Difference between revisions of "Angola" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
(molre editing on histroy)
 
(54 intermediate revisions by 8 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
−
{{Contracted}}{{Status}}
+
{{Copyedited}}{{Paid}}{{Approved}}{{Images OK}}{{Status}}
 +
{{Submitted}}
  
 
{{Infobox Country |
 
{{Infobox Country |
−
native_name             = República de Angola |
+
|native_name                 = '''''República de Angola''''' {{pt icon}}
−
common_name             = Angola |
+
|conventional_long_name      = Republic of Angola
−
image_flag               = Flag of Angola.svg |
+
|common_name                 = Angola
−
image_coat               = Coat of Arms Angola.jpg |
+
|image_flag                 = <!--DO NOT ADD the proposed flag, you WILL be reverted and warned—> Flag of Angola.svg
−
national_motto           = none |
+
|alt_flag                    =
−
image_map                = LocationAngola.png |
+
|image_coat                 =
−
national_anthem         = [[Angola Avante|Angola Avante!]]<br><small>([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: [[Angola Avante|Forward Angola!]]) |
+
|alt_coat                    =
−
official_languages      = [[Angolan Portuguese|Portuguese]] |
+
|symbol_type                = Insignia
−
capital                 = [[Luanda]] |
+
|national_motto             =
−
latd=8|latm=50|latNS=S|longd=13|longm=20|longEW=E|
+
|national_anthem             = ''[[Angola Avante|Angola Avante!]]''{{Spaces|2}}<small>([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]])<br />''Forward Angola!''</small>
−
government_type         = [[Multi-party]] [[democracy]] |
+
|royal_anthem                =
−
leader_titles            = [[President of Angola|Head of State]] <br> [[Prime Minister of Angola|Head of Government]]|
+
|motto                      =
−
leader_names            = [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] <br> [[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos|Fernando da Piedade <br> Dias dos Santos]]|
+
|other_symbol_type          =
−
largest_city            = [[Luanda]] |
+
|other_symbol                =
−
area                    = 1,246,700 |
+
|image_map                  = LocationAngola.png
−
area_rank               = 22nd |
+
|alt_map                    =
−
area_magnitude           = 1 E12 |
+
|map_caption                =
−
percent_water            = Negligible |
+
|image_map2                  =
−
population_estimate     = 10,978,552 |
+
|alt_map2                    =
−
population_estimate_year = 2004 |
+
|map_caption2                =
−
population_estimate_rank = 71st |
+
|capital                     = [[Luanda]]
−
population_census       = ''unavailable'' |
+
|latd= 8 | latm= 50 | latNS = S
−
population_census_year   = ? |
+
|longd= 13 |longm= 20 |longEW = E
−
population_density      = 8.6 |
+
|largest_city                = capital
−
population_density_rank  = 213 |
+
|official_languages          = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
−
GDP_PPP_year             = 2003 |
+
|national_languages          = [[Kongo language|Kikongo]], [[Chokwe language|Chokwe]], [[South Mbundu language|Umbundu]], [[North Mbundu language|Kimbundu]]
−
GDP_PPP                  = 31,364<sup>1</sup> |
+
|regional_languages          =
−
GDP_PPP_rank             = 83 |
+
|languages_type              =
−
GDP_PPP_per_capita       = 2,319 |
+
|languages                  =
−
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 120 |
+
|ethnic_groups              = [[Ovimbundu]], [[Mbundu people|Ambundu]], [[Bakongo]], [[Lunda|Lunda-Chokwe]], [[Nhaneca-Humbe|Nyaneka-Nkhumbi]], [[Ovambo]], [[Ganguela]], [[Xindonga]], [[Herero]], [[Khoisan]]
−
HDI_year                = 2003 |
+
|ethnic_groups_year          =
−
HDI                      = 0.445 |
+
|demonym                    = Angolan
−
HDI_rank                = 160th |
+
| government_type       = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Dominant-party system|dominant-party]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]]
−
HDI_category            = <font color="#E0584E">low</font> |
+
| leader_title1          = [[President of Angola|President]]
−
sovereignty_type        = [[Independence]] |
+
| leader_name1          = [[João Lourenço]]
−
established_events      = From [[Portugal]] |
+
| leader_title2          = [[Vice President of Angola|Vice President]]
−
established_dates        = [[November 11]] [[1975]] |
+
| leader_name2          = [[Bornito de Sousa]]
−
currency                 = [[Kwanza]] |
+
| legislature            = [[National Assembly (Angola)|National Assembly]]
−
currency_code           = AOA |
+
|sovereignty_type            = [[Angolan War of Independence|Independence]]
−
time_zone               = [[Central European Time|CET]] |
+
|sovereignty_note            = from [[Portugal]]
−
utc_offset               = +1 |
+
|established_event1          = Date
−
time_zone_DST           = not observed |
+
|established_date1          = November 11, 1975
−
utc_offset_DST           = +1 |
+
| established_event2    = [[United Nations]] [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 397|full membership]]
−
cctld                   = [[.ao]] |
+
| established_date2      = November 22, 1976
−
calling_code             = 244 |
+
| established_event3    = [[Constitution of Angola|Current constitution]]
−
footnotes               = <sup>1</sup> Estimate is based on regression; other PPP figures are extrapolated from the latest International Comparison Programme benchmark estimates.
+
| established_date3      = January 21, 2010
 +
<!-- ... —>
 +
|established_event9          =
 +
|established_date9          =
 +
|area_rank                   = 23rd
 +
|area_magnitude             = 1 E12
 +
|area_km2                    = 1246700
 +
|area_sq_mi                  = 481354
 +
|area_footnote              =
 +
|percent_water               = negligible
 +
|area_dabodyalign           =
 +
| population_estimate   = 35,063,956<ref>[https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/angola-population/ Angola Population] ''Worldometer''. Retrieved August 28, 2022.</ref>
 +
| population_census     = 25,789,024<ref>[https://ghdx.healthdata.org/record/angola-population-and-housing-census-2014 Angola Population and Housing Census 2014] ''GHDx''. Retrieved August 28, 2022. </ref>
 +
| population_estimate_year = 2022
 +
| population_estimate_rank = 42nd
 +
| population_census_year = 2014
 +
| population_density_km2 = 24.97
 +
| population_density_sq_mi = 64.65
 +
| population_density_rank = 157th
 +
| GDP_PPP                = $213.034&nbsp;billion
 +
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2022
 +
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 67th
 +
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = $7,360
 +
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 157th
 +
| GDP_nominal            = $125.496 billion
 +
| GDP_nominal_year      = 2022
 +
| GDP_nominal_rank      = 61st
 +
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3,793
 +
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 145th
 +
| Gini                  = 51.3<ref>[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=AO GINI index (World Bank estimate) - Angola] ''The World Bank''. Retrieved August 28, 2022. </ref>
 +
| Gini_year              = 2018
 +
| Gini_ref              =  
 +
|currency                   = [[Angolan kwanza|Kwanza]]
 +
|currency_code               = AOA
 +
|time_zone                   = [[West Africa Time|WAT]]
 +
|utc_offset                 = +1
 +
|time_zone_DST               = ''not observed''
 +
|antipodes                  =
 +
|date_format                =
 +
|DST_note                    =
 +
|utc_offset_DST             = +1
 +
|drives_on                  = right
 +
|cctld                       = [[.ao]]
 +
|iso3166code                =
 +
|calling_code               = [[+244]]
 +
|image_map3                  =
 +
|alt_map3                    =
 +
|footnotes                   =
 +
|footnote1                  =
 +
|footnote2                  =
 +
|footnote7                  =
 
