Babylonian Exile

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Jewish exiles in Babylon.

The Babylonian captivity, or Babylonian exile, is the name generally given to the deportation and exile of the Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar II. The Babylonian Exile is distinguished from the earlier exile of citizens of the northern Kingdom of Israel to Assyria around 722 B.C.E. The exile in Babylon, which directly affected mainly those of the upper class of society, occured in three waves from 597 to 581 B.C.E. as a result of Judean rebellions against Babylonian rule. The Bible portrays the internal cause of the captivity as the sins of Judah in failing to rid herself of idolatry and refusing to heed prophetic warnings not to rebel against Babylon.

While the Jews in Babylon did not suffer greatly in the physical sense, the seige and later sack of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E., inlcuding the destruction of its sacred Temple, left many of the exiles deeply repentant and determined to keep their faith pure. After Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylon, he allowed the exiles to return in 537 B.C.E. They came to Jerusalem with a tradition refined by the rise of the scribal profession, deeply committed to ethnic purity centering on the the rebuilt Temple, and yet enriched by universalistic monotheistic values.

The Babyolonian Exile represents both one of Judaism's darkest hours and also the beginning of its history as a enduring universal religion which gave birth to the later monotheistic traditions of Christianity and Islam as well.

Deportations

King Jehoiakim destroys the writings of the prophet Jeremiah, who had opposed the king's alliance with Egypt and urged cooperation with Babylon.

The first deportation from Judah occurred in 597 B.C.E., as a result of the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar II. The purpose of this action was to punish King Josiah's son Jehoiakim, for allying with Egypt and rebelling against Babylonian dominance. Jehoiakim died during the seige but his son Jehoiachin, also called Jeconiah, continued to resist until he was forced to surrender after a reign of only three months. Nebuchadnezzar ordered him and the elite citizens of Judah deported, together with the most valuable treasures of the Temple and the palace. (II Kings 24 1-16). Among the captives was prophet Ezekiel, though not Jeremiah, who remained in Jerusalem, where he counseled cooperation with Babylon, while other prophets urged resistance.

After Jeremiah's advice was not heeded, a second deportation took place in 586 B.C.E. The new king, Zedekiah, had taken the oath as a vassal of Nebuchadnezzar (Ezek. 17:13), but rebelled. Nebuchadnezzar began the siege of Jerusalem in January 587. He was soon forced to abandon the seige in order to face Zedekiah's Egtyptian allies. After defeating them in battle the Babylonian forces renewed their assult on Jerusalem, finally breaching its walls in July, 586. Zedekiah and his court attempted to flee, but were captured. As punishment, he was forced to witness the death of his sons and then blinded. After this, he was taken in chains to Babylon. On or about August 7 of the same year, Nebuchadnezzar's captain, Nebuzaradan, supervised the destruction and burding of the Temple of Jerusalem, the royal palace, and virtually the entire city. The surviving inhabitants were deported to Babylon. Another 70-80 leading citizens, including the high priest Seraiah, were put to death (2 Kings 25, Jer. 34). A nobable exception was the prophet Jeremiah, who was rightly viewed by the Babylonian as a vocal opponent of the rebellion. Later, a third deportation was ordered by Nebuchadnezzar when yet another rebellion broke out around n 582-581 B.C.E. A number of Judeans, including Jeremiah, succeeded in escaping to Egypt during this time.

Numbers and conditions

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The sack of Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E.

According to the Book of Jeremiah (52:28-30), 3,023 Jews were deported in the first wave, 832 in the second, and 745 in the third, making 4,600 in all. However, it is likely that only the men were counted. Including women and children it is estimated that 14,000 to 18,000 people is the full number. A larger estimate is given in 2 Kings 24 14-16, which refers only to the first deportation 597 B.C.E. Verse 14 gives the numbers as 10,000 men, while verse 16 puts the number at 8,000, an estimate rought double that of Jeremiahs for all three deportations. Scholars tend to accept Jeremiah's figures as more accurate. In either case, since scholars estimate the total populartion of the [[Kingdom of Judah}} during this time at between 120,000 and 150,000, less than one quarter of the population was actually taken into exile. However, since this included a high percentage of court officials, the priesthood, skill craftsmen, and other wealthy citizens, the exiles constituted majority of the cultural elite of nation.

