Difference between revisions of "Cheondogyo" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Choe Je-u]] 崔濟愚 (1824 – 1864), in 1860, the same year as [[Great Britain|British]] and [[France|French]] troops occupied [[Beijing]] after the Battle at [[Palichiao]], received a revelation that gave birth to an indigenous religion in [[Korea]], '''Cheondogyo''' (The Heavenly Way). The message that he developed over the course of his four year ministry (1860-1864) found millions of followers in Korea over the past 140 years, fueled a peasant revolt (the [[Donghak Peasant Revolution]]), and inspired a leading role in the [[Progressive Movement in Korea (1873-1895)|Independence Movement]] against the Japanese colonizers (especially the [[March 1st Movement|1919 Independence Movement]]).
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A religious-based reform movement, the Heavenly Way propelled Korea out of the [[Joseon dynasty]] and on to the way toward the era of the modern Korea.
  
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'''Cheondogyo''' is a 20th century [[Korea]]n nationalist religious movement, based on the 19th century '''Donghak''' movement founded by [[Choe Je-u]].
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== Choe Je-u ==
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''Main Article: [[Choe Je-u]]''
  
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Being rooted in Korean [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Confucianism|Confucian]] and [[Daoism|Daoist]] [[beliefs]] and rituals with some [[Christianity|Christian]] influence, this Korean religion is becoming more and more popular in North and South Korea with the revival of [[Korean nationalism]]. Cheondoism arose from the Donghak (東學) revolution that began in 1812 in [[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon]].
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===Background===
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[[Choe Je-u]], as is the case for all prophets, inspired devotion from believers and hatred from corrupt government officials covetous of their positions. Choe provided Korea with a spiritual teaching but government officials feared his religious movement presented the threat of a popular uprising against their unbridled corruption. Government officials arrested him, charging him with [[heresy]] (i.e., [[Catholicism]]) and insurrection intentions. The throne approved his [[execution]], which took place by [[beheading]] in 1864.
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{{readout||right|250px|Cheondogyo is an indigenous Korean neo-Confucianist religion with elements of [[Buddhism]], [[Daoism]], and [[Catholicism]]}}
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''Cheondogyo'' (The Heavenly Way), founded by Choe Je-u, constituted a genuine religious faith. Although charged with advancing Catholicism (although an illegal faith at that time in Korea), Choe actually initiated a neo-Confucian reform movement which embraced elements of [[Buddhism]], [[Daoism]], and Catholicism. He considered Catholicism an error, hardly the belief a good Catholic would hold.
  
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== Overview ==
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===Choe's Revelation===
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Cheondogyo transliterally means Master in Heaven, in which ''cheon'' refers to Heaven, ''do'' refers to the ways and ''gyo'' refers to religion. This is often mistaken for Cheonjugyo, which is [[Roman Catholicism]].
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Choe, and all other Koreans, paid close attention to the fate of China. Historically, China had provided culture and military protection to Korea and Koreans looked upon China as invincible. When china suffered repeated defeat at the hands of the European powers in the 1850s, Choe felt dread and foreboding that Korea would suffer the same fate.
  
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Cheondogyo evolved in the early 1900's from the Donghak peasant liberation movements in the southern provinces of Korea. During this period, drought and floods alternately struck the rice bowls of Korea and caused great [[famines]]. Making the matter worse, the Joseon rulers hiked taxes on farm crops and forced more [[corvee|free labor]] on the starving peasants. Consequently, anti-government and anti-landlord sentiment boiled over into violent uprisings.
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Choe, witnessing the decadence of Korean society with the corruption of Neo-Confucianism in the waning years of the [[Joseon]] dynasty and distressed by the inroads of the Christian European nations in [[ China]], sought answers in the study of the Confucian classics and mediation. He also paid attention to the teachings of [[Catholicism]], believing he could find the source of Western military might in the Christian doctrine. But he considered Catholicism a deficient faith. While meditating in April 1860, Choe had a divine revelation. The Lord (sangje) called him to receive and teach the Heavenly Way.
  
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In 1812, [[Hong Gyeong-rae]], an impoverished scholar-official, led the peasants of the northern part of Korea into an armed rebellion and occupied the region for several months. The [[Seoul]] government dispatched an army and only after a savage scorched-earth campaign, the revolt was put down. In the south, all the way to [[Jeju Island]], as well as in the north, peasants continued to defy the king in Seoul, the local nobility, and the wealthy landlords.
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===Cheondogyo: The Heavenly Way===
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[[Image:Cheondoism symbol.PNG|thumb|200px|Cheondogyo symbol]]
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====Writings====
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By the end of 1861, Choe had begun to attract followers. He quietly taught and practiced the Heavenly Way. He spent the next year studying a twenty-one character chant, utilizing the talisman as a healing instrument, reflecting on the commission the spirit had given him, and practicing the way of virtue. He refrained from seeking converts in the first year. In the spring of 1861 he wrote ''On Propagating Virtue'' (P'odok Mun). He taught the importance of studying [[Confucianism|Chinese Confucianism]], the need to become a gentleman and sage through following the Way (the Mandate of Heaven). He described in detail the talisman given by the Lord (sangje): shaped like the [[Yin and Yang|Great Ultimate]] (t'aeguk, the symbol on the South Korean flag, the yin and Yang).
  