}}
 
}}
  
−
A former Portuguese colony, Angola, known formally as the '''Republic of Angola''', was ravaged by a quarter-century of civil war between a pro-Soviet government that controlled the capital and coastal areas and a pro-democracy guerrilla movement that held the interior regions. After the death of guerrilla leader Jonas Savimbi in 1992, a multiparty republic was set up, but free elections have yet to be held. Political activity by the opposition has sometimes been met with violence, and the state controls most of the mass media. China has invested huge sums in reconstruction, and is now Angola's biggest oil export market. It thus wields considerable influence, and the opposition fears that the government is adopting the Chinese political and economic model. Though Angola has considerable natural resources, especially oil and diamonds, it remains among the world's poorest nations, and much needs to be done to reconstruct the infrastructure destroyed during the civil war.
+
A former [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colony, '''Angola,''' known formally as the '''Republic of Angola,''' is on the west coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) country in both total area and population (behind [[Brazil]] in both cases), and is the seventh-largest country in Africa. It is bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north, [[Zambia]] to the east, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. Angola has an exclave province, the province of [[Cabinda]], that borders the [[Republic of the Congo]] and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and most populous city is [[Luanda]].
−
 
+
{{toc}}
−
The oil-rich province of [[Cabinda]] is separated from the rest of the nation by the Congo River and a narrow strip of land belonging to the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. The Angolan government signed a Memorandum of Understanding with a Cabindese secessionist movement in August 2006.
+
Angola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves. Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese influence, namely the predominance of the Portuguese language and of the [[Catholic Church]], intermingled with a variety of indigenous customs and traditions.  
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
−
  Background Note: Angola
+
In 1482, when the Portuguese first landed in what is now northern Angola, they encountered the Kingdom of the Congo, which stretched from modern [[Gabon]] in the north to the [[Kwanza River]] in the south. South of this kingdom were various important states. Ndongo was the most significant, and modern Angola derives its name from the Ndongo word ''ngola'' (king). The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the sixteenth century by a series of [[treaty|treaties]] and [[war]]s and had conquered the Congo and Ndongo states by 1671. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior did not occur until the beginning of the twentieth century.  
−
 
 
−
 
−
In 1482, when the Portuguese first landed in what is now northern Angola, they encountered the Kingdom of the Congo, which stretched from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. South of this kingdom were various important states. Ndongo was the most significant, and modern Angola derives its name from the word ngola (king) in Ndongo. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the sixteenth century by a series of treaties and wars and had conquered the Congo and Ndongo states by 1671. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior did not occur until the beginning of the twentieth century.
 