Those who had been deported in 597 had hoped for a speedy return to their homes. They were encouraged in this hope by certain prophets among them, against whom Jeremiah and Ezekiel worked in vain (Jer. 29-29; Ezek. 18, 22). Although most lived in the environs of the great city of Babylon, it is not known whether they formed a close knit community or were scattered throughout the area. One of their places of dwelling was called Tel Aviv (Ezek. 1:3).

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"By the rivers of Babylon we sat and wept when we remembered Zion.

As exiles under royal protection, the deportees enjoyed special prerogatives in their new home. Indeed their personal fortunes were undoubtedly better than those who remained behind. Jeremiah's communications with them indicate that (24 5-7; compare Ezek. xiii. 2 et seq., xiv. 9-11), that the exiles were permitted to engage in farming, marry and raise families, buy property, and accumulate wealth. Aside from the issue of sacrifices, which could only be properly offered at the Temple of Jerusalem, they were apparently undisturbed in the exercise of their religion. No bloody persecutions are reported.

Nevertheless, it is clear from the writings of the Psalms and latter prophets, that that many of the exiles indeed felt themselve imprisoned and ill-treated. Psalm 137 expresses these sentiments eloquently:

By the rivers of Babylon we sat and wept when we remembered Zion.

There on the poplars we hung our harps, for there our captors asked us for songs

Our tormentors demanded songs of joy; they said, "Sing us one of the songs of Zion!"

How can we sing the songs of the Lord while in a foreign land?

If I forget you, O Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill.

May my tongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you,

If I do not consider Jerusalem my highest joy.

Isaiah particularly expresses a sense of Israel's degradation as a result of her exile. He describes the nation as a helpless worm (Isa. xli. 14), and speaks of her suffering in chains and bondage (ib. xlii. 20-24). These sufferings, however are not to be understood literally. Rather, they are figurative of the condition of homelessness and servitude to foreign rule, while the territory formerly promised by God and the holy city itself lay in ruins. Meanwhile, pagans and idolaters could scofff and point to the fall of Jerusalem and its Temple evidence of the weakness of Israel's God (Isa. lii. 3).

Religious and cultural impact

Ezekiel preaches to the elders of Judah in exile.

Many of the exiles, finding themselves in comfortable circumstances, assimilated into Babylonian society in ways that concerned the prious among them. Ezekiel denounced such men as "a rebellious house," and parts of the Book of Isaiah written during exilic times likwise expressed concern over the adoption of Babylonian traditions (Isa. 65:3). Some, however, maintained their faith and others responded to prophetic preaching of repentance (Ezek. 33:31).

Since the Temple was available neither for sacrifices nor festival celebrations, solemn days of penance and prayer commemorated Jerusalem's fall (Zech. 7:3, 8:19). The Sabbath took on new emphasis as a day of contemplation, prayer, and sacred rest. Circumcision, too, grew in signifance as the special mark of the Israelites in the midst of a foreign people. The prophetic emphasis on works of morality and charity came to the fore, as priestly obeservances were, for the moment at least, irrelevant. In response to those who feared that the sins of the fathers would be visited upon the sons for the full four generations promised by the Book of Deuteronomy (5:5), Ezekiel promised that "(The son) will not die for his father's sin; he will surely live. But his father will die for his own sin." (Ezek. 19:17-18) Second Isaiah, meanwhile, expanded the concept of God's special blessing on Israel to include the eventual recognition of Yahweh even by the Gentiles.

The profession of the scribes, often priests learned in the Law, also grew in importance during the Exile. A more modern Hebrew script was adopted during this period, replacing the traditional Israelite script. Historical writings were compiled and revised in accordance with the emerging priestly consensus, based especially on the historical conception expressed in the Book Deuteronomy. In this view, the calamities that had befallen the people of Israel must be accepted by the exiles as a punishment for their sins, expecially the sin of idolatry. At the same time, the hope was expressed that a resurrected Israel, a holy remnant risen from the grave of exile, would one day return to Jerusalem, rebuild the Temple, and one and for all live in accordance with the Law of Moses.

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Ezra the scribe became a leading figure in early post-exilic Judaism.