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In [[1862]], half a century after the peasant rebellion led by Hong was put down, a group of farmers in [[Jinju]] in [[Gyeongsang]] province, rose up against their oppressive provincial officials and the wealthy landowners. This uprising was directly attributable to the exploitation of destitute farmers by [[Baek Nak-sin]], a newly appointed military commander who had jurisdiction over the western half of [[Gyeongsang]] province.
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In December 1861, Choe wrote ''A Discussion on Learning'' (Non Hak Mun). He emphasized the importance of the twenty-one character formula in practicing the Way. The chant is a divine invocation, a request that God (Chi-keui or Chun-ju) will fill the believer with the Confucian doctrine (virtue), and to maintain an uprightness of mind (virtue) always. The twenty-one character chant, which Choe modeled after the Buddhist chant, provided a means of worship simple enough for the uneducated Korean farmers to practice. The chant became the center piece of worship for the Heavenly Way faithful.
  
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[[Yu Gye-chun]] organized the farmers in Jinju to riot against Baek and other corrupt officials and wealthy landlords. The rebels killed local government functionaries and set fire to government buildings. The startled Seoul government hurriedly sent an investigator to the scene. On the basis of his findings of fraudulent practices by the local officials, the government hastily revised the land, military and grain lending systems in an effort to eliminate such abuses. From the outset, however, it was unrealistic to expect the ruling class in the central government, which was itself deeply involved in such frauds, to make radical changes. But at least a superficial attempt at reform was made.
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In June 1862, Choe wrote another tract ''On Cultivating Virtue'' (Sudok mun), in which he declared his Way nearly identical with the Way of Confucius. Choe maintained that Confucianism had strayed from the teachings of Confucius and that God had commissioned him to instruct all people in the Mandate of Heaven revealed by Confucius and his disciples. After his execution, Choe's chief disciple, Choi, compiled his writings into the Donghak Bible. The "Great Persecution of 1864" erupted, disturbing the task for fifteen years. Choi compiled, edited, and published the Donghak Bible in 1888.
  
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The [[agrarian]] revolt in Jinju triggered peasant uprisings elsewhere. In Gyeongsang, [[Jeolla]] and [[Chungcheong]] provinces, on faraway Jeju Island and in [[Hamgyeong]] and [[Pyeongan]] provinces in the north, groups of farmers rose up with arms and attacked government offices in principal towns. Many government officials were executed.
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====Choe's Martyrdom====
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In 1862, a local government official imprisoned Choe in an army camp, but released him after several hundred followers petitioned the official. Fearing that Choe intended to use his movement to end their corrupt practices, the local government officials reported that they suspected Choe of planning an insurrection that intended to overthrow the [[Daewongun]] himself. In the latter part of 1863, the Daewongun directed the governor of Kyongsangdo, So Hon-sun, to investigate Choe and the [[Donghak Peasant Revolution|Donghaks]]. So, surprisingly, they depicted Choe as a harmless spiritual leader. The Daewongun rejected the report and arrested Choe. In Daegu, he received a hasty trial ending in the recommendation of execution, which the Daewongun accepted.
  
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[[Choe Je-u]] formulated the ideology of Donghak (Eastern Learning) in the 1860s to help ease the lot of the farmers suffering from abject poverty and unrest, as well as to restore political and social stability. His ideas rapidly gained acceptance among the peasantry. Choe set his Donghak themes to music so that illiterate farmers could understand and accept them more readily. His teachings were systematized and compiled as a message of salvation to farmers in distress.
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After Choe's martyrdom, [[Choe Si-hyeong]], a distant relative of Choe Je-u's, took over leadership of the small band of loyal Cheondogyo followers. The Cheondogyo movement continued to suffer persecution at the hands of [[yangban|Confucian government officials]], especially during the Catholic persecutions of 1866-1871. Although decidedly a [[Korean Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] reform movement with [[Korean Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Shaman]], and [[Christian]] doctrine and practices infused, the monarch still treated the Donghaks as outlawed [[Catholic]]s.
  
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== Origins ==
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The Donghak movement continued to grow from 1864 to 1892 under the leadership of [[Choe Si-hyeong]]. Choe Si-hyeong shifted its headquarters to the northern part of Korea. He constantly sought to clear their founder's reputation by making the government drop the charges of sedition and treason against [[Choe Je-u]]. The Donghak movement maintained a spiritual posture in doctrine, practice, and content. Choe Si-hyeong, publishing the Donghak Bible in 1888, continued the teachings of his relative, Choe Je-u.
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Donghak called for veneration of god "[[Haneullim]]" ("Lord of Heaven"), and holding the belief that man is not created by a supernatural God, but man is instead caused by an innate God. [[Koreans]] have believed in Haneullim from ancient times, so Donghak could be seen to be a truly Korean religion, unlike [[Buddhism]] or [[Christianity]].
 
