Difference between revisions of "Maghreb" - New World Encyclopedia
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==Geography== | ==Geography== | ||
| − | The Maghreb is primarily defined through a series of physical geographic features that | + | The Maghreb is primarily defined through a series of physical geographic features that separate the area from the rest of [[Africa]]. The first feature to shape the Maghreb is the [[Atlas Mountain Range]], which define the region's northern border. The Atlas Mountains provide a series of plateaus that receive an annual rainfall of over 100mm a year. Not all the regions of the Maghreb are lucky enough to receive the same steady rainfall as the Atlas Mountains, as the southern portions of the Maghreb fall within the dry lands of the [[Sahara desert]]. While the size of the desert zone varies among the countries in the Maghreb, with it consuming about half of Tunisia but over eighty percent of Algeria, the desert environment impacted growth and development in the Maghreb. In particular, the broad expanse of the Sahara to the South and the treacherous Atlas mountains to the North led the Maghreb to develop a closely knit culture based on physical proximity. The geographic isolation of the Maghreb also led to formation of an independent trade system that tied together the population along economic lines. |
==Culture== | ==Culture== | ||
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[[Image:Algernuit.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Algiers]] at night.]] | [[Image:Algernuit.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Algiers]] at night.]] | ||
[[Image:Tunis.png|thumb|200px|left|Night view from [[Tunis]]]] | [[Image:Tunis.png|thumb|200px|left|Night view from [[Tunis]]]] | ||
| − | [[Image:Centre | + | [[Image:Centre Casablanca.jpg|thumb|175px|right|[[Casablanca]], [[Morocco]]]] |
| − | Traditionally, the | + | Traditionally, the Maghreb has been linked to the Middle East through linguistic and cultural ties. Even today, a majority of the population of the Maghreb identifies as [[Arab]], despite the fact that the [[Berber]] people were actually the first population group to inhabited the region. The remaining Berbers in the area, while a minority to the Arab identifying population, represent a sizable portion of the population in Morocco and Algeria. Ethnic groups boasting smaller populations that those of the Arabs and the Berbers also exist in the Maghreb, notably enclaves of Europeans settlers, who fled the to Africa seeking fortunes or asylum from persecution, and a substantial [[Turkish]] population in Tunisia and Algeria. |
===Religion=== | ===Religion=== | ||
| − | The Maghreb region first experienced religious unity under the rule of the Roman Empire in the [[Pax Romana]] from 27 B.C.E. and 180 C.E. With the Roman Empire dominating the region, a period of political stability was ushered in that allowed individuals to practice | + | The Maghreb region first experienced religious unity under the rule of the [[Roman Empire]] in the [[Pax Romana]] from 27 B.C.E. and 180 C.E. With the Roman Empire dominating the region, a period of political stability was ushered in that allowed individuals to practice religion without being threatened. Eventually, the Maghreb became a cultural and religious center where the new ideas of [[Christianity]] were discussed. By the second century the ideas of Christianity had taken root in the Maghreb and the area boasted a a rich Christian culture, including among its population the writer [[Tertullian]] (c 155 - c 202), many Christian Church martyrs, leading figures such as [[St. Cyprian of Carthage]] , [[Righteous Monica]] and her son the philosopher [[Augustine]], [[Bishop of Hippo I]], and [[St. Julia of Carthage]] (5th century). |
| − | The first challenge to religious | + | The first challenge to religious homogamy in the region came in 429 C.E. when the [[Vandals]] led a series of attacks along the African Mediterranean coast. Under the leadership of [[King Gaeseric]] the Vandals waged a highly successful campaign, which culminated in the Vandals achieving control over much of the Maghreb by 442. The [[Catholic Church]] played a major role in opposing the Vandal rule, a position which turned the military invasion into a conflict of religious ideologies, with Catholicism pitted the Aryan beliefs of the Vandals. The Catholics succeeded in removing the Vandals from power by 533 C.E. |
| − | In 647 C.E. the Maghreb again faced religious turmoil, when and Arab invasion | + | In 647 C.E. the Maghreb again faced religious turmoil, when and Arab invasion forcibly introduced [[Islam]] to the region. While Islam quickly gained converts, Christianity continued to be actively and widely practiced in the area. In fact, the Christian population was large enough in the ninth century to cause [[Pope Benedict VII]] (974-983) to consecrate a new Archbishop of Carthage. Beginning with the tenth century, however, records of actively practiced Christianity are very sparse. {{fact|date=July 2007}} Islam had succeeded Christianity as the religion of the majority. |
| − | While Islam has remained the predominant | + | While Islam has remained the predominant religion since the first Arab invasion in 647 C.E., small communities of minority religions have managed to coexist peacefully in the Maghreb. A notable minority population is [[Jewish]] community, many of whose members fled to the Maghreb in the tenth century from Baghdad, where social and political conditions had rendered it unsafe for them to practice their faith. From this origin exodus to Maghreb, a unique Jewish identity called the Maghribis emerged, where Jewish men involved in trade passed this identification on to their sons.<ref>{{cite paper |
| author = [[Avner Greif]] | | author = [[Avner Greif]] | ||
| title = Contract Enforceability and Economic Institutions in Early Trade: The Maghribi Traders' Coalition | | title = Contract Enforceability and Economic Institutions in Early Trade: The Maghribi Traders' Coalition | ||
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===The Pre-Colonial Period=== | ===The Pre-Colonial Period=== | ||
| − | |||
