Daoism
- For other uses of the words "tao" and "dao", see Dao (disambiguation).
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File:Yin yang.png The Yin-Yang or Taiji diagram, often used as a symbol in Daoism. It represents two polar essences of nature and their relationship. The black spot in the white symbolizes a black "seed" that will regenerate white and transmute it into black, and the reverse, indicating the constancy of change in the Universe. | ||||||||||
Daoism or the School of Dao refers to a set of philosophical teachings and religious practices rooted in a specific metaphysical understanding of the Chinese character Dao. For Daoists, Dao could be described as the continuity principle behind the whole process of the constantly changing Universe.
Daoism has had a deep and long-lasting influence in many domains of Chinese culture, including philosophy, the arts, literature, medicine, and cuisine. It has spread widely throughout East Asia. Daoism emphasizes freedom, nature, cosmology, self-cultivation, and even the search for immortality. Some accounts prefer to separate two Daoisms: one being mostly philosophical, metaphysical and aesthetical, the other focused on religious practices and encompassing exorcism, alchemy, and a wide set of popular beliefs. Often considered as the counterpart of mainstream Confucianism and challenged by Buddhism, Daoism is more accurately seen as an integral element of the vast and diverse Chinese experience.
Early Daoism
Origins
Rooted in the ancient Chinese systems of beliefs, influenced by primitive shamanism and observation of natural cycles, Daoism recognizes Laozi as its founder and Zhuangzi as one of its most brilliant representatives. Early Daoism developed as an original answer to the bitter debates during the philosophically fertile time of the Hundred Schools of Thought, corresponding to the Warring States Period. Action through inaction (wei wu wei), the power of emptiness, detachment, receptiveness, spontaneity, the strength of softness, the relativism of human values, and the search for a long life are some of its preferred themes. Elements of primitive Daoist thought include the cyclic progression of seasons, growth and death of sentient beings and their endless generation, and questions about the origins of life. Observation of natural processes led to divine practices where the operator tried to detect opportunities in natural phenomena (like crackles made in bones).
The oldest Chinese scripture is said to be the I Ching (Yì Jīng), a compilation of readings based on sixty-four hexagrams. The hexagrams are combinations of eight trigrams or gua (collectively called bagua), resulting in sixty-four possible combinations. Laozi was intimately familiar with the Yi Jing, and his work, the Dao De Jing, shows that he was profoundly inspired by it.
Readings of the Yi Jing are based on the hexagrams, i.e., six lines that are either Yin or Yang. Each hexagram has two trigrams that provide the imagery that the reading is based on. The trigrams are "changing transitional states," generated on the simple basis of the alternation of Yin-Yang polarity. This is recognized in the saying "A (stage of) Yin, a (stage of) Yang, is what is called Dao" (一阴一阳之谓道). Dao is the underlying principle on which the Yi Jing is built. The cycle of Yin and Yang depicts the complements of opposite forces or qualities: creative-receptive, sunny-shady, male-female, heaven-earth, the sum total of life: the universe.
During the Han dynasty, the Daoist school of thought gained disciples and defenders. It enlarged its audience and founded many religious sects with hierarchies of divinities and ritual practices. Daoist ideas and sects have been spiritually challenged by Buddhism and socially denigrated by Confucianism. However, a typically Chinese form of syncretism has generally allowed differing belief systems to coexist within society, even within the same person. Beyond the debates and confrontations, Daoism has remained a highly influential stream of thought in East Asia, with philosophy, art, poetry, medicine, and divination as its main domains.
The Dao of Daoism
In Chinese thought, the word Dao often has the meaning of way—a space-time sequence. An individual walks a particular way, as does a village and even a country. Several schools of ancient Chinese philosophy used the term "Dao" to indicate their views on the proper conduct of individuals, the nature of human society, and the relationship of humans with the universe as a whole.
In Daoism, the Dao (or "Great Dao") is the grand cosmic harmony. It is thus obvious, as Shen Dao 慎到 argued, that everyone and everything follows the Great Dao. One may also speak of the Natural (sometimes "Heavenly") Dao. This would roughly resemble any course of history that conforms to the laws of nature—with the same consequence, and the idea that one need not try to follow it—one cannot fail. Both "nature's way" and the "great way" may inspire the typical Daoist detachment from moral or normative doctrines. Since Dao is thought of as the course by which everything comes into being, it seems hard to imagine that one must select from various accounts of its normative content. It may thus be seen as an efficient principle of "emptiness" that reliably underlies the operation of the universe.