  
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Choe was alarmed by the intrusion of Christianity (Cheonjugyo), and the Anglo-French occupation of Beijing. He believed that the best way to counter foreign influence in Korea was to introduce [[democracy]], establish [[human rights]] and create a paradise on earth independent of foreign interference.
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==Donghak Peasant Rebellion==
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Donghak was pure ideology, void of any organizational and tactical expertise. Choe believed in improvising as events occurred. He had no practical plans or visions of how one would go about establishing a paradise on earth, let alone what paradise meant except that all people were equal (and no [[Japanese people|Japanese]]) could exist in this paradise. Nevertheless, Choe's advocacy of democracy, human rights and nationalism struck a chord among the peasant guerrillas and Donghak spread across Korea rapidly. Progressive revolutionaries waded in and organized the peasants into a cohesive fighting unit.
 
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Choe's songs were a mixture of traditional elements from Confucianism, Buddhism and [[Songyo]] (teachings of [[Silla]]'s [[Hwarang]]), and to these he added modern [[humanism|humanistic]] ideas. Exclusionism was another characteristic of his religion, which incorporated an early form of nationalism and rejected alien thought.
 
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== The Donghak Peasant Revolution ==
 
 
''Main article: [[Donghak Peasant Revolution]]''
 
''Main article: [[Donghak Peasant Revolution]]''
  
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In [[1862]], the peasants of San-nam and surrounding villages took up arms against the elite. They were brutally butchered by government troops. In subsequent years, peasants rose up in small groups all across Korea until 1892, when they were united into a single peasant guerilla army (Donghak Peasants Army). The peasants worked in the fields during the day, but during the night they armed themselves and raided government offices, and killed rich landlords, traders and foreigners. They confiscated their victims' properties and distributed the loots among the poor.
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===Southern and Northern Donghak Factions===
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In 1892, members of the Cheondogyo movement in southern Korea formed a splinter faction, accepting the popular name Donghak (Eastern Learning). Disregarding leader Choe Si-hyeong's opposition to the, from Choe's viewpoint, untimely protest, the southern faction pressed forward. The government reacted with severe repression, triggering an uprising in southern Korea that burst into a full scale uprising in 1894. Although the Cheondogyo leader, Choe Si-hyeong, initially condemned the southern splinter Donghak group and declared them an enemy of Cheondogyo, when the Korean government indiscriminately attacked and executed Cheondogyo in northern Korea as well, Choe Si-hyeong threw his support behind the southern rebellion.
  
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The [[1894]] Peasant War saw the poor farmers rise up against the rich, corrupt, oppressive landlords and the ruling elite. The peasants demanded land distribution, tax reduction, democracy and human rights. Taxes were so high that most farmers were forced to sell their ancestral homesteads to rich landowners at bargain prices. Landlords got richer by selling rice to the Japanese and by buying poor peasants off their land. The rich sent their children to Japan to study and enjoyed things Japanese. It was in this context that the peasants developed intense anti-Japanese and anti-[[yangban]] sentiments.
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While proclaiming loyalty to the throne, the southern faction targeted the corrupt provincial government officials for execution. Raising a poorly equipped and trained Peasant Army, which relied upon magical chants and charms to protect them in battle, the southern faction swept through the province of Chollam northward toward the capital city of Seoul. Alarmed by the successes of the Donghaks and the inability of the Korean army to stop them, [[Emperor Gojong of Korea|King Gojong]] requested [[China]]'s assistance.
  
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The peasants were not on their own. Progressive-minded yangbans, scholars and nationalists joined the Army. The Army was politically indoctrinated in Tonghak (Eastern Learning). On January 11, 1894, the first major battle of the Army erupted in [[Gobu]]. The rebellion was caused by [[Jo Byeong-gap]], a [[Joseon]] government official in charge of Gobu. Jo Byeong-gap was believed tyrannical and corrupt and was accused of oppressing the peasants and extorting exorbidant taxation from his subjects.
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===First Sino-Japanese War===
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''Main Article: [[First Sino-Japanese War]]''
  
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The Donghak rebels routed Jo's government forces and took over the county office, and handed out Jo's properties to the peasants. The rebels took weapons from the government soldiers and marched onto adjacent villages. The armed rebellion spread like a wildfire. The peasant army had few muskets and its arms were mainly bamboo spears and swords. The peasants wore bandanas on their heads and waistbands on their waists to identify themselves. The peasant army waved yellow flags with the characters "sustain the people and provide for the people" written. [[Jeon Bong-jun]] (全琫準 ) was the military commander. Jeon's father was killed for refusing to pay bribes.
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China sent troops to assist the Korean king. Before they marched against the Donghaks the Donghak leaders agreed to a truce with the throne. The Donghaks returned to their homes in June 1894, setting up administrative offices. But [[Japan]], citing China's violation of the [[Convention of Tientsin|Convention of Tientsin (1885)]], which required [[China]] and Japan to notify each other before introducing troops into Korea, and which allowed each country to introduce equal numbers of troops, sent troops to Korea. Both countries refused to withdraw. Tensions mounted until the [[First Sino-Japanese War|Sino-Japanese War]] broke out on July 23, 1894.
  
