Difference between revisions of "Josiah" - New World Encyclopedia
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| − | [[Image:Josiah-Law.jpg|thumb|Josiah hears the "Book of Law" found by the priest Hilkiah in the Temple.]] | + | [[Image:Josiah-Law.jpg|thumb|223px|Josiah hears the "Book of Law" found by the priest Hilkiah in the Temple.]] |
| − | '''Josiah''' or '''Yoshiyahu''' ('''יֹאשִׁיָּהוּ''' "supported of | + | '''Josiah''' or '''Yoshiyahu''' ('''יֹאשִׁיָּהוּ''' "supported of the Lord]]", [[Hebrew]] '''Yošiyyáhu''') was an important king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] whom the Bible praises as the greatest king since [[David]]. He was the son of King [[Amon of Judah|Amon]], and the grandson was King [[Manasseh]]. He instituted a major religious reform centralizing the worship of the Hebrew God [[Yahweh]] in Jerusalem and strongly repressing pagan religions. He also attempted to extend his control beyond Judah in a drive to reunify the former northern [[Kingdom of Israel]] with his own. Josiah died as a result of a wound suffered in battle against Egyptian forces at [[Megiddo]], at the age of 39. |
The dates of Josiah's reign are roughly 640-609 B.C.E. The chief sources of his life are ''[[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]'' 22-23, and ''[[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]]'' 34-35. Archaeologists have recovered a number of "scroll-style" engraved stamps dating to his reign. Josiah is credited by some historians with having played a key role in establishing the tradition of Jewish scripture. | The dates of Josiah's reign are roughly 640-609 B.C.E. The chief sources of his life are ''[[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]'' 22-23, and ''[[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]]'' 34-35. Archaeologists have recovered a number of "scroll-style" engraved stamps dating to his reign. Josiah is credited by some historians with having played a key role in establishing the tradition of Jewish scripture. | ||
==Josiah in the Bible== | ==Josiah in the Bible== | ||
| − | [[Image:Josiah.jpg|thumb|250px|The young King Josiah | + | [[Image:Josiah.jpg|thumb|250px|The young King Josiah depicted as supervising the destruction of the ancient Israelite altar at [[Bethel]]."]] |
The biblical authors view Josiah as the greatest of all kings in his devotion to God. | The biblical authors view Josiah as the greatest of all kings in his devotion to God. | ||
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The story is taken up again in 2 Kings 22 when Josiah became ruler of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] at the age of eight. His reign resulted from the assassination of his father, Amon, by court officials and the "people of the land." Both international affairs and Judah's internal situation at the time were in flux. To the east, the [[Assyria]]n Empire was in the beginning stages of its eventual disintegration, the [[Babylon]]ian Empire had not yet risen to replace it, and [[Egypt]] to the southwest was still recovering from Assyrian dominance. This favored the resurgence of [[Jerusalem]] as a serious power in the region. The nation of Judah was finally recovering from a devasting Assyrian invasion in the previous century that resulted in the capture of every Judean town except the capital. Josiah's grandfather [[Manasseh]] had reversed the [[Yahweh]]-only religious policy of his own father [[Hezekiah]], and Josiah's father Amon continued in Manasseh's footsteps. | The story is taken up again in 2 Kings 22 when Josiah became ruler of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] at the age of eight. His reign resulted from the assassination of his father, Amon, by court officials and the "people of the land." Both international affairs and Judah's internal situation at the time were in flux. To the east, the [[Assyria]]n Empire was in the beginning stages of its eventual disintegration, the [[Babylon]]ian Empire had not yet risen to replace it, and [[Egypt]] to the southwest was still recovering from Assyrian dominance. This favored the resurgence of [[Jerusalem]] as a serious power in the region. The nation of Judah was finally recovering from a devasting Assyrian invasion in the previous century that resulted in the capture of every Judean town except the capital. Josiah's grandfather [[Manasseh]] had reversed the [[Yahweh]]-only religious policy of his own father [[Hezekiah]], and Josiah's father Amon continued in Manasseh's footsteps. | ||