Other ways one might term "possible ways" or ways that actually serve as a guide (dao used as a verb). These, however, according to the Tao Te Ching (Daodejing) are not invariable. That is, one may choose different guiding Daos, interpret them differently and disagree about their meaning. One may attempt to follow them and fail. These are prescriptive ways, such as the moral way of Confucius or those of Laozi or of Jesus. Nevertheless, the Dao De Jing says that the nature of all things is beholden to the Dao, suggesting that even these paths will serve this ultimate principle.
Sources of Daoism
As with most Chinese spiritual traditions, Daoism tried to find its justification in the earliest past and rooted itself in both legendary figures and ancient scriptures. It refers, mainly, to three sources:
- The oldest is that of the mythical "Yellow Emperor", said to be the ancestor of all Han Chinese and to have invented the principles of Traditional Chinese Medicine. In the legend, his wife Luo Zu taught the Chinese how to weave silk from silkworms, and his historian Cang Jie created the first Chinese characters.
- The most famous source is the book of mystical aphorisms, the Dao De Jing, allegedly written by Laozi, whom legend depicts as an older contemporary of Confucius.
- The third source, the works of the philosopher Zhuangzi, is collected in the eponymous book.
Other books have developed Daoism, such as the True Classic of Perfect Emptiness, by Lie Zi; and the Huainan Zi compilation. Additionally, many regard the ancient Yi Jing (The Classic of Changes) and related cosmogonical views of prehistoric China as an original source of Daoism. Finally, there are the myriad other books of the Daoist Canon, many of which purport to be from Laozi, the Yellow Emperor, or other originators of Daoism.
Dao De Jing
The Dao De Jing (The Book of the Way and its Power) emerged as a written text in a time of seemingly endless feudal warfare and constant conflict. According to tradition (largely rejected by modern scholars), the book's author, Laozi, served an emperor of the Zhou Dynasty (approximately 1122–256 B.C.E.) as a minor court official. He became disgusted with the petty intrigues of court life and set off alone to travel the vast western wastelands. As he reached the point of passing through the gate at the last western outpost, a guard, having heard of his wisdom, asked Laozi to write down his philosophy, and the Dao De Jing resulted. It should be noted that this is an allegory and that the western gate may refer to death.
Laozi reflected on a way for humanity to follow which would put an end to conflicts and strife. This became the original book of Daoism. The scholarly evidence (supported by a cluster of recent archeological finds of versions of the text) suggests that the book took shape over a long period of time in pre-Han China (before the 3rd century B.C.E.) and circulated in many versions and edited collections until it was standardized shortly after the Han Dynasty.
Zhuangzi
Zhuangzi is often considered as one of the most brilliant and eccentric writers of classical Chinese literature. His work may be seen as a highly remarkable exception in the wide landscape of Chinese poetic essays: it may be the only one which does not focus on politics. With colorful language and imaginative illustrations, Zhuangzi used irony as a tool to undermine the rigidity of the Confucian system of values being built at his time.
Influences
Daoist thought partly inspired Legalist philosophers, whose theories where used by Qin Shi Huang, founder of the Chinese Empire. The junction point can be found in the work of Hanfei Zi, a prominent Legalist thinker who commented the Daode Jing. Hanfei Zi used some chapters of the book to justify a structured society based on law and punishment and on the undiscussed power of the Emperor.
Primitive Daoism is also partly responsible for the important resonance theory, elaborated during Han dynasty, that underlies many of the cultural productions of traditional China. If a common Dao is at the source of everything, then there must be a homothety between macrocosm and microcosm, a structural commonality between the world, the country, the family, and the individual. The commonality underscores the Five Elements theory: the five directions (including center) correspond to five seasons (including a buffer one) and to five tastes, or the five elements themselves. Because of this resonance between separate domains, an Emperor's familial disorder will result in natural disaster and political troubles. Though this theory has been questioned by Wang Hong, it displays the Chinese traditional reticence to exclusive categories.