| − | + | The earliest recorded history of the Maghreb deals with its position as a powerful trading location for the Mediterranean Ocean. In their quest to control the Mediterranean, Phoenicians were the first to occupy many ports along the Maghreb coast. Particularly notable among the [[Phoenicians]] were a group called the [[Carthaginians]], who founded the great city of [[Carthage]]. With the defeat of [[Carthage]] in 146 B.C.E.., many of the valuable ports of the Maghreb passed to [[Rome]]. Ultimately the Roman Empire took control of almost the entire Maghreb north of the Atlas Mountains, sparing only some of the most mountainous regions like the Moroccan [[Rif]]. | |
| − | + | One of the early contacts between the Maghreb and the outside world occurred in the 7th Century C.E., when Arab invaders from the east conquered much of [[North Africa]]. While the invasion was originally due to religious motivations, by the 10th century it had taken on a political dimension. Under the new regime Arab leaders replaced traditional leaders. One of the most notable dynasties to arise from the foreign rule was the Fatimite dynasty in Egypt. Later dynasties initiated by the Arabs included the [[Almoravid]] dynasty and the [[Almohades]]. | |
| − | + | Arab supremacy in the Maghreb began to decline in the early 16th century, when the Turks succeeded in gaining control of Egypt in 1517. While Egypt is not typically considered to belong to the Maghreb region, the Turkish occupation of the territory provided a base for westward expansion into North Africa. Once in control of the region, the Turks designated many political regencies whose names resonate in modern Africa, including : Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli. Turkish forces were not strong enough, however, to subdue Morocco, which remained an independent state outside of Turkish control. | |
| − | + | The succession of invaders into North Africa introduced a wide variety of wildlife to the region, most notably the [[camel]]. The camel, with its unique ability to withstand the harsh conditions of the Sahara, opened up the opportunity for trans-Saharan trade and intercontinental communication. By the 16th century C.E. Arab traders from the Maghreb had solidified their place in the economic system of North Africa. Many of these traders grew rich by trading through [[Timbuktu]], a bustling market town that linked the traders from the North to coastal and southern traders. | |
| + | |||
| + | The European continent was also eager to join in the trade on the African continent, and used the coastal territories of the Maghreb as a basis for operations. Many Italian cities developed strong trade contacts with North African territories, particularly [[Venice]], [[Pisa]], and [[Genoa]]. [[Portugal]] was also successful in gaining control of territory in the Maghreb, using the citadel of [[Ceuta]] as base for voyages into Morocco. The European presence along the Mediterranean edge of Africa went into decline in the 16th century C.E., with many European powers unable to continue their overseas presence. Also contributing to the decline of a North African European presence during this time, slave exportation from West Africa increased dramatically. The potential for wealth from the [[slave trade]] caused many European trading companies to shift to the southern portion of Atlantic [[West Africa]], where heavy slave trading tool place. | ||
===The Colonial Period=== | ===The Colonial Period=== | ||
| − | + | ||
| + | In the last quarter of the 19th century A.D., European powers began a [[Scramble for Africa]], where they attempted to secure a place on the global political stage by using satellite colonies for raw materials and economic gain. In the Maghreb, [[France]] became the dominant colonial power, taking control of Algeria, parts of Senegal, and a significant port at the entrance to the [[Red Sea]]. France also gained control of much of West Africa, a fact still apparent today in the common languages of the region. France, in its bid for North African dominance was unable to dominate Tripoli, which was instead conquered by the Turks. | ||
===The Post-Colonial Period=== | ===The Post-Colonial Period=== | ||
| − | + | In the middle of the 20th century C.E. a wave of [[nationalism]] swept across the African continent that urged European colonial powers to abandon their African possessions. Some in the Maghreb were not so eager to abandon their position as a colony, as the French government often granted preference to their colonies in trade. Despite potential economic consequences of decolonization, the movement gained strength, culminating in independence during the late 1950s and 1960s. | |
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| − | + | The region is still plagued with many problems that can be seen as the result of colonization, particularly region conflict. The conflicts have led to increasing [[militarization]] in the Maghreb and substantial standing armies in many countries. | |
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== References and notes == | == References and notes == | ||
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* Cook, Chris and John Stevenson. ''The Longman Handbook of World History since 1914''. Longman Inc., New York. 1991. ISBN 0582485886 | * Cook, Chris and John Stevenson. ''The Longman Handbook of World History since 1914''. Longman Inc., New York. 1991. ISBN 0582485886 | ||
* Mostyn, Trevor. ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Middle East and North Africa''. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1988. ISBN 0521321905 | * Mostyn, Trevor. ed. ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Middle East and North Africa''. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1988. ISBN 0521321905 | ||
| + | * Cordesman, Anthony H. ''A Tragedy of Arms: Military and Security Developments in the Maghreb''. Praeger Publishers, Connecticut. 2002. ISBN 0313048207 | ||
* [http://maghrebcenter.org/index.shtml, The Maghreb Center] Retrieved August 19, 2007. | * [http://maghrebcenter.org/index.shtml, The Maghreb Center] Retrieved August 19, 2007. | ||
Revision as of 17:50, 21 August 2007
The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī; also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) is a collection of countries in the northern portion of the African continent that lie along the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The modern definition of the Maghreb includes: Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, although former definitions of the region where not limited to these five countries. The earliest definitions of the Maghreb were geographically quite broad, as the word Maghreb simply refers to meaning "place of sunset" or "western" in Arabic.