−
 
 
−
Portugal's primary interest in Angola quickly turned to slavery, which began with the purchase from African chiefs of people to work on sugar plantations in São Tomé, Principé, and Brazil. Many scholars agree that by the nineteenth century, Angola was the largest source of slaves not only for Brazil but also the Americas, including the United States. By the end of the nineteenth century, a massive forced labor system had replaced formal slavery and would continue until outlawed in 1961. Forced labor provided the basis for development of a plantation economy and then the mining sector. It was also used, with British financing, to construct three railroads from the coast to the interior, the most important of which was the transcontinental Benguela railroad that linked the port of Lobito with the copper zones of the Belgian Congo and what is now Zambia, through which it connects to Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania.
 
−
 
 
−
Colonial economic development did not translate into social development for native Angolans. The Portuguese regime encouraged white immigration, especially after 1950, which intensified racial antagonisms. As decolonization progressed elsewhere in Africa, Portugal rejected independence and treated its African colonies as overseas provinces. Consequently, three independence movements emerged from the early 1960s: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) led by Agostinho Neto, with a base among Kimbundu and the mixed-race intelligentsia of Luanda, and links to communist parties in Portugal and the East Bloc; the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), led by Holden Roberto with an ethnic base in the Bakongo region of the north and links to the United States and the Mobutu regime in Kinshasa; and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas Savimbi with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country.
 
−
 
 
−
After the 1974 coup in Portugal, the military government promptly agreed to hand over power to a coalition of the three movements. The ideological differences between the three movements eventually led to armed conflict, with FNLA and UNITA forces, encouraged by their respective international supporters, attempting to wrest control of Luanda from the MPLA. The intervention of troops from South Africa on behalf of UNITA and Zaire on behalf of the FNLA in September and October 1975 and the MPLA's importation of Cuban troops in November effectively internationalized the conflict. Retaining control of Luanda, the coastal strip, and increasingly lucrative oil fields in Cabinda, the MPLA declared independence on November 11, 1975, the day the Portuguese abandoned the capital. UNITA and the FNLA formed a rival coalition government based in the interior city of Huambo. Agostinho Neto became the first president of the MPLA government that was recognized by the United Nations in 1976. Upon his death in 1979, then-Planning Minister José Eduardo dos Santos became president, a position he still holds.
 
−
 
 
−
The FNLA's military failures led to its increasing marginalization and abandonment by international supporters. But civil war between UNITA and the MPLA continued until 1989. For much of this time, UNITA controlled vast swaths of the interior and was backed by U.S. resources and South African troops. Similarly, tens of thousands of Cuban troops remained to support the MPLA. A U.S.-brokered agreement resulted in withdrawal of foreign troops in 1989 and led to the Bicesse Accord in 1991, which spelled out an electoral process for a democratic Angola under the supervision of the United Nations. Savimbi rejected the results of the first round of the presidential election in 1992 (in which he won 40 percent of the votes to dos Santos's 49 percent, which meant a runoff), charging massive fraud, and returned to war. Another peace accord, known as the Lusaka Protocol, was brokered in Lusaka, Zambia, and signed in 1994. This agreement, too, collapsed into renewed conflict. The Angolan military launched a massive offensive in 1999, which destroyed UNITA's conventional capacity, and recaptured all the major cities previously held by Savimbi's forces. Savimbi then declared a return to guerrilla tactics, which continued until his death in combat in February 2002.
 
−
 
 
−
On April 4, 2002, the Angolan government and UNITA formalized the de facto cease-fire that had prevailed following Savimbi's death. On November 21, 2002, UNITA and the government declared all outstanding issues resolved and the Lusaka Protocol fully implemented.  
 
  
−
The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), formed in 1974, rejected the Alvor Accords that included Cabinda as part of Angolan territory at independence. In 1975, FLEC began low-level guerilla attacks against government targets and kidnapped foreigners in an effort to press for an independent Cabindan state.  
+
[[Portugal]]'s primary interest in Angola quickly turned to [[slavery]], which began with the purchase from African chiefs of people to work on sugar plantations in [[São Tomé]], [[Principé]], and [[Brazil]]. Many scholars agree that by the nineteenth century, Angola was the largest source of slaves not only for Brazil but also the Americas, including the [[United States]]. By the end of the nineteenth century, a massive [[forced labor]] system had replaced formal slavery and would continue until outlawed in 1961. Forced labor provided the basis for development of a plantation economy and then the [[mining]] sector. It was also used to construct three [[railroad]]s from the coast to the interior.  
−
The simmering revolt finally ended with the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding in 2006.
 