| − | The boy-king Josiah was strongly influenced by the priests of Yahweh who raised and protected him. | + | The boy-king Josiah was strongly influenced by the priests of Yahweh who raised and protected him. By the age 16, he had already become a strong devotee of Yahweh. At 20 he had instituted a program to "to purge Judah and Jerusalem of high places, Asherah poles, carved idols and cast images." (2 Chronicles 34:3) |
===The Temple Reform=== | ===The Temple Reform=== | ||
| − | + | At the age of 26, Josiah began a reform of the Temple itself, authorizing the high priest [[Hilkiah]] to take the tax monies that had been collected over the years and use them to repair the neglect that the Temple had suffered during the reigns of Amon and Manasseh. | |
| − | Hilkiah claimed that while was clearing the treasure room of the Temple (2 Chr. 34:14), he found a scroll described as "the book of the [[Torah]] (2 Kings 22:8) or as "the book of the Torah of [[Yahweh]] by the hand of [[Moses]]" (2 Chr. 34:14). Many scholars believe this was either a copy of the [[Deuteronomy|Book of Deuteronomy]], or a text that became Deuteronomy as we have it (see "Critical Views" below). Hilkiah had this scroll brought to Josiah's attention. | + | Hilkiah claimed that while was clearing the treasure room of the Temple (2 Chr. 34:14), he found a scroll described as "the book of the [[Torah]] (2 Kings 22:8) or as "the book of the Law (Torah) of [[Yahweh]] by the hand of [[Moses]]" (2 Chr. 34:14). Many scholars believe this was either a copy of the [[Deuteronomy|Book of Deuteronomy]], or a text that became Deuteronomy as we have it (see "Critical Views" below). Hilkiah had this scroll brought to Josiah's attention. The king checked its authenticity with the [[prophet]]ess [[Huldah]], who declared it legitimate and predicted (falsely as it turned out) that Josiah would soon die in peace. (2 Kings 22:14-20) |
| − | Huldah's endorsement of the Book of Law prompted Josiah to redouble his efforts to purify the religion of Judah. He instituted a national celebration of Passover, ordered the slaughter of pagan priests throughout the land, and banned sacrifices to Yahweh outside of the [[Temple of Jerusalem|Jerusalem Temple]]. (2 Kings 23:4, et seq.) He also attempted to curtail even private religious activity that did not conform: | + | Huldah's endorsement of the Book of Law, not to mention her prediction of his imminent death, prompted Josiah to redouble his efforts to purify the religion of Judah. He instituted a national celebration of Passover, ordered the slaughter of pagan priests throughout the land, and banned sacrifices to Yahweh outside of the [[Temple of Jerusalem|Jerusalem Temple]]. (2 Kings 23:4, et seq.) He also attempted to curtail even private religious activity that did not conform to the standards set forth in the newly discovered Book of the Law: |
:Josiah got rid of the mediums and spiritists, the household gods, the idols and all the other detestable things seen in Judah and Jerusalem. This he did to fulfill the requirements of the law written in the book that Hilkiah the priest had discovered in the temple of the Lord. (2 Kings 23:24) | :Josiah got rid of the mediums and spiritists, the household gods, the idols and all the other detestable things seen in Judah and Jerusalem. This he did to fulfill the requirements of the law written in the book that Hilkiah the priest had discovered in the temple of the Lord. (2 Kings 23:24) | ||
| − | (Archaelogists such as William Dever and others confirm the probable destruction of both pagan and Yahwistic official altars outside of Jerusalem during this period, but also report | + | (Archaelogists such as William Dever and others confirm the probable destruction of both pagan and Yahwistic official altars outside of Jerusalem during this period, but also report continued widespread pagan practices at household and village levels). |
===Attempt at Reunification=== | ===Attempt at Reunification=== | ||
[[Image:Josiah-slain.jpg|thumb|250px|Josiah was motally wounded by Egyptian archers at the Battle of Megiddo]] | [[Image:Josiah-slain.jpg|thumb|250px|Josiah was motally wounded by Egyptian archers at the Battle of Megiddo]] | ||
| − | Josiah also reasserted [[Judean]] control in the former territories of the [[Kingdom of Israel]]. This is recorded in ''2 Kings'' as systematically destroying the cultic objects in various cities, as well as executing the priests of the pagan gods. This campaign included the destruction of major Israelite altar at Bethel. | + | Josiah also reasserted [[Judean]] control in the former territories of the [[Kingdom of Israel]]. This is recorded in ''2 Kings'' as systematically destroying the cultic objects in various cities, as well as executing the priests of the pagan gods. This campaign included the destruction of major the Israelite altar at [[Bethel]]. |