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The peasants raided the armory and killed the local officials and rich folks. The war went well for the peasants until [[March 13]], [[1894]]. On this day, the Army was crushed by the government troops led by Yi Yong-tae, who mercilessly butchered captured peasant guerrillas, burned villages, and confiscated peasants properties in Gobu. The news of Yi's [[scorched-earth policy]] quickly spread to other regions and angry peasants rose up all across the country. Thus began the Peasant War of 1894.
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Japan quickly annihilated the Chinese forces on land and sea, and then launched a joint expedition with the Korean Army against the Donghaks in the south, crushing them by late 1894. The combined Japanese-Korea army captured and executed the leaders of the southern Donghak faction in late 1894. In 1898, the Korean government captured Cheondogyo leader [[Choe Si-hyeong]], executing him and displaying his head at one of Seoul's main city gates.
  
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The peasants' marching orders were:
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The entire Cheondogyo movement went underground. [[Son Byeong-hui]], the third leader of Cheondogyo, assumed leadership. He developed a secret, underground cell organization to avoid persecution and the movement continued to grow. The secret organization proved extremely useful during the Independence uprising of [[March 1st Movement|March 1, 1919]]. Son continued to locate the center of Cheondogyo operations in northern Korea.
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* "Do not kill or take peasants' properties"
 
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* "Protect peasants' rights"
 
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* "Drive out the Japanese and purify our sacred land"
 
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* "March to Seoul and clean out the government"
 
  
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The Peasant Army defeated one government garrison after another and closed in on [[Seoul]]. The Seoul government asked [[Japan]] and [[China]] for help. These powers were more than happy to send in their troops. (This escalation and internationalization of the conflict ultimately resulted in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]]). Although many government troops joined their ranks, the peasant army was no match for the new forces with modern weapons and numerical superiority. The Army abandoned its march to Seoul.
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==March 1st Movement==
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''Main article: [[March 1st Movement]]''
  
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[[Choe Je-u]] was captured and executed in March [[1894]] at [[Daegu]]. After Choe's death, [[Choe Si-hyeong]] took over as the leader of the Donghak movement. He went beyond the religion and appealed to the general peasant populace, who made up the majority of the Korean population. He offered the down-trodden farmers a way to better their lives which provided its followers a hope for eliminating the yangban class and foreign powers. Under the leadership of Choe Si-hyeong, Donghak became a legal political organization recognized as such by the government. The number of followers exceeded 20,000.
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After defeating [[First Sino-Japanese War|China in 1894-95]], [[Japan]] consolidated control of Korea by defeating [[Russia]] during the [[Russo-Japanese War|Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905]]. In 1910, Japan officially absorbed Korea into its empire and officially terminated the [[Joseon]] dynasty. Between 1910 to 1919, the Japanese ruled Korea with an iron fist, opposition to Japan's colonial rule growing to a fever pitch. The Cheondogyo utilized their secret cell organization to plan, finance, organize, and state the [[March 1st Movement|March 1st, 1919, Independence uprising]]. Cheondogyoists comprised approximately one half of the thirty-three signers of the [[Declaration of Independence]] read throughout the nation on that day, Son Byeong-hui acting as the principle organizer and signer. [[Protestantism|Protestants]] provided strong support, while [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] also participated.
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In late June of 1894. pro-Japanese forces hatched a plan to wipe out the Peasant Army in collusion with the Japanese troops stationed in [[Incheon]] and [[Seoul]]. On [[October 16]], the Peasant Army moved toward Gong-ju for the final battle. It was a trap. The Japanese and the pro-Japanese government troops were waiting for them.
 
  
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A Japanese scroll records the defeat of the Donghak Army in the Battle of Seoul. The Japanese had cannons and other modern weapons, whereas the Korean peasants were armed with bow-and-arrows, spears, swords, and some [[flintlock muskets]].
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Thanks to the secret organization network of the Cheondogyo, the March 1st demonstration caught the Japanese police completely by surprise. The Korean people had hoped to attract the attention of the world to their plight, depending upon the world-wide support for [[Fourteen Points|Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points]] to liberate them from Japan's grasp. The Japanese police reacted brutally, killing protesters throughout the country and securing total control of the country. The world sympathized but left Korea in the jaws of Japan. In the aftermath of the 1919 uprising, Japan had to loosen her grasp upon Korea society for nearly twenty years.
  
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The bitter battle started on October 22, 1894 and lasted till November 10, 1894. The poorly armed peasants stormed the well-entrenched enemies some 40 times but they were beaten back with heavy losses. The remnants fled to various bases. The triumphant Japanese and their lackeys pursued the Army and eventually wiped it out. Jeon Bong-jun, the Donghak commander, was captured in March [[1895]].
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Cheondogyo continued to operate underground. The Japanese police arrested Son Byeong-hui on [[March 1st Movement|March 1st, 1919]], ending his active leadership of the movement. Son continued to make his presence felt upon Cheondogyo until his death in his prison cell on May 19, 1922. Before his death, Son pointed out [[Park In-ho]] to succeed as leader of the movement. Park, sensing a lack of support from the elders of the religious group, supported a move for leadership by General Committee, thus ending the period of leadership by a single leader (1860-1922) in the Cheondogyo organization. Throughout the period of Japanese colonization of Korea, the Cheondogyo movement opposed the Japanese occupation.
  