  
−
GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS
+
Colonial economic development did not translate into social development for native Angolans. The Portuguese regime encouraged white [[immigration]], especially after 1950, which intensified racial antagonisms. As [[decolonization]] progressed elsewhere in [[Africa]], Portugal rejected [[independence]] and treated its African colonies as overseas provinces. Consequently, three independence movements emerged: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) led by Agostinho Neto, with a base among Kimbundu and the mixed-[[race]] intelligentsia of Luanda, and links to [[communism|communist]] parties in Portugal and the [[Soviet bloc]]; the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), led by Holden Roberto with an ethnic base in the Bakongo region of the north and links to the United States and the [[Mobutu Sese Seko|Mobutu]] regime in Kinshasa; and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas Savimbi with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country.
−
Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by the MPLA to a nominal multiparty democracy following the 1992 elections, in which President dos Santos won the first-round election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%; a runoff never took place. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The government is based on ordinances, decrees, and decisions issued by a president and his ministers or through legislation produced by the National Assembly and approved by the president. The parliament is generally subordinate to the executive.
 
  
−
Few opportunities exist for opposition parties to challenge MPLA dominance. President dos Santos had proposed that general elections be held in 2006; however, this is becoming increasingly unlikely. A multi-party constitutional reform process will resume following elections
+
After the 1974 [[coup d’état|coup]] in Portugal, the military government promptly agreed to hand over power to a coalition of the three movements. The ideological differences between the three movements eventually led to armed conflict, with FNLA and UNITA forces, encouraged by their respective international supporters, attempting to wrest control of Luanda from the MPLA. The intervention of troops from [[South Africa]] on behalf of UNITA and [[Zaire]] on behalf of the FNLA in September and October 1975 and the MPLA's importation of [[Cuba|Cuban]] troops in November, effectively internationalized the conflict. Retaining control of Luanda, the coastal strip, and increasingly lucrative [[petroleum|oil]] fields in Cabinda, the MPLA declared independence on November 11, 1975—the day the Portuguese abandoned the capital. UNITA and the FNLA formed a rival coalition government based in the interior city of Huambo. Agostinho Neto became the first president of the MPLA government that was recognized by the [[United Nations]] in 1976. Upon his death in 1979, then-Planning Minister José Eduardo dos Santos became president, a position he still holds.
−
 
−
***
 
−
Prior to the colonial period, Angola was ruled by two highly centralized native kingdoms, the Bantu in the north and the Mbundu in the south. Portuguese traders arrived in 1483. They established colonies and developed a lucrative slave trade. When the native peoples resisted, the Portuguese clamped down, killing, capturing, and exporting the natives, whose population declined dramatically until the mid-eighteenth century. After the Berlin Conference of 1884 officially allocated African regions to colonial European states, Portuguese settlement accelerated, as did the military campaign to subdue the kingdoms. Colonial exploitation continued until the mid-twentieth century.
 
−
 
−
Although Britain and France had begun abandoning their colonial empires, the Portuguese resisted peaceful de-colonization. In 1951 the colony was restyled as an overseas province, also called Portuguese West Africa. In 1956, the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) emerged as a coalition of nationalist rebel groups fighting for independence and against racial and imperialist exploitation. By the time the Portuguese government was overthrown in April 1974, three major rebel factions had developed:
 
  
−
* the [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (''Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola'' MPLA), with links to communist parties in Portugal and the Soviet bloc;
+
The FNLA's military failures led to its increasing marginalization, but [[civil war]] between UNITA and the MPLA continued until 1989. For much of this time, UNITA controlled vast swaths of the interior and was backed by U.S. resources and South African troops. Similarly, tens of thousands of Cuban troops remained to support the MPLA. A U.S.-brokered agreement resulted in withdrawal of foreign troops in 1989 and led to the Bicesse Accord in 1991, which spelled out an electoral process for a [[democracy|democratic]] Angola under the supervision of the United Nations. UNITA leader Savimbi rejected the results of the first round of the presidential election in 1992, charging [[fraud]], and returned to war. Another [[peace accord]], known as the Lusaka Protocol, was brokered in Lusaka, [[Zambia]], and signed in 1994. This agreement, too, collapsed. The Angolan military launched a massive offensive in 1999 that destroyed UNITA's conventional capacity and recaptured all the major cities previously held by Savimbi's forces. Savimbi returned to [[guerrilla]] tactics, which continued until his death in combat in February 2002. Soon after, a [[cease-fire]] agreement was reached.  
−
* the [[National Liberation Front of Angola]] (''Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola'', FNLA), with links to the [[United States]] and the [[Mobutu Sese Seko|Mobutu]] regime in [[Zaire]]; and
 
−
* the [[National Union for Total Independence of Angola]] (''União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola'', UNITA), led by [[Jonas Savimbi|Jonas Malheiro Savimbi]] with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country.  
 