Daoism and Confucianism
Daoism as a tradition has, along with its traditional counterpart Confucianism, shaped Chinese culture for more than 2,000 years. Daoism places emphasis upon spontaneity and teaches that natural kinds follow ways appropriate to themselves. As humans are a natural kind, Daoism emphasizes natural societies with no artificial institutions. Often considered skeptical and sarcastic about human values such as morality, benevolence, and proper behavior, many Daoist writers do not share the Confucian belief in civilization as a way to build a better world. Rather, they share the will to live alone in the mountains or as simple peasants in small autarchic villages.
Daoism in Imperial China
During the Han dynasty, Confucianism became official doctrine. Daoism was adopted as a state religion by some emperors of the Tang dynasty, while others were more inclined to Buddhism. Since the Song dynasty and until the foundation of the People's Republic of China by Mao Zedong, Neo-Confucianism was the official state doctrine; but Daoism and Buddhism existed as parallel personal religions.
Daoist religion
As the works of Laozi and Zhuangzi became widely known in China, schools formed based on their teaching. These schools eventually acquired the features of a structured religion and evolved into a religious faith by 440 C.E. Laozi became a deity to many Chinese. Around 300 C.E. various denominations developed with distinct views. Some sought immortality, similar to the Buddhist concept of enlightenment. Others practiced alchemy and magic, using herbal potions or wearing charms. Polytheistic elements were added, worshipping many gods; some were closely identified with Buddhism, others from Chinese folklore, and still others were gods of nature, previously unknown. Especially popular were the Eight Immortals, celestial entities who were human but gained immortality through belief. In the Tang period from 600 to 900 C.E. many Buddhist concepts and practices such as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, and the celibacy of the clergy were incorporated into Daoism.
Daoism and Buddhism
The relationships between Daoism and Buddhism are complex, as they influenced each other in many ways while often competing for influence. The arrival of Buddhism forced Daoism to renew and restructure itself and address existential questions raised by Buddhism. Buddhism was seen as a kind of foreign Daoism and its scriptures were translated into Chinese with Daoist vocabulary. Zen (Chan) Buddhism in particular holds many beliefs in common with philosophical Daoism.
Daoism and the arts
For many educated Chinese people (the Literati), life was divided into a social aspect, where Confucian doctrine prevailed, and a private aspect, with Daoist aspirations. Home, nighttime, exile, or retirement provided the opportunity to cultivate Daoism and reread Laozi and Zhuangzi. The Literati often dedicated this period of life to arts such as calligraphy, painting, and poetry, or personal researches into antiquities, medicine, folklore, and so on.
Modern Daoism
In China
From the early 1950s to 1982, Daoism was suppressed along with other religions in accordance with Communist Party policy. Much of the Daoist infrastructure was destroyed. Monks and priests were sent to labor camps. This practice intensified during the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, nearly eradicating most Daoist sites.
Deng Xiaoping eventually restored some religious tolerance beginning in 1982. Subsequently, communist leaders have recognized Daoism as an important traditional religion of China devoted to universal unity and peace, and many temples and monasteries have been repaired and reopened.
There are scholars who argue that Daoism is still a prevalent belief within China itself, estimating that the true number of Daoists worldwide, once Chinese believers are accounted for, may be over one billion, making it the second largest religion of the world; however, due to the intertwined nature of Chinese traditional religion and other restrictions, a census on the number of adherents in China is not possible.
Daoism outside China
Modern estimates put the number of Daoists outside of Mainland China at 31,000,000, located predominantly in Taiwan. Around 30,000 Daoists live in North America. The oldest Daoist temple in the United States is Tien Hau Temple in San Francisco, built in 1852. Daoism has had a significant influence worldwide: in many Western societies it can be seen in acupuncture, herbalism, holistic medicine, meditation, martial arts, Feng Shui, and Tai Chi.
People in countries other than China practice the Daoist philosophy in various forms, especially in Vietnam and in Korea. Kouk Sun Do in Korea exemplifies one such variation. The Yao have a written religion based on medieval Chinese Daoism, although in recent years there have been many converts to Christianity and Buddhism. Outside of China, Daoists are to be found in Vietnam, Laos and Thailand.
Daoist philosophy has found a large following throughout the world, and several traditional Daoist lineages have set up teaching centers in countries outside China.
Today, some of the vivid intuitions of Laozi and Zhuangzi, especially their focus on accordance with internal and external nature, resonate with modern inclinations towards personal development and ecology.