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In [[1898]], following the execution of [[Choe Si-hyeong]], the leader of Donghak [[Son Byeong-hui]] sought political asylum in [[Japan]]. After the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in [[1904]], he returned to Korea and established the [[Jinbohoe]] ("progressive society"), a new cultural and reformist movement designed to reverse the declining fortunes of the nation and to create a new society. Through Donghak he conducted a nationwide movement that aimed at social improvement through the renovation of old customs and ways of life. Hundreds of thousands of members of Donghak cut their long hair short and initiated the wearing of simple, modest clothing. Non-violent demonstrations for social improvement organised by members of Donghak took place throughout [[1904]]. This coordinated series of activities was known as the [[Gapjin Reform Movement]].<!-- Comment —>This text uses many "loaded" words, such as lackeys. 
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==Divided Korea==
  
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It is questionable whether this text is truly historical in nature as it reads more like silly propaganda.
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Since the division of Korea into North and South in 1945, Cheondogyo has a mixed record. In [[North Korea]], the center of Cheondogyo from the 1860s to 1945, the Cheondogyo movement cooperated with the communist government. Only Cheondogyo received dictator [[Kim Il-sung]]'s approval to continue activities; all Christian churches, Buddhist temples, and Shaman centers ceased to exist under the [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]], [[atheist]]ic hand of Kim. The headquarters for the Cheondogyo moved to Seoul after [[communism]] took root in the north. The movement in the south has continued to advance and develop the teachings of [[Choe Je-u]] and to concentrate upon the spiritual practices of their religion. Cheondogyo had about 1.13 million followers and 280 churches in South Korea in 2005.
  
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== Kim Gu, a Donghak fighter ==
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==See also==
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[[Kim Gu]], one of the most prominent nationalist leaders, was a Tonghak military leader. He was born in [[1876]], the year the [[Treaty of Ganghwa]] was signed. He studied the [[Chinese classics]] at a [[seodang]] (a traditional village primary school). At 17, he applied for the Confucian civil service examination but failed.
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*[[Donghak Peasant Revolution]]
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*[[Eulmi Incident]]
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In [[1893]], 18-year-old [[Kim Gu]] joined the Donghak movement and was appointed the district leader of Palbong. He commanded a Donghak army regiment in the 1894 Peasants War. His troops stormed the [[Haeju]] fort in [[Hwanghae-do]]. However, his army was defeated. General An Tae-hun (father of [[An Jung-geun]] the assassin of [[Ito Hirobumi]]) of the royal army gave Kim Gu's Donghak rebels a safe pass, but other government troops ignored An's safe pass and attacked them. Kim Gu managed to escape and went into hiding.
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*[[Progressive Movement in Korea (1873-1895)]]
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In [[1896]], Kim Gu killed a Japanese general named Tsuchida, who was involved in the murder of the last [[Joseon Dynasty]] [[Queen Min]]. Kim was arrested and sentenced to death, but escaped and hid out as a Buddhist monk at [[Magoksa]] in [[Gongju]] near [[Pyeongyang]].
 
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== The Righteous Army ==
 
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The Righteous Army (uibyeong) was formed by [[Yu In-seok]] and other Confucian scholars during the Peasant Wars. Its ranks swelled after the Queen's murder by the Japanese troops and Korean traitors. Under the leadership of [[Min Jeong-sik]], [[Choe Ik-hyeon]] and [[Sin Dol-seok]], the Righteous Army attacked the Japanese army, Japanese merchants and pro-Japanese bureaucrats in the [[Gangwon]], [[Chungcheong]], [[Jeolla]] and [[Gyeongsang]] provinces.
 