Geography
The Maghreb is primarily defined through a series of physical geographic features that separate the area from the rest of Africa. The first feature to shape the Maghreb is the Atlas Mountain Range, which define the region's northern border. The Atlas Mountains provide a series of plateaus that receive an annual rainfall of over 100mm a year. Not all the regions of the Maghreb are lucky enough to receive the same steady rainfall as the Atlas Mountains, as the southern portions of the Maghreb fall within the dry lands of the Sahara desert. While the size of the desert zone varies among the countries in the Maghreb, with it consuming about half of Tunisia but over eighty percent of Algeria, the desert environment impacted growth and development in the Maghreb. In particular, the broad expanse of the Sahara to the South and the treacherous Atlas mountains to the North led the Maghreb to develop a closely knit culture based on physical proximity. The geographic isolation of the Maghreb also led to formation of an independent trade system that tied together the population along economic lines.
Culture
Population
Traditionally, the Maghreb has been linked to the Middle East through linguistic and cultural ties. Even today, a majority of the population of the Maghreb identifies as Arab, despite the fact that the Berber people were actually the first population group to inhabited the region. The remaining Berbers in the area, while a minority to the Arab identifying population, represent a sizable portion of the population in Morocco and Algeria. Ethnic groups boasting smaller populations that those of the Arabs and the Berbers also exist in the Maghreb, notably enclaves of Europeans settlers, who fled the to Africa seeking fortunes or asylum from persecution, and a substantial Turkish population in Tunisia and Algeria.
Religion
The Maghreb region first experienced religious unity under the rule of the Roman Empire in the Pax Romana from 27 B.C.E. and 180 C.E. With the Roman Empire dominating the region, a period of political stability was ushered in that allowed individuals to practice religion without being threatened. Eventually, the Maghreb became a cultural and religious center where the new ideas of Christianity were discussed. By the second century the ideas of Christianity had taken root in the Maghreb and the area boasted a a rich Christian culture, including among its population the writer Tertullian (c 155 - c 202), many Christian Church martyrs, leading figures such as St. Cyprian of Carthage , Righteous Monica and her son the philosopher Augustine, Bishop of Hippo I, and St. Julia of Carthage (5th century).
The first challenge to religious homogamy in the region came in 429 C.E. when the Vandals led a series of attacks along the African Mediterranean coast. Under the leadership of King Gaeseric the Vandals waged a highly successful campaign, which culminated in the Vandals achieving control over much of the Maghreb by 442. The Catholic Church played a major role in opposing the Vandal rule, a position which turned the military invasion into a conflict of religious ideologies, with Catholicism pitted the Aryan beliefs of the Vandals. The Catholics succeeded in removing the Vandals from power by 533 C.E.
In 647 C.E. the Maghreb again faced religious turmoil, when and Arab invasion forcibly introduced Islam to the region. While Islam quickly gained converts, Christianity continued to be actively and widely practiced in the area. In fact, the Christian population was large enough in the ninth century to cause Pope Benedict VII (974-983) to consecrate a new Archbishop of Carthage. Beginning with the tenth century, however, records of actively practiced Christianity are very sparse. [citation needed] Islam had succeeded Christianity as the religion of the majority.