  
−
After Portugal's government fell, Angola's nationalist parties began to negotiate for independence, which was set for  November 1975. But almost immediately, a [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] broke out among the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA, exacerbated by foreign intervention.  South African troops struck an alliance of convenience with UNITA and invaded Angola in August 1975 to ensure that there would be no interference (by a newly independent Angolan state) in Namibia, which was then under South African control. Cuban troops came to the support of the MPLA in October 1975, enabling them to control the capital, [[Luanda]], and hold off the South African forces.  The MPLA declared itself the de facto government of the country when independence was formally declared in November, with [[Agostinho Neto]] as the first president.
+
The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), formed in 1974, rejected the agreement that included Cabinda as part of Angola at independence. In 1975, FLEC began guerilla attacks against government targets and [[kidnapping|kidnapped]] foreigners in an effort to press for an independent Cabindan state. The simmering revolt finally ended with the signing of a memorandum of understanding in 2006.
−
 
 
−
In 1976, the FNLA was defeated by a combination of MPLA and [[Cuba|Cuban]] troops, leaving the Marxist MPLA and UNITA (backed by the United States and South Africa) to fight for power.
 
−
 
 
−
The conflict raged on, fueled by the geopolitics of the Cold War and by the ability of both parties to access resources from Angola's natural resources.  The MPLA drew upon the revenues of off-shore oil reserves, while UNITA obtained alluvial diamonds that were easily smuggled through the region's very porous borders.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1991, the factions agreed to turn Angola into a multiparty state, but after the current president [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] of MPLA won UN-supervised elections, UNITA claimed there was fraud and fighting broke out again. A 1994 peace accord ([[Lusaka]] protocol) between the government and UNITA provided for the integration of former UNITA [[insurgent]]s into the government. A national unity government was installed in 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998, rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless.
 
−
 
 
−
On February 22, 2002, Savimbi was killed in a gunbattle and a cease-fire was reached. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country seems to be normalizing, President dos Santos still has not allowed regular democratic processes. Most mass media are state controlled.
 
−
 
 
−
Among Angola's major problems are a serious humanitarian crisis as a result of the prolonged war, the abundance of mine fields, and continued violence by guerrilla movements fighting for the independence of the northern enclave of [[Cabinda]] ([[Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda]]).
 
  
 
==Politics==
 
==Politics==
 +
Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by the MPLA to a nominal multiparty [[democracy]] following the 1992 elections, in which President José Eduardo dos Santos won the first-round election with more than 49 percent of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40 percent; a runoff never took place. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilize, regular democratic processes did not prevail until the elections in Angola in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new constitution in 2010, all of which strengthened the prevailing dominant-party system.
  
−
The executive branch of the government is composed of the president, the prime minister,  and a Council of Ministers. Currently, political power is concentrated in the presidency. The Council of Ministers, composed of government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the eighteen provinces are appointed by the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been formed, despite its authorization.
+
The Constitution of 2010 established the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese law and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of judicial review. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president. After the end of the civil war, the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian. Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character.
  
−
The civil war ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The United Nations estimates there are 1.8 million internally displaced persons , while the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals lack medicines or basic equipment, schools operate without books, and public employees often do without basic supplies for their day-to-day work.
+
The new constitution, adopted in 2010, did away with presidential elections, introducing a system in which the president and the vice-president of the political party that wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president. Directly or indirectly, the president controls all other organs of the state, so there is de facto no separation of powers. In the classifications used in [[constitutional law]], this government falls under the category of authoritarian regime.
−
 
 
−
The president announced the government's intention to hold elections in [[2006]]. These elections would be the first since 1992 and would serve to elect both a new president and a new National Assembly.
 
  
 
==Geography==
 
==Geography==
 +
[[File:Angola Topography.png|thumb|350px|Topographic map of Angola]]
 +
Angola is bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, [[Zambia]] to the east, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the northeast, and the South [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. Angola's capital, Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country. The [[petroleum|oil]]-rich province of Cabinda is separated from the rest of the nation by the [[Congo River]] and a narrow strip of land belonging to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
  
−
Angola is bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, [[Zambia]] to the east, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the northeast, and the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. The [[exclave]] of [[Cabinda]] also borders the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the north. Angola's capital, [[Luanda]], lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country.
+
Angola is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to Luanda; a wet, interior highland; a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast; and [[rainforest]]s in the north and in Cabinda. The [[Zambezi River]] and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola.
−
 
 
−
Angola is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to Luanda; a wet, interior highland; a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast; and rain forest in the north and in Cabinda. The [[Zambezi River]] and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola.
 