| − | This attempt at re-unifying Israel and Judah was made possible largely due to the waning of Assyrian power in the region while the new Babylonian Empire asserted itself to the | + | This attempt at re-unifying Israel and Judah was made possible largely due to the waning of Assyrian power in the region while the new Babylonian Empire asserted itself to the east. Pharoah Necho II had left Egypt around 609 B.C.E. in support of his Assyrian allies. Josiah made a fateful decision to attack the Egyptians at Megiddo, where he was reportedly struck by Egyptian archers and soon died in Jerusalem. (The account in Kings 23, however, differs from that of Chronicles 35 in terms of the manner and timing of Josiah's demise, perhaps reflecting the Chronicler's desire to harmonize his account with Huldah's prophecy that Josiah die in peace, even if wounded mortally in battle.) |
| − | The death of | + | The death of King Josiah was a serious blow to the Yahweh-only faction in Judea. 2 Chronicles 35:25 reports that the prophet [[Jeremiah]] wrote a lament for Josiah's passing. A Jewish tradition claims that this lament is preserved in Lamentations chapter 4. |
:Our pursuers were swifter than eagles in the sky. | :Our pursuers were swifter than eagles in the sky. | ||
| Line 55: | Line 55: | ||
King Josiah plays a pivotal role in the modern critical interpretation of biblical history. The key incident in this appraisal is the "finding" of the "Book of the Law" in the Temple which precipidated Josiah's brutal repression of non-Yahwist religion. | King Josiah plays a pivotal role in the modern critical interpretation of biblical history. The key incident in this appraisal is the "finding" of the "Book of the Law" in the Temple which precipidated Josiah's brutal repression of non-Yahwist religion. | ||
| − | Skepticism over the antiquity of the Book of the Law dates back to the English deists of the 16th century (Hertz 1936). Biblical scholars today generally believe that, rather than being written by Moses, the book was a pious forgery created either by Hilkiah or other priests. It served to strengthen the pro-Yahweh group under Josiah, and was also used by Josiah to solidify his rule and justify his military campaign against Egypt and Assyria. Many consider the Book of the Law to have actually been a version of the Book of Deuteronomy, which specifically forbids not only pagan worship, but also the offering of sacfrices to Yahweh outside of Jerusalem. | + | Skepticism over the antiquity of the Book of the Law dates back to the English deists of the 16th century (Hertz 1936). Biblical scholars today generally believe that, rather than being written by Moses, the book was a pious forgery created either by Hilkiah or other priests. It served to strengthen the pro-Yahweh group under Josiah, and was also used by Josiah to solidify his rule and justify his military campaign against Egypt and Assyria. Many, including biblical literalists, consider the Book of the Law to have actually been a version of the Book of Deuteronomy, which specifically forbids not only pagan worship, but also the offering of sacfrices to Yahweh outside of Jerusalem. |
:Destroy completely all the places on the high mountains and on the hills and under every spreading tree where the nations you are dispossessing worship their gods. Break down their altars, smash their sacred stones and burn their Asherah poles in the fire; cut down the idols of their gods and wipe out their names from those places. You must not worship the Lord your God in their way. But you are to seek the place the Lord your God will choose from among all your tribes to put his Name there for his dwelling. To that place you must go; there bring your burnt offerings and sacrifices, your tithes and special gifts, what you have vowed to give and your freewill offerings, and the firstborn of your herds and flocks... Be careful not to sacrifice your burnt offerings anywhere you please. Offer them only at the place the Lord will choose in one of your tribes, and there observe everything I command you. (Deut. 12:2-14) | :Destroy completely all the places on the high mountains and on the hills and under every spreading tree where the nations you are dispossessing worship their gods. Break down their altars, smash their sacred stones and burn their Asherah poles in the fire; cut down the idols of their gods and wipe out their names from those places. You must not worship the Lord your God in their way. But you are to seek the place the Lord your God will choose from among all your tribes to put his Name there for his dwelling. To that place you must go; there bring your burnt offerings and sacrifices, your tithes and special gifts, what you have vowed to give and your freewill offerings, and the firstborn of your herds and flocks... Be careful not to sacrifice your burnt offerings anywhere you please. Offer them only at the place the Lord will choose in one of your tribes, and there observe everything I command you. (Deut. 12:2-14) | ||