While Islam has remained the predominant religion since the first Arab invasion in 647 C.E., small communities of minority religions have managed to coexist peacefully in the Maghreb. A notable minority population is Jewish community, many of whose members fled to the Maghreb in the tenth century from Baghdad, where social and political conditions had rendered it unsafe for them to practice their faith. From this origin exodus to Maghreb, a unique Jewish identity called the Maghribis emerged, where Jewish men involved in trade passed this identification on to their sons.[1]
History
The Pre-Colonial Period
The earliest recorded history of the Maghreb deals with its position as a powerful trading location for the Mediterranean Ocean. In their quest to control the Mediterranean, Phoenicians were the first to occupy many ports along the Maghreb coast. Particularly notable among the Phoenicians were a group called the Carthaginians, who founded the great city of Carthage. With the defeat of Carthage in 146 B.C.E., many of the valuable ports of the Maghreb passed to Rome. Ultimately the Roman Empire took control of almost the entire Maghreb north of the Atlas Mountains, sparing only some of the most mountainous regions like the Moroccan Rif.
One of the early contacts between the Maghreb and the outside world occurred in the 7th Century C.E., when Arab invaders from the east conquered much of North Africa. While the invasion was originally due to religious motivations, by the 10th century it had taken on a political dimension. Under the new regime Arab leaders replaced traditional leaders. One of the most notable dynasties to arise from the foreign rule was the Fatimite dynasty in Egypt. Later dynasties initiated by the Arabs included the Almoravid dynasty and the Almohades.
Arab supremacy in the Maghreb began to decline in the early 16th century, when the Turks succeeded in gaining control of Egypt in 1517. While Egypt is not typically considered to belong to the Maghreb region, the Turkish occupation of the territory provided a base for westward expansion into North Africa. Once in control of the region, the Turks designated many political regencies whose names resonate in modern Africa, including : Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli. Turkish forces were not strong enough, however, to subdue Morocco, which remained an independent state outside of Turkish control.
The succession of invaders into North Africa introduced a wide variety of wildlife to the region, most notably the camel. The camel, with its unique ability to withstand the harsh conditions of the Sahara, opened up the opportunity for trans-Saharan trade and intercontinental communication. By the 16th century C.E. Arab traders from the Maghreb had solidified their place in the economic system of North Africa. Many of these traders grew rich by trading through Timbuktu, a bustling market town that linked the traders from the North to coastal and southern traders.
The European continent was also eager to join in the trade on the African continent, and used the coastal territories of the Maghreb as a basis for operations. Many Italian cities developed strong trade contacts with North African territories, particularly Venice, Pisa, and Genoa. Portugal was also successful in gaining control of territory in the Maghreb, using the citadel of Ceuta as base for voyages into Morocco. The European presence along the Mediterranean edge of Africa went into decline in the 16th century C.E., with many European powers unable to continue their overseas presence. Also contributing to the decline of a North African European presence during this time, slave exportation from West Africa increased dramatically. The potential for wealth from the slave trade caused many European trading companies to shift to the southern portion of Atlantic West Africa, where heavy slave trading tool place.
The Colonial Period
In the last quarter of the 19th century C.E., European powers began a Scramble for Africa, where they attempted to secure a place on the global political stage by using satellite colonies for raw materials and economic gain. In the Maghreb, France became the dominant colonial power, taking control of Algeria, parts of Senegal, and a significant port at the entrance to the Red Sea. France also gained control of much of West Africa, a fact still apparent today in the common languages of the region. France, in its bid for North African dominance was unable to dominate Tripoli, which was instead conquered by the Turks.
The Post-Colonial Period
In the middle of the 20th century C.E. a wave of nationalism swept across the African continent that urged European colonial powers to abandon their African possessions. Some in the Maghreb were not so eager to abandon their position as a colony, as the French government often granted preference to their colonies in trade. Despite potential economic consequences of decolonization, the movement gained strength, culminating in independence during the late 1950s and 1960s.
The region is still plagued with many problems that can be seen as the result of colonization, particularly region conflict. The conflicts have led to increasing militarization in the Maghreb and substantial standing armies in many countries.
References and notes
- ↑ Avner Greif (June 1993). "Contract Enforceability and Economic Institutions in Early Trade: The Maghribi Traders' Coalition". American Economic Association in its journal American Economic Review. Retrieved 2007-07-11.
- Cook, Chris and John Stevenson. The Longman Handbook of World History since 1914. Longman Inc., New York. 1991. ISBN 0582485886
- Mostyn, Trevor. ed. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Middle East and North Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1988. ISBN 0521321905
- Cordesman, Anthony H. A Tragedy of Arms: Military and Security Developments in the Maghreb. Praeger Publishers, Connecticut. 2002. ISBN 0313048207
- The Maghreb Center Retrieved August 19, 2007.
See also
- Arab Maghreb Union
- Barbary Coast
- Berber
- Moors
- History of Algeria
- Maghreb toponymy
- North Africa
- Tamazgha
- Mashriq
- Northwest Africa
- Maghrebi script
- Jews and Judaism in North Africa
External links
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