Debates
Abuse of "Tao (Dao)"
In the West, Daoist philosophy has inspired a number of popular spiritual works ranging from Fritjof Capra's The Tao of Physics to Benjamin Hoff's The Tao of Pooh. In these cases the concept of "Tao (Dao)" is generalized beyond its original cultural context.
In popular Western parlance, "Daoist" has come to mean generally just being "cool" or "going with the flow". It has also become common to see books and articles titled The Dao of business strategy, marketing, programming, etc. Links between these works and strict Daoism are often quite tenuous; many authors use "Daoism" as an excuse for obfuscatory speech, while many others use "Dao" to mean a way of doing something whether it is in accord with actual Daoist philosophy or not. Some authors writing The Dao of books even contradict what seems to have been the original intentions of Laozi and Zhuangzi. For example, a book on the "Tao of Marketing" would be very hard pressed to actually follow the Dao De Jing's anti-materialistic mores.
Daoism: A philosophy or a religion?
There is some debate about a distinction between Daoism as a religious tradition and Daoism as a philosophical system. When most Westerners think of Daoism, they are often referring to the works of Laozi and Zhuangzi. These thought systems may be seen as philosophies rather than religions, as they include nothing within themselves about gods, worship or ritual. This type of Daoism is often referred to in Chinese as 道家 (pinyin Dàojïa), or "Daoist School of Thought" (though, more literally, as "Dao specialists").
Another aspect of Daoism, more familiar in China or countries under Chinese cultural influence, includes worship of Laozi and other divinities, magic, alchemy, qigong, perfection of immortality, and many other practices. This aspect of Daoism encompasses teaching lineages (where teachers pass on texts, rituals and beliefs to select students), temples, and sects. It is often referred to as Daoist religion, or 道教 (pinyin Dàojiào).
The relationship between Daoist religion and Daoist philosophy is complex. One of the original founders of Daoist religious sects, Zhang Daoling, said he had received revelations from Laozi himself. Most Daoist religious sects hold Laozi to be at least a god, if not the highest divinity. Daoist religious practice often includes beliefs strongly founded on the Dao De Jing. There are also hints in the Zhuangzi of immortality, a common feature of Daoist religious practice. Further, many Chinese traditional religious practices are considered "Daoist" even when there is little that specifically makes them so.
A clear and definitive distinction between that which is religion and that which is philosophy in Daoism is difficult. Moreover, a clear distinction between ideas and practices originating with Daoism and those from other sources in Chinese culture is also often impossible.
Relation to other practices
In Surat Shabd Yoga, the term "Dao" is often considered to represent the same esoteric concept as the term "Shabda."
See also
- Chaordic
- Daoism-Taoism Romanization issue
- Dialectical monism
- Eastern philosophy
- List of Daoists
- Tao of Pooh
- Qigong
- Taijiquan
- Dao Yin
- Daoist diet
- Yingtan
- Zen Buddhism
- Three jewels of the Dao
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Religious Tolerance: Taoism
- University of Virginia: Taoism
- Henri Maspero, Taoism and Chinese Religion (Amherst:University of Massachusets Press,1981). ISBN 0870233084
- Singh, K. (1999). Naam or Word. Blaine, WA: Ruhani Satsang Books. ISBN 0942735943
- Grigg, Ray, The Tao of Zen (Tuttle,1994). ISBN 0785811257
- Bryce, Gavin, 100% Awareness (Epic 2005). ISBN 0392089302
External links
- Center of Traditional Taoist Studies — Taoist temple providing training in the Taoist arts and philosophy.
- Daoism Depot — one of the largest Taoism sites on the net.
- Taoism.net — information on Taoism and original Taoist philosophic stories and writings.
- Taoism Initiation Page — provides teachings on Taoism including online courses.
- Taoism Directory — Directory of sites with content related to Taoism and Taoism issues.
- Taoism — glossary, timeline, fast facts, etc.
- Rotten Library — article on Taoism
- English, French, and German translations of the Dao De Jing
- Dàodé Jīng online — German and English
- Tao te Ching — English translation
- "About the Tao" website — includes downloadable "Daily Tao" quotes and screensaver, etc.
- The orginal Taoism Internet FAQ for alt.philosphy.taoism
- Taoism — Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Taoist Restoration Society — Introduction to Taoism articles, other articles on Taoist topics.
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