| Line 61: | Line 61: | ||
Other biblical books portray authentic priests and prophets of Yahweh — including such notable figures as [[Samuel]] and [[Elijah]] — as offering such sacrifices at vairous altars and "high places." | Other biblical books portray authentic priests and prophets of Yahweh — including such notable figures as [[Samuel]] and [[Elijah]] — as offering such sacrifices at vairous altars and "high places." | ||
| − | Proponents of this theory also point to linguistic evidence and to the many anachronisms contained in the Book of [[Deuteronomy]] which suggest that the scroll was likely to have been written during the reign of King Josiah. Some scholars go on to propose that the basic narrative from ''Exodus'' through ''Kings'' constitutes a "Deuteronomic History" created primarily Josiah's reign. This narrative used earlier sources such a "J," " | + | Proponents of this theory also point to linguistic evidence and to the many anachronisms contained in the Book of [[Deuteronomy]] which suggest that the scroll was likely to have been written during the reign of King Josiah. Some scholars go on to propose that the basic narrative from ''Exodus'' through ''Kings'' constitutes a "Deuteronomic History" created primarily during Josiah's reign. This narrative used earlier sources such a [["J"]], [["E"]], and the the records of court historians. However its compilers edited them to present the view that God rewarded those kings who supported the Yahweh-only policy in religious affairs, while punishing both Israel and Judah when they failed to repress pagan worship. King Josiah was thus the ideal ruler as the Deuteronomists defined it. Moreover, even the stories of Joshua and Moses — though already in existence — were developed in such a way as to promote Josiah as a new leader of the Chosen People who would drive out Canaanite practices as a new Joshua, unify the land that had been divided because of idolatry, and boldly prevail against the Egyptian pharoah as Moses did. (see Finkelstein, 2002, below.) |
However, scholars such as Rudolf Kittel disagree, pointing out that priestly forgery of the Deuteronomic text was unlikely. For one thing, the text placed restrictions on the privileges of the priestly class, who were actually a thorn in the side of King Josiah. Moreover, in the ancient Near East it was commonplace for religious scrolls to be deposited in temple walls when they were constructed (Hertz 1936), and a similar find is recounted in the [[Egyptian Book of the Dead]]. | However, scholars such as Rudolf Kittel disagree, pointing out that priestly forgery of the Deuteronomic text was unlikely. For one thing, the text placed restrictions on the privileges of the priestly class, who were actually a thorn in the side of King Josiah. Moreover, in the ancient Near East it was commonplace for religious scrolls to be deposited in temple walls when they were constructed (Hertz 1936), and a similar find is recounted in the [[Egyptian Book of the Dead]]. | ||
Revision as of 21:57, 2 February 2007
Josiah or Yoshiyahu (יֹאשִׁיָּהוּ "supported of the Lord]]", Hebrew Yošiyyáhu) was an important king of Judah whom the Bible praises as the greatest king since David. He was the son of King Amon, and the grandson was King Manasseh. He instituted a major religious reform centralizing the worship of the Hebrew God Yahweh in Jerusalem and strongly repressing pagan religions. He also attempted to extend his control beyond Judah in a drive to reunify the former northern Kingdom of Israel with his own. Josiah died as a result of a wound suffered in battle against Egyptian forces at Megiddo, at the age of 39.
The dates of Josiah's reign are roughly 640-609 B.C.E. The chief sources of his life are 2 Kings 22-23, and 2 Chronicles 34-35. Archaeologists have recovered a number of "scroll-style" engraved stamps dating to his reign. Josiah is credited by some historians with having played a key role in establishing the tradition of Jewish scripture.
Josiah in the Bible
The biblical authors view Josiah as the greatest of all kings in his devotion to God.