  
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Choe Ik-hyeon was captured by the Japanese and taken to [[Tsushima Island]] where he went on [[hunger strike]] and finally died as a martyr. [[Sin Dol-seok]], an uneducated peasant commanded over 3,000 troops. Among the troops were former government soldiers, poor peasants, fishermen, tiger hunters, miners, merchants, and laborers.
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==References==
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*This article draws directly, with the author's permission, from the following unpublished article:
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In 1907, the Righteous Army under the command of Yi In-yong massed 10,000 troops to liberate Seoul and defeat the Japanese invaders. The Army came within 12 km of Seoul but could not withstand the Japanese counter-offensive. The Righteous Army was no match for two infantry divisions of 20,000 Japanese soldiers backed by warships moored near Inchon.
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:*Davies, Daniel. 1992. ''Ch'oe Che-u (1824-1864): The Heavenly Way'', unpublished paper.
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*Chesneaux, Jean. 1973. ''Peasant revolts in China, 1840-1949''. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0393093445
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The Army retreated from Seoul and the war went on for two more years. Over 17,000 Righteous Army soldiers were killed and more than 37,000 were wounded in combats. Unable to figh the Japanese army head-on, the Righteous Army split into small bands of [[Partisan (military)|partisans]] to carry on the War of Liberation in China, Siberia and the Jangbaik Mountains in Korea. The Japanese troops first quashed the Peasant Army and then disbanded what remained of the government army. Many of the surviving guerrilla and anti-Japanese government troops fled to [[Manchuria]] and [[Siberia]] and carried on their fight.
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*Chʻŏndogyo. 2006. Chʻŏndogyo yaksa. Sŏul Tʻŭkpyŏlsi: Chʻŏndogyo Chungang Chʻongbu Chʻulpʻanbu.  
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*Chung, Kiyul. 2007. ''The Donghak concept of God/heaven: religion and social transformation''. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0820488219
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== Donghak becomes Cheondogyo ==
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*Clark, Charles Allen. 1961. Religions of old Korea. Seoul: Christian Literature Society of Korea. {{OCLC|2624029}}
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In [[1905]], Korean nationalists founded Cheondogyo based on the themes of Donghak teachings popular during the Peasant Wars. The nationalists wanted to stem, by peaceful means, the tide of pro-Japanese sentiments sweeping across Korea. During the waning days of the Joseon Dynasty, King [[Gojong]] himself embraced Cheondogyo and promoted it nationwide. The King added Buddhist and Christian rituals and codices to the new religion, which was organized into a formal organizational hierarchy similar to that of Cheonjugyo (Roman Catholicism) with Pope, Papal Nuncio, formal ceremonies, etc.
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*Gale, James Soarth. 1972. History of the Korean people. Seoul, Korea: Seoul Computer Press. {{OCLC|59688347}}
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*Weems, Benjamin B. 1964. Reform, rebellion, and the heavenly way. Tucson: Published for the Association for Asian Studies by the University of Arizona Press. {{OCLC|376642}}
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Members of Donghak were severely persecuted by the [[Japanese Colonial Period (Korea)|colonial Japanese government]], and so, on December 1, [[1905]], Son Byeong-hui decided to modernise the religion and usher in an era of openness and transparency in order to legitimise it in the eyes of the Japanese. As a result he officially changed the name of Donghak to Cheondogyo ("Heavenly Way").
 
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Cheondogyo preaches that there is God and that He resides in each of us, not in Heaven as Christianity teaches. It strives to convert our earthly society into a paradise (Heaven) on Earth. It attempts to transform the believers into intelligent moral beings with high social consciousness. In this respect, it could be seen as a humanistic socialism.
 
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Cheondogyo had about 1.13 million followers and 280 churches in South Korea in 2005 [http://english.seoul.go.kr/residents/religlous/rel_01.htm].
 
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==See also==
 
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* [[List of Korea-related topics]]
 
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* [[Chondoist Chongu Party]]
 
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* http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/korea_south/kr_glos.html
 
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* [http://www.chondogyo.or.kr/new/celist.htm Overview of CHONDOGYO]
 
  
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== References ==
 
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*''This article incorporates text from [http://www.kimsoft.com/korea.htm Korea Web Weekly]. Used with permission.''
 
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Korea Web Weekly is not an independent source of information but is instead associated with various North Korea government sources.
 
  
 
[[Category:Philosophy and religion]]
 
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[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
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[[Category:History and biography]]
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Latest revision as of 22:48, 27 February 2017

Chondogyo
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Cheondogyo
McCune-Reischauer Ch'ǒndogyo
Hangul 천도교
Hanja 天道敎
Donghak
Korean Name
Revised Romanization Donghak
McCune-Reischauer Tonghak
Hangul 동학
Hanja 東學

Choe Je-u 崔濟愚 (1824 – 1864), in 1860, the same year as British and French troops occupied Beijing after the Battle at Palichiao, received a revelation that gave birth to an indigenous religion in Korea, Cheondogyo (The Heavenly Way). The message that he developed over the course of his four year ministry (1860-1864) found millions of followers in Korea over the past 140 years, fueled a peasant revolt (the Donghak Peasant Revolution), and inspired a leading role in the Independence Movement against the Japanese colonizers (especially the 1919 Independence Movement).

A religious-based reform movement, the Heavenly Way propelled Korea out of the Joseon dynasty and on to the way toward the era of the modern Korea.

Choe Je-u

Main Article: Choe Je-u

Background

Choe Je-u, as is the case for all prophets, inspired devotion from believers and hatred from corrupt government officials covetous of their positions. Choe provided Korea with a spiritual teaching but government officials feared his religious movement presented the threat of a popular uprising against their unbridled corruption. Government officials arrested him, charging him with heresy (i.e., Catholicism) and insurrection intentions. The throne approved his execution, which took place by beheading in 1864.

Did you know?
Cheondogyo is an indigenous Korean neo-Confucianist religion with elements of Buddhism, Daoism, and Catholicism

Cheondogyo (The Heavenly Way), founded by Choe Je-u, constituted a genuine religious faith. Although charged with advancing Catholicism (although an illegal faith at that time in Korea), Choe actually initiated a neo-Confucian reform movement which embraced elements of Buddhism, Daoism, and Catholicism. He considered Catholicism an error, hardly the belief a good Catholic would hold.