At the same time, the Jews' exposure to Babylonian literature and traditions served to broaden their viewpoint to include important new concepts formerly not evident in the literature of ancient Israel, among them:

• The concept of Satan as God's adversary
• The idea of an angelic hierarchy under God as opposed to the more ancient idea of a council of the gods with Yahweh/Elohim as the Supreme deity
• The idea of absolute monotheism as opposed to the idea that Yahweh was the special god of Israel but not necessarily the only God
• The related idea of universalism: God wishes not only the Jews, but all people, to honor Him.

The Jews were also apparently influenced by the wisdom literature of Babylon, expressing a less two-dimensional approach to the concept of spiritual wisdom—as expressed for example in the Book of Proverbs with its promises of blessing to righteous and suffering to the wicked—in favored of the more nuanced and realistic wisdom of Ecclesiastes and Job.

Finally, some scholars opinion that the Babylonian tradition may even have influenced the famous origin story of Genesis 1, which mythologists believe to be a reworking of the Babylonian cosmology, the Enuma Elish.

The Return

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The exiles return to Jerusalem.

After the overthrow of Babylon by the Persians, Cyrus instituted a general religious reform encourage the priests who had been forced into exile by his predecessors to return to their native lands with install their religious icons in their temples, and minister to the spiritual needs of the peoples of these lands. He thus gave the Jews permission to return to Jerusalem (537 B.C.E.). The Books of Ezra reports that 42,360 availed themselves of the privilege, including women, children and slaves, completing a long and dreary journey of some four months from the banks of the Euphrates to Jerusalem.

Under the Babylonian-appointed governor Zerubbabel, chosen in part because of his Davidic lineage, the Temple foundation would soon be laid, and—just as important—the sacrificial rituals were once against offered at the one place authorized according the newly standardized scriptural standard. On the invitation of Zerubbabel, the people poured their gifts into the sacred treasury with great enthusiasm (Ezra 2). They erected and dedicated the altar of God on the exact spot where it had formerly stood, and they then cleared away the charred heaps of debris which occupied the site. In 535 B.C.E., among great public excitement, the foundations of the second temple were laid. However, it was regarded with mingled feelings by the spectators (Haggai 2:3; Zechariah 4:10).

Seven years after this Cyrus the Great died (2 Chronicles 36:22-23). Mistrust and intrigues cause the rebuilding to cease for a time, but underDarius I of Persia (522 B.C.E.), the work was resumed and carried forward to its completion (bibleref|Ezra5:6-6:15). It was ready for consecration in the spring of 516 B.C.E., more than twenty years after the return from captivity.

Jews and Samaritans

When the Jews returned home, they found a mixture of peoples practicing a religion very similar to their own. These people, who came to be known as Samaritans, worshiped Yahweh and honored the Law of Moses as they understood it, but many had intermarried with non-Israelite peoples who had immigrated to Judah and Israel in the wake of the Assyrian and Babyloniax policy of forcing conquered peoples into exile.

Zerubbabel and the Jewish elders rebuffed offers from the local inhabitants to help rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. Ezra and Nehemiah even went so far as to require those who had intermarried to divorce their foreign wives and disown their children in order to be included in the assembly of the Jews. Hostility grew between the returning Jews and the Samaritans and has continued to this day. For much of the period from the return of the Jews to Jerusalem until the Common Era, Judea remain a smaller and less influential province than did its northern neighbor, Samaria.

Lasting Impact

Nevertheless, once the Temple of Jerusalem was rebuilt, it became the central rallying point of the Jewish people, spawning a tradition which, unlike its Samaritan counterpart, has survived with a worldwide following into the current era. The almost paradoxical combination of ethnic purity and universalism of the tradition that evolved during the Babylonian Captivity resulted in a religious spirit that survived later explusion of Jews from Jerulsalem and their scattering throughout the world for the last two millennia. The tradition of Jewish universalism and ethical monotheism also inspired two other world religions: Chrisitiany and Islam. It may be one of history's great ironies, or perhaps one should say one of God's great mysteries, that out of Israel's most tragic moment, its lasting legacy would be born.

References

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• Yohanan Aharoni & Michael Avi-Yonah, "The MacMillan Bible Atlas," Revised Edition, pp. 96-106 (1968 & 1977 by Carta Ltd).

The above article incorporates text from the public domain 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, and may be adapted from the original.

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