- Neither before nor after Josiah was there a king like him who turned to the Lord as he did—with all his heart and with all his soul and with all his strength, in accordance with all the Law of Moses. ( Kings 23:25)
The biblical account does not begin with his birth, but with a prophecy three centuries earlier by an unnamed "man of God" in the time of Jeroboam I. This prophet reportedly predicted the act that would win Josiah his reputation as a king fully approved by the biblical writers, namely the destruction of a rival Israelite sactuary a few miles north of Jerusalem in Bethel and the execution of priests who offered unauthorized sacrifices at the "high places":
- O altar, altar! This is what the Lord says: "A son named Josiah will be born to the house of David. On you he will sacrifice the priests of the high places who now make offerings here, and human bones will be burned on you." (1 Kings 13:1-3)
The Boy-King Josiah
The story is taken up again in 2 Kings 22 when Josiah became ruler of Judah at the age of eight. His reign resulted from the assassination of his father, Amon, by court officials and the "people of the land." Both international affairs and Judah's internal situation at the time were in flux. To the east, the Assyrian Empire was in the beginning stages of its eventual disintegration, the Babylonian Empire had not yet risen to replace it, and Egypt to the southwest was still recovering from Assyrian dominance. This favored the resurgence of Jerusalem as a serious power in the region. The nation of Judah was finally recovering from a devasting Assyrian invasion in the previous century that resulted in the capture of every Judean town except the capital. Josiah's grandfather Manasseh had reversed the Yahweh-only religious policy of his own father Hezekiah, and Josiah's father Amon continued in Manasseh's footsteps.
The boy-king Josiah was strongly influenced by the priests of Yahweh who raised and protected him. By the age 16, he had already become a strong devotee of Yahweh. At 20 he had instituted a program to "to purge Judah and Jerusalem of high places, Asherah poles, carved idols and cast images." (2 Chronicles 34:3)
The Temple Reform
At the age of 26, Josiah began a reform of the Temple itself, authorizing the high priest Hilkiah to take the tax monies that had been collected over the years and use them to repair the neglect that the Temple had suffered during the reigns of Amon and Manasseh.
Hilkiah claimed that while was clearing the treasure room of the Temple (2 Chr. 34:14), he found a scroll described as "the book of the Torah (2 Kings 22:8) or as "the book of the Law (Torah) of Yahweh by the hand of Moses" (2 Chr. 34:14). Many scholars believe this was either a copy of the Book of Deuteronomy, or a text that became Deuteronomy as we have it (see "Critical Views" below). Hilkiah had this scroll brought to Josiah's attention. The king checked its authenticity with the prophetess Huldah, who declared it legitimate and predicted (falsely as it turned out) that Josiah would soon die in peace. (2 Kings 22:14-20)
Huldah's endorsement of the Book of Law, not to mention her prediction of his imminent death, prompted Josiah to redouble his efforts to purify the religion of Judah. He instituted a national celebration of Passover, ordered the slaughter of pagan priests throughout the land, and banned sacrifices to Yahweh outside of the Jerusalem Temple. (2 Kings 23:4, et seq.) He also attempted to curtail even private religious activity that did not conform to the standards set forth in the newly discovered Book of the Law:
- Josiah got rid of the mediums and spiritists, the household gods, the idols and all the other detestable things seen in Judah and Jerusalem. This he did to fulfill the requirements of the law written in the book that Hilkiah the priest had discovered in the temple of the Lord. (2 Kings 23:24)
(Archaelogists such as William Dever and others confirm the probable destruction of both pagan and Yahwistic official altars outside of Jerusalem during this period, but also report continued widespread pagan practices at household and village levels).
Attempt at Reunification
Josiah also reasserted Judean control in the former territories of the Kingdom of Israel. This is recorded in 2 Kings as systematically destroying the cultic objects in various cities, as well as executing the priests of the pagan gods. This campaign included the destruction of major the Israelite altar at Bethel.
This attempt at re-unifying Israel and Judah was made possible largely due to the waning of Assyrian power in the region while the new Babylonian Empire asserted itself to the east. Pharoah Necho II had left Egypt around 609 B.C.E. in support of his Assyrian allies. Josiah made a fateful decision to attack the Egyptians at Megiddo, where he was reportedly struck by Egyptian archers and soon died in Jerusalem. (The account in Kings 23, however, differs from that of Chronicles 35 in terms of the manner and timing of Josiah's demise, perhaps reflecting the Chronicler's desire to harmonize his account with Huldah's prophecy that Josiah die in peace, even if wounded mortally in battle.)
The death of King Josiah was a serious blow to the Yahweh-only faction in Judea. 2 Chronicles 35:25 reports that the prophet Jeremiah wrote a lament for Josiah's passing. A Jewish tradition claims that this lament is preserved in Lamentations chapter 4.
- Our pursuers were swifter than eagles in the sky.