Choe's Revelation

Choe, and all other Koreans, paid close attention to the fate of China. Historically, China had provided culture and military protection to Korea and Koreans looked upon China as invincible. When china suffered repeated defeat at the hands of the European powers in the 1850s, Choe felt dread and foreboding that Korea would suffer the same fate.

Choe, witnessing the decadence of Korean society with the corruption of Neo-Confucianism in the waning years of the Joseon dynasty and distressed by the inroads of the Christian European nations in China, sought answers in the study of the Confucian classics and mediation. He also paid attention to the teachings of Catholicism, believing he could find the source of Western military might in the Christian doctrine. But he considered Catholicism a deficient faith. While meditating in April 1860, Choe had a divine revelation. The Lord (sangje) called him to receive and teach the Heavenly Way.

Cheondogyo: The Heavenly Way

Cheondogyo symbol

Writings

By the end of 1861, Choe had begun to attract followers. He quietly taught and practiced the Heavenly Way. He spent the next year studying a twenty-one character chant, utilizing the talisman as a healing instrument, reflecting on the commission the spirit had given him, and practicing the way of virtue. He refrained from seeking converts in the first year. In the spring of 1861 he wrote On Propagating Virtue (P'odok Mun). He taught the importance of studying Chinese Confucianism, the need to become a gentleman and sage through following the Way (the Mandate of Heaven). He described in detail the talisman given by the Lord (sangje): shaped like the Great Ultimate (t'aeguk, the symbol on the South Korean flag, the yin and Yang).

In December 1861, Choe wrote A Discussion on Learning (Non Hak Mun). He emphasized the importance of the twenty-one character formula in practicing the Way. The chant is a divine invocation, a request that God (Chi-keui or Chun-ju) will fill the believer with the Confucian doctrine (virtue), and to maintain an uprightness of mind (virtue) always. The twenty-one character chant, which Choe modeled after the Buddhist chant, provided a means of worship simple enough for the uneducated Korean farmers to practice. The chant became the center piece of worship for the Heavenly Way faithful.

In June 1862, Choe wrote another tract On Cultivating Virtue (Sudok mun), in which he declared his Way nearly identical with the Way of Confucius. Choe maintained that Confucianism had strayed from the teachings of Confucius and that God had commissioned him to instruct all people in the Mandate of Heaven revealed by Confucius and his disciples. After his execution, Choe's chief disciple, Choi, compiled his writings into the Donghak Bible. The "Great Persecution of 1864" erupted, disturbing the task for fifteen years. Choi compiled, edited, and published the Donghak Bible in 1888.

Choe's Martyrdom

In 1862, a local government official imprisoned Choe in an army camp, but released him after several hundred followers petitioned the official. Fearing that Choe intended to use his movement to end their corrupt practices, the local government officials reported that they suspected Choe of planning an insurrection that intended to overthrow the Daewongun himself. In the latter part of 1863, the Daewongun directed the governor of Kyongsangdo, So Hon-sun, to investigate Choe and the Donghaks. So, surprisingly, they depicted Choe as a harmless spiritual leader. The Daewongun rejected the report and arrested Choe. In Daegu, he received a hasty trial ending in the recommendation of execution, which the Daewongun accepted.

After Choe's martyrdom, Choe Si-hyeong, a distant relative of Choe Je-u's, took over leadership of the small band of loyal Cheondogyo followers. The Cheondogyo movement continued to suffer persecution at the hands of Confucian government officials, especially during the Catholic persecutions of 1866-1871. Although decidedly a Neo-Confucian reform movement with Buddhist, Shaman, and Christian doctrine and practices infused, the monarch still treated the Donghaks as outlawed Catholics.

The Donghak movement continued to grow from 1864 to 1892 under the leadership of Choe Si-hyeong. Choe Si-hyeong shifted its headquarters to the northern part of Korea. He constantly sought to clear their founder's reputation by making the government drop the charges of sedition and treason against Choe Je-u. The Donghak movement maintained a spiritual posture in doctrine, practice, and content. Choe Si-hyeong, publishing the Donghak Bible in 1888, continued the teachings of his relative, Choe Je-u.

Donghak Peasant Rebellion

Main article: Donghak Peasant Revolution

Southern and Northern Donghak Factions

In 1892, members of the Cheondogyo movement in southern Korea formed a splinter faction, accepting the popular name Donghak (Eastern Learning). Disregarding leader Choe Si-hyeong's opposition to the, from Choe's viewpoint, untimely protest, the southern faction pressed forward. The government reacted with severe repression, triggering an uprising in southern Korea that burst into a full scale uprising in 1894. Although the Cheondogyo leader, Choe Si-hyeong, initially condemned the southern splinter Donghak group and declared them an enemy of Cheondogyo, when the Korean government indiscriminately attacked and executed Cheondogyo in northern Korea as well, Choe Si-hyeong threw his support behind the southern rebellion.

While proclaiming loyalty to the throne, the southern faction targeted the corrupt provincial government officials for execution. Raising a poorly equipped and trained Peasant Army, which relied upon magical chants and charms to protect them in battle, the southern faction swept through the province of Chollam northward toward the capital city of Seoul. Alarmed by the successes of the Donghaks and the inability of the Korean army to stop them, King Gojong requested China's assistance.

First Sino-Japanese War

Main Article: First Sino-Japanese War

China sent troops to assist the Korean king. Before they marched against the Donghaks the Donghak leaders agreed to a truce with the throne. The Donghaks returned to their homes in June 1894, setting up administrative offices. But Japan, citing China's violation of the Convention of Tientsin (1885), which required China and Japan to notify each other before introducing troops into Korea, and which allowed each country to introduce equal numbers of troops, sent troops to Korea. Both countries refused to withdraw. Tensions mounted until the Sino-Japanese War broke out on July 23, 1894.

Japan quickly annihilated the Chinese forces on land and sea, and then launched a joint expedition with the Korean Army against the Donghaks in the south, crushing them by late 1894. The combined Japanese-Korea army captured and executed the leaders of the southern Donghak faction in late 1894. In 1898, the Korean government captured Cheondogyo leader Choe Si-hyeong, executing him and displaying his head at one of Seoul's main city gates.

The entire Cheondogyo movement went underground. Son Byeong-hui, the third leader of Cheondogyo, assumed leadership. He developed a secret, underground cell organization to avoid persecution and the movement continued to grow. The secret organization proved extremely useful during the Independence uprising of March 1, 1919. Son continued to locate the center of Cheondogyo operations in northern Korea.

March 1st Movement

Main article: March 1st Movement

After defeating China in 1894-95, Japan consolidated control of Korea by defeating Russia during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. In 1910, Japan officially absorbed Korea into its empire and officially terminated the Joseon dynasty. Between 1910 to 1919, the Japanese ruled Korea with an iron fist, opposition to Japan's colonial rule growing to a fever pitch. The Cheondogyo utilized their secret cell organization to plan, finance, organize, and state the March 1st, 1919, Independence uprising. Cheondogyoists comprised approximately one half of the thirty-three signers of the Declaration of Independence read throughout the nation on that day, Son Byeong-hui acting as the principle organizer and signer. Protestants provided strong support, while Buddhists also participated.

Thanks to the secret organization network of the Cheondogyo, the March 1st demonstration caught the Japanese police completely by surprise. The Korean people had hoped to attract the attention of the world to their plight, depending upon the world-wide support for Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points to liberate them from Japan's grasp. The Japanese police reacted brutally, killing protesters throughout the country and securing total control of the country. The world sympathized but left Korea in the jaws of Japan. In the aftermath of the 1919 uprising, Japan had to loosen her grasp upon Korea society for nearly twenty years.

Cheondogyo continued to operate underground. The Japanese police arrested Son Byeong-hui on March 1st, 1919, ending his active leadership of the movement. Son continued to make his presence felt upon Cheondogyo until his death in his prison cell on May 19, 1922. Before his death, Son pointed out Park In-ho to succeed as leader of the movement. Park, sensing a lack of support from the elders of the religious group, supported a move for leadership by General Committee, thus ending the period of leadership by a single leader (1860-1922) in the Cheondogyo organization. Throughout the period of Japanese colonization of Korea, the Cheondogyo movement opposed the Japanese occupation.

Divided Korea

Since the division of Korea into North and South in 1945, Cheondogyo has a mixed record. In North Korea, the center of Cheondogyo from the 1860s to 1945, the Cheondogyo movement cooperated with the communist government. Only Cheondogyo received dictator Kim Il-sung's approval to continue activities; all Christian churches, Buddhist temples, and Shaman centers ceased to exist under the totalitarian, atheistic hand of Kim. The headquarters for the Cheondogyo moved to Seoul after communism took root in the north. The movement in the south has continued to advance and develop the teachings of Choe Je-u and to concentrate upon the spiritual practices of their religion. Cheondogyo had about 1.13 million followers and 280 churches in South Korea in 2005.

See also

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • This article draws directly, with the author's permission, from the following unpublished article:
  • Davies, Daniel. 1992. Ch'oe Che-u (1824-1864): The Heavenly Way, unpublished paper.
  • Chesneaux, Jean. 1973. Peasant revolts in China, 1840-1949. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0393093445
  • Chʻŏndogyo. 2006. Chʻŏndogyo yaksa. Sŏul Tʻŭkpyŏlsi: Chʻŏndogyo Chungang Chʻongbu Chʻulpʻanbu.
  • Chung, Kiyul. 2007. The Donghak concept of God/heaven: religion and social transformation. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0820488219
  • Clark, Charles Allen. 1961. Religions of old Korea. Seoul: Christian Literature Society of Korea. OCLC 2624029
  • Gale, James Soarth. 1972. History of the Korean people. Seoul, Korea: Seoul Computer Press. OCLC 59688347
  • Weems, Benjamin B. 1964. Reform, rebellion, and the heavenly way. Tucson: Published for the Association for Asian Studies by the University of Arizona Press. OCLC 376642

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