universal traditions or beliefs.

Magical Beliefs

Practitioners of magic attribute the workings of magic to a number of different causes. Some believe in a undetectable, magical, natural force that exists in addition to forces like gravity. Others believe in a heirarchy of intervening spirits, or mystical powers often contained in magical objects. Some believe in manipulation of the elements (fire, air, earth, water); others believe that the manipulation of symbols can alter the reality that the symbols represent.

Many, including famed magician Aleister Crowley, believed that concentration or meditation can produce mental or mystical atttainment; Crowley likened the effect to that which occured in "straightforward" Yoga. In addition to concentration, visualisation is often used by practitioners of magic; some spells are cast while the practitioner is in a trance state. The power of the subconcious mind and the interconnectedness of all things are also concepts often found in magical thinking.


Magic, ritual and religion

Viewed from a non-theistic perspective, many religious rituals and beliefs seem similar to, or identical to, magical thinking. The repetition of prayer may seem closely related to the repetition of a charm or spell, however there are important differences. Relgious beliefs and rituals may involve prayer or even sacrifice to a deity, where the deity is petitioned to intervene on behalf of the supplicant. In this case, the deity has the choice: to grant or deny the request.

Magic, in contrast, is effective in and of itself. In some cases, the magical rite itself contains the power. In others, the strength of the magician's will achieves the desired result, or the ability of the magician to command spiritual beings addressed by his/her spells. The power is contained in the magician or the magical rites, not a deity with a free will.

Types of Magical Rites

The best-known type of magical practice is the spell, a ritualistic formula intended to bring about a specific effect. Spells are often spoken or written or physically constructed using a particular set of ingredients. The failure of a spell to work may be attributed to many causes, such as failure to follow the exact formula, general circumstances being unconducive, lack of magical ability, or downright fraud.

Another well-known magical practice is divination, which seeks to reveal information about the past, present or future. Varieties of divination include: Astrology, Cartomancy, Chiromancy, Dowsing, Fortune telling, Geomancy, I Ching, Omens, Scrying and Tarot. [[Necromancy], the pracice of summoning the dead, can also be used for divination, as well as an attempt to command the spirits of the dead for one's own purposes.

8888*****88888

Varieties of magic can also be categorised by the techniques involved in their operation. One common means of categorisation distinguishes between contagious magic and sympathetic magic, one or both of which may be employed in any magical work. Contagious magic involves the use of physical ingredients which were once in contact with the person or thing the practitioner intends to influence. Sympathetic magic involves the use of images or physical objects which in some way resemble the person or thing one hopes to influence; voodoo dolls are an example.

Other common categories given to magic include High and Low Magic (the appeal to divine powers or spirits respectively, with goals lofty or personal as accords the type of magic). Manifest and Subtle magic typically refers to magic of legend rather than what many individuals who practise the Occult claim to use as magic, where Manifest magic is magic that immediately appears with a result, and Subtle magic being magic that gradually and intangibly alters the world.

Academic historian Richard Kieckhefer divides the category of spells into psychological magic, which seeks to influence other people's minds to do the magician's will, such as with a love spell, and illusionary magic, which seeks to conjure the manifestation of various wonders. A spell that conjured up a banquet, or that conferred invisibility on the magician, would be examples of illusionary magic. Magic that causes objective physical change, in the manner of a miracle, is not accommodated for in Kieckhefer's categories.

Magical traditions

Another method of classifying magic is by "traditions," which in this context typically refer to complexes of magical belief and practice associated with various cultural groups and lineages of transmission. Some of these traditions are highly specific and culturally circumscribed. Others are more eclectic and syncretistic. These traditions can compass both divination and spells.

When dealing with magic in terms of "traditions," it is a common misconception for outsiders to treat any religion in which clergy members make amulets and talismans for their congregants as a "tradition of magic," even though what is being named is actually an organized religion with clergy, laity, and an order of liturgical service. This is most notably the case when Voodoo, Palo, Santeria, Taoism, Wicca, and other contemporary religions and folk religions are mischaracterized as forms of "magic" or even "sorcery."

Examples of magical, folk-magical, and religio-magical traditions include:

Magic in animism and folk religion

Appearing from aboriginal tribes in Australia and Maori tribes in New Zealand to rainforest tribes in South America, bush tribes in Africa and ancient Pagan tribal groups in Europe and the British Isles, some form of shamanic contact with the spirit world seems to be nearly universal in the early development of human communities. The ancient cave paintings in France are widely speculated to be early magical formulations, intended to produce successful hunts. Much of the Babylonian and Egyptian pictorial writing characters appear derived from the same sources.

Although indigenous magical traditions persist to this day, very early on some communities transitioned from nomadic to agricultural civilizations, and with this shift, the development of spiritual life mirrored that of civic life. Just as tribal elders were consolidated and transformed into kings and bureaucrats, so too were shamans and adepts devolved into priests and a priestly caste.