  
 
==Economy==
 
==Economy==
  
−
[[Image:Angola map.png|thumb|300px|Map of Angola]]
+
[[Image:Angola map.png|thumb|350px|Map of Angola]]
−
 
 
−
The economy remains in disarray because of the prolonged warfare. Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85 percent of the population. Oil production and its supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45 percent of GDP and 90 percent of exports.  Control of the oil industry is consolidated in [[Sonangol Group]], a conglomerate owned by the government.  Despite the signing of a peace accord in November 1994, violence continues, millions of land mines remain, and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, half of the country's food must still be imported. The internal strife discourages investment outside the petroleum sector. Nevertheless, increased oil production supported 12 percent growth in 2004 and 19 percent growth in 2005.
 
  
−
A strategic partnership with China was set in motion with the advent of peace in 2002. Chinese companies have made huge investments, especially in the construction and metallurgical sectors. In 2005, the government started using a $2 billion line of credit from China to rebuild Angola's public infrastructure. Trade with China was worth $7 billion in 2005.  
+
Angola has [[diamonds]], [[oil]], [[gold]], [[copper]], and rich wildlife (which was dramatically depleted during the [[civil war]]), forest, and [[fossil fuel]]s. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resource. Smallholder and plantation agriculture dramatically dropped in the Angolan Civil War, but began to recover after 2002.
  
−
Consumer inflation declined from 325 percent in 2000 to about 18 percent in 2005, but the stabilization policy places pressure on international net liquidity. To fully take advantage of its rich national resources -- gold, diamonds, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits -- Angola will need to continue reforming government policies and reducing corruption.  
+
Angola's economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter-century of Angolan civil war to become the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest-growing in the world. [[PRC|China]] is Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination as well as the fourth-largest source of imports.
  
 +
Although the country's economy has grown significantly since Angola achieved political stability in 2002, mainly due to fast-rising earnings in the oil sector, Angola continues to face huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of almost continual armed conflict from 1961 on, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of civil war. The enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy, illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighboring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression.
  
 
==Demographics==
 
==Demographics==
−
[[Image:LuandaJuin2005-1-br.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Luanda]], the Angolan capital]]
+
[[Image:LuandaJuin2005-1-br.jpg|thumb|400px|Luanda, the Angolan capital]]
−
 
 
−
Angola has three main ethnic groups, each speaking a Bantu language: [[Ovimbundu]] 37 percent, [[Kimbundu]] 25 percent, and [[Bakongo]] 13 percent. ''[[Mestiço]]s'' (Angolans of mixed European and African origins) amount to about 2 percent, with a small (1 percent) population of whites. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least thirty thousand. Portuguese is both the official and predominant language, spoken in the homes of about two-thirds of the population and as a secondary language by many more.
 
−
 
 
−
Catholicism remains the dominant religion, although an increasing number of churches are claiming more followers, particularly evangelicals.
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
==Culture==
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
  
 +
The [[civil war]] ravaged the country's political institutions and resulted in massive internal displacement. Many people fled as [[refugee]]s to neighboring countries. By 2005, after [[peace]] was restored, an estimated four million people had returned to their homes but forty thousand to sixty thousand remained as internally displaced persons (IDPs). Daily conditions of life throughout the country, especially Luanda (with a population of approximately four million), mirror the collapse of government as well as many social institutions. The [[agriculture|agricultural]], [[health care]], [[education]], water, and [[transport]]ation [[infrastructure]]s were destroyed during the [[war]]. [[Hospital]]s lack [[medicine]]s or basic equipment, [[school]]s operate without books, and public employees often do without basic supplies for their day-to-day work. An estimated 80,000 Angolans are victims of [[land mine]]s.
  
−
===Government===
+
Angola has three main [[ethnic group]]s, each speaking a [[Bantu]] language: Ovimbundu, Kimbundu , and Bakongo. ''Mestiços'' (Angolans of mixed European and African origins) and a small population of whites make up the remainder. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population. [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is both the official and predominant [[language]], spoken in the homes of about two-thirds of the population and as a secondary language by many more.
−
*[http://www.angola.org/ Republic of Angola] official government portal
 
−
*[http://www.parlamento.ao/ National Assembly of Angola] official site (in Portuguese)
 
−
*[http://www.angola.org/ Embassy of Angola in Washington DC] government information and links
 
  
−
===News===
+
[[Catholicism]] remains the dominant [[religion]], although an increasing number of churches are claiming more followers, particularly evangelicals.
−
*[http://allafrica.com/angola/ allAfrica - Angola] news headline links
 
−
*[http://www.angolapress-angop.ao/ Angola Press] government-controlled news agency (in Portuguese, French and English)
 
−
*[http://www.angonoticias.com/ Angonoticias] (in Portuguese) - A popular news source in Angola
 
  
−
===Overviews===
+
==Notes==
−
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063073.stm BBC - Country profile: ''Angola'']
+
<references/>
−
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ao.html CIA World Factbook - ''Angola'']
 
−
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/ao/ US State Department - ''Angola''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
 