- They chased us over the mountains and lay in wait for us in the desert.
- The Lord's anointed, our very life breath, was caught in their traps.
- We thought that under his shadow, we would live among the nations (4:19-20)
From a geo-political viewpoint, Josiah's death also signalled an end to the pro-Babylonian policy apparently followed by Josiah. Jeremiah and later prophets saw opposition to Babylon as sinful, because after Josiah's death, the Babylonians were used by God to punish Judah. This ultimately resulted in the destruction of Judah by King Nebuchadrezzar II in 586 B.C.E.
Critical Views
King Josiah plays a pivotal role in the modern critical interpretation of biblical history. The key incident in this appraisal is the "finding" of the "Book of the Law" in the Temple which precipidated Josiah's brutal repression of non-Yahwist religion.
Skepticism over the antiquity of the Book of the Law dates back to the English deists of the 16th century (Hertz 1936). Biblical scholars today generally believe that, rather than being written by Moses, the book was a pious forgery created either by Hilkiah or other priests. It served to strengthen the pro-Yahweh group under Josiah, and was also used by Josiah to solidify his rule and justify his military campaign against Egypt and Assyria. Many, including biblical literalists, consider the Book of the Law to have actually been a version of the Book of Deuteronomy, which specifically forbids not only pagan worship, but also the offering of sacfrices to Yahweh outside of Jerusalem.
- Destroy completely all the places on the high mountains and on the hills and under every spreading tree where the nations you are dispossessing worship their gods. Break down their altars, smash their sacred stones and burn their Asherah poles in the fire; cut down the idols of their gods and wipe out their names from those places. You must not worship the Lord your God in their way. But you are to seek the place the Lord your God will choose from among all your tribes to put his Name there for his dwelling. To that place you must go; there bring your burnt offerings and sacrifices, your tithes and special gifts, what you have vowed to give and your freewill offerings, and the firstborn of your herds and flocks... Be careful not to sacrifice your burnt offerings anywhere you please. Offer them only at the place the Lord will choose in one of your tribes, and there observe everything I command you. (Deut. 12:2-14)
Other biblical books portray authentic priests and prophets of Yahweh — including such notable figures as Samuel and Elijah — as offering such sacrifices at vairous altars and "high places."
Proponents of this theory also point to linguistic evidence and to the many anachronisms contained in the Book of Deuteronomy which suggest that the scroll was likely to have been written during the reign of King Josiah. Some scholars go on to propose that the basic narrative from Exodus through Kings constitutes a "Deuteronomic History" created primarily during Josiah's reign. This narrative used earlier sources such a "J", "E", and the the records of court historians. However its compilers edited them to present the view that God rewarded those kings who supported the Yahweh-only policy in religious affairs, while punishing both Israel and Judah when they failed to repress pagan worship. King Josiah was thus the ideal ruler as the Deuteronomists defined it. Moreover, even the stories of Joshua and Moses — though already in existence — were developed in such a way as to promote Josiah as a new leader of the Chosen People who would drive out Canaanite practices as a new Joshua, unify the land that had been divided because of idolatry, and boldly prevail against the Egyptian pharoah as Moses did. (see Finkelstein, 2002, below.)
However, scholars such as Rudolf Kittel disagree, pointing out that priestly forgery of the Deuteronomic text was unlikely. For one thing, the text placed restrictions on the privileges of the priestly class, who were actually a thorn in the side of King Josiah. Moreover, in the ancient Near East it was commonplace for religious scrolls to be deposited in temple walls when they were constructed (Hertz 1936), and a similar find is recounted in the Egyptian Book of the Dead.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Abright, William F. The Archaelogy of Palestine. Magnolia, MA: Peter Smith Pub Inc; 2nd edition, 1985. ISBN 0844600032
- Bright, John. A History of Israel. Louisville KY: Westminster John Knox Press; 4th edition, 2000. ISBN 0664220681
- Dever, William. Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did They Come From?
- Finkelstein, Israel. "The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts". Free Press, 2002. ISBN 0684869136
- Galil, Gershon. The Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 1996. ISBN 9004106111
- Hertz J.H., The Pentateuch and Haftoras: Deuteronomy. Soncino Press, 1960. ISBN 978-0900689215
- Kittel, Rudolph. Biblia Hebraica, American Bible Society, 1952. ASIN B000K3M8S4
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