This shift is by no means in nomenclature alone. While the shaman's task was to negotiate between the tribe and the spirit world, on behalf of the tribe, as directed by the collective will of the tribe, the priest's role was to transfer instructions from the deities to the city-state, on behalf of the deities, as directed by the will of those deities. This shift represents the first major usurpation of power by distancing magic from those participating in that magic. It is at this stage of development that highly codified and elaborate rituals, setting the stage for formal religions, began to emerge, such as the funeral rites of the Egyptians and the sacrifice rituals of the Babylonians, Persians, Aztecs and Mayans.

Magic in Hinduism

It has been often stated that Hindu India is a land of magic, both supernatural and mundane. Hinduism is one of the few religions that has sacred texts like the Vedas that discuss both white and black magic. The Atharva Veda is a veda that deals with mantras that can be used for both good and bad. The word mantrik in India literally means "magician" since the mantrik usually knows mantras, spells, and curses which can be used for or against forms of magic. Many ascetics after long periods of penance and meditation are alleged to attain a state where they may utilize supernatural powers. However, many say that they choose not to use them and instead focus on transcending beyond physical power into the realm of spirituality. Many siddhars are said to have performed miracles that would ordinarily be impossible to perform.

Magic and monotheism

Template:Cite-section


In Islam

Muslims, followers of the religion of Islam, do commonly believe in magic, and explicitly forbid the practice of it (Sihr). Sihr translates as sorcery or black magic from Arabic. Many Muslims believe that the devils taught sorcery to mankind:

And they follow that which the devils falsely related against the kingdom of Solomon. Solomon disbelieved not; but the devils disbelieved, teaching mankind sorcery and that which was revealed to the two angels in Babel, Harut and Marut. Nor did they (the two angels) teach it to anyone till they had said: We are only a temptation, therefore disbelieve not (in the guidance of Allah). And from these two (angels) people learn that by which they cause division between man and wife; but they injure thereby no-one save by Allah's leave. And they learn that which harmeth them and profiteth them not. And surely they do know that he who trafficketh therein will have no (happy) portion in the Hereafter; and surely evil is the price for which they sell their souls, if they but knew. (al-Qur'an 2:102)

However, whereas performing miracles in Islamic thought and belief are reserved for only Messengers (al-Rusul - those Prophets who came with a new Revealed Text) and Prophets (al-Anbiyaa - those Prophets who came to continue the specific law and Revelation of a previous Messenger) ; supernatural acts are also believed to be performed by Awliyaa - the spiritually accomplished, through Ma'rifah - and referred to as Karaamaat (extraordinary acts). Disbelief in the miracles of the Prophets is considered an act of disbelief; belief in the miracles of any given pious individual is not. Neither are regarded as magic, but as signs of Allah at the hands of those close to Him that occur by His will and His alone. Contrary to recent writings on the topic, Islamic esoterica, or Tasawwuf (also called Sufism), does not originate in the teachings of the Greek, Persian or Roman spiritual traditions spreading into Islamic thought with Muslim conquest[citation needed]. Tasawwuf is based on the cognizance of Allah - al-Ma'rifah - and like Fiqh, was codified by the learned as time passed and the Muslim masses became less knowledgeable about their faith and thus thoght to have required a codified method (Manhaj) of following it in their day-to-day lives. As is said by the 'Ulamaa; 'Tasawwuf was once a reality without a name and is now a name without reality' - referring to what they saw as the general moral decay and growing ignorance of Muslims of spirituality.


Notes

<reference />

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees


  • Frazer, J. G. (1911). The Magic Art (2 vols.) (The Golden Bough, 3rd ed., Part II). London.
  • Clifton, Dan Salahuddin (1998). Myth Of The Western Magical Tradition. C&GCHE. ISBN 0-393-00143-1. 
  • de Givry, Grillot (1954). Witchcraft, Magic, and Alchemy, trans. J. Courtney Locke. Frederick Pub.
  • Hutton, Ronald (2001). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-285449-6.
  • Kampf, Erich (1894). The Plains of Magic. Konte Publishing.
  • Kiekhefer, Richard (1998). Forbidden Rites: A Necromancer's Manual of the Fifteenth Century. Pennsylvania State University. ISBN 0-271-01751-1.
  • Thomas, N. W. (1910–11). "Magic." Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed., vol. 26, p. 337.

External links


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  1. ↑ Bloomfield, Maurice (translator). 1897. "Hymns of the Atharva-Veda" Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  2. ↑ Williamson, Stephan. "The Real Magi (Wise Men) and the True Star of Bethlehem" Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  3. ↑ Holmstrom, Laurel. "Self-identification with Deity and Voces Magicae in Ancient Egyptian and Greek Magic" Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  4. ↑ "History of Magick" Magikal Melting Pot. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  5. ↑ 2007. "Magic." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved May 21, 2007
  6. ↑ 2007. "Magic." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Retrieved May 21, 2007
  7. ↑ Hoeller, Stephan. "On the Trail of the Winged God: Hermes and Hermeticism Throughout the Ages" Gnosis.org. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  8. ↑ "Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn" The Mystica. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
  9. ↑ Knowles, George. May 26, 2001. "Gerald Brosseau Gardner (1884-1964)" Retrieved May 21, 2007.
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