  
−
===Directories===
+
==References==
−
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Angola.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Angola''] directory category of the WWW-VL
+
* Cutter, Charles H. ''Africa 2006.'' Harpers Ferry, WV: Stryker-Post Publications, 2006. ISBN 1887985727
−
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Angola/ Open Directory Project - ''Angola''] directory category
+
* Gailey, Harry A., Jr. ''History of Africa: From 1800 to 1945.'' Malabar, FL: Robert Krieger Publishing, 1989. ISBN 0894642952
−
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/angola.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Angola''] directory category
+
* Gailey, Harry A., Jr. ''History of Africa: From Earliest Times to 1800.'' Malabar, FL: Robert Krieger Publishing, 1999. ISBN 1575241188
−
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Angola/ Yahoo! - ''Angola''] directory category
 
  
 +
==External links==
 +
All links retrieved July 27, 2023.
  
−
===Other===
+
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-13036732 Angola Country Profile] ''BBC''
−
* [http://www.flashpoints.info/countries-conflicts/Angola-web/angola_briefing.html Angola Conflict Briefing]
+
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/angola/ Angola] CIA ''World Factbook''
 +
* [https://www.state.gov/countries-areas/angola/ Angola] ''U.S. Department of State''
 +
* [https://www.hrw.org/africa/angola Angola] ''Human Rights Watch''
  
 
{{credit|31639987}}
 
{{credit|31639987}}
  
 
[[Category:Countries]]
 
[[Category:Countries]]
−
[[Category:Nations and places]]
+
[[Category:Geography]]

Latest revision as of 06:01, 28 July 2023


República de Angola (Portuguese)
Republic of Angola
Flag of Angola
Anthem: Angola Avante! (Portuguese)
Forward Angola!
Location of Angola
Capital
(and largest city) 		Luanda
8°50′S 13°20′E
Official languages Portuguese
Ethnic groups  Ovimbundu, Ambundu, Bakongo, Lunda-Chokwe, Nyaneka-Nkhumbi, Ovambo, Ganguela, Xindonga, Herero, Khoisan
Demonym Angolan
Government Unitary dominant-party presidential republic
 -  President João Lourenço
 -  Vice President Bornito de Sousa
Legislature National Assembly
Independence from Portugal 
 -  Date November 11, 1975 
 -  United Nations full membership November 22, 1976 
 -  Current constitution January 21, 2010 
Area
 -  Total 1,246,700 km² (23rd)
481,354 sq mi 
 -  Water (%) negligible
Population
 -  2022 estimate 35,063,956[1] (42nd)
 -  2014 census 25,789,024[2] 
 -  Density 24.97/km² (157th)
64.65/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2022 estimate
 -  Total $213.034 billion (67th)
 -  Per capita $7,360 (157th)
GDP (nominal) 2022 estimate
 -  Total $125.496 billion (61st)
 -  Per capita $3,793 (145th)
Gini (2018) 51.3[3] 
Currency Kwanza (AOA)
Time zone WAT (UTC+1)
 -  Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+1)
Internet TLD .ao
Calling code [[++244]]

A former Portuguese colony, Angola, known formally as the Republic of Angola, is on the west coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) country in both total area and population (behind Brazil in both cases), and is the seventh-largest country in Africa. It is bordered by Namibia to the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Zambia to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Angola has an exclave province, the province of Cabinda, that borders the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and most populous city is Luanda.

Angola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves. Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese influence, namely the predominance of the Portuguese language and of the Catholic Church, intermingled with a variety of indigenous customs and traditions.

History

In 1482, when the Portuguese first landed in what is now northern Angola, they encountered the Kingdom of the Congo, which stretched from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. South of this kingdom were various important states. Ndongo was the most significant, and modern Angola derives its name from the Ndongo word ngola (king). The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the sixteenth century by a series of treaties and wars and had conquered the Congo and Ndongo states by 1671. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior did not occur until the beginning of the twentieth century.

Portugal's primary interest in Angola quickly turned to slavery, which began with the purchase from African chiefs of people to work on sugar plantations in São Tomé, Principé, and Brazil. Many scholars agree that by the nineteenth century, Angola was the largest source of slaves not only for Brazil but also the Americas, including the United States. By the end of the nineteenth century, a massive forced labor system had replaced formal slavery and would continue until outlawed in 1961. Forced labor provided the basis for development of a plantation economy and then the mining sector. It was also used to construct three railroads from the coast to the interior.

Colonial economic development did not translate into social development for native Angolans. The Portuguese regime encouraged white immigration, especially after 1950, which intensified racial antagonisms. As decolonization progressed elsewhere in Africa, Portugal rejected independence and treated its African colonies as overseas provinces. Consequently, three independence movements emerged: the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) led by Agostinho Neto, with a base among Kimbundu and the mixed-race intelligentsia of Luanda, and links to communist parties in Portugal and the Soviet bloc; the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), led by Holden Roberto with an ethnic base in the Bakongo region of the north and links to the United States and the Mobutu regime in Kinshasa; and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), led by Jonas Savimbi with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country.

After the 1974 coup in Portugal, the military government promptly agreed to hand over power to a coalition of the three movements. The ideological differences between the three movements eventually led to armed conflict, with FNLA and UNITA forces, encouraged by their respective international supporters, attempting to wrest control of Luanda from the MPLA. The intervention of troops from South Africa on behalf of UNITA and Zaire on behalf of the FNLA in September and October 1975 and the MPLA's importation of Cuban troops in November, effectively internationalized the conflict. Retaining control of Luanda, the coastal strip, and increasingly lucrative oil fields in Cabinda, the MPLA declared independence on November 11, 1975—the day the Portuguese abandoned the capital. UNITA and the FNLA formed a rival coalition government based in the interior city of Huambo. Agostinho Neto became the first president of the MPLA government that was recognized by the United Nations in 1976. Upon his death in 1979, then-Planning Minister José Eduardo dos Santos became president, a position he still holds.

The FNLA's military failures led to its increasing marginalization, but civil war between UNITA and the MPLA continued until 1989. For much of this time, UNITA controlled vast swaths of the interior and was backed by U.S. resources and South African troops. Similarly, tens of thousands of Cuban troops remained to support the MPLA. A U.S.-brokered agreement resulted in withdrawal of foreign troops in 1989 and led to the Bicesse Accord in 1991, which spelled out an electoral process for a democratic Angola under the supervision of the United Nations. UNITA leader Savimbi rejected the results of the first round of the presidential election in 1992, charging fraud, and returned to war. Another peace accord, known as the Lusaka Protocol, was brokered in Lusaka, Zambia, and signed in 1994. This agreement, too, collapsed. The Angolan military launched a massive offensive in 1999 that destroyed UNITA's conventional capacity and recaptured all the major cities previously held by Savimbi's forces. Savimbi returned to guerrilla tactics, which continued until his death in combat in February 2002. Soon after, a cease-fire agreement was reached.

The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), formed in 1974, rejected the agreement that included Cabinda as part of Angola at independence. In 1975, FLEC began guerilla attacks against government targets and kidnapped foreigners in an effort to press for an independent Cabindan state. The simmering revolt finally ended with the signing of a memorandum of understanding in 2006.

Politics

Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by the MPLA to a nominal multiparty democracy following the 1992 elections, in which President José Eduardo dos Santos won the first-round election with more than 49 percent of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40 percent; a runoff never took place. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilize, regular democratic processes did not prevail until the elections in Angola in 2008 and 2012 and the adoption of a new constitution in 2010, all of which strengthened the prevailing dominant-party system.

The Constitution of 2010 established the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese law and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of judicial review. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president. After the end of the civil war, the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian. Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character.

The new constitution, adopted in 2010, did away with presidential elections, introducing a system in which the president and the vice-president of the political party that wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president. Directly or indirectly, the president controls all other organs of the state, so there is de facto no separation of powers. In the classifications used in constitutional law, this government falls under the category of authoritarian regime.

Geography

Topographic map of Angola

Angola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the northeast, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west. Angola's capital, Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country. The oil-rich province of Cabinda is separated from the rest of the nation by the Congo River and a narrow strip of land belonging to the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Angola is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to Luanda; a wet, interior highland; a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast; and rainforests in the north and in Cabinda. The Zambezi River and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola.

Economy

Map of Angola

Angola has diamonds, oil, gold, copper, and rich wildlife (which was dramatically depleted during the civil war), forest, and fossil fuels. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resource. Smallholder and plantation agriculture dramatically dropped in the Angolan Civil War, but began to recover after 2002.

Angola's economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter-century of Angolan civil war to become the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest-growing in the world. China is Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination as well as the fourth-largest source of imports.

Although the country's economy has grown significantly since Angola achieved political stability in 2002, mainly due to fast-rising earnings in the oil sector, Angola continues to face huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of almost continual armed conflict from 1961 on, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of civil war. The enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy, illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighboring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression.

Demographics

Luanda, the Angolan capital

The civil war ravaged the country's political institutions and resulted in massive internal displacement. Many people fled as refugees to neighboring countries. By 2005, after peace was restored, an estimated four million people had returned to their homes but forty thousand to sixty thousand remained as internally displaced persons (IDPs). Daily conditions of life throughout the country, especially Luanda (with a population of approximately four million), mirror the collapse of government as well as many social institutions. The agricultural, health care, education, water, and transportation infrastructures were destroyed during the war. Hospitals lack medicines or basic equipment, schools operate without books, and public employees often do without basic supplies for their day-to-day work. An estimated 80,000 Angolans are victims of land mines.

Angola has three main ethnic groups, each speaking a Bantu language: Ovimbundu, Kimbundu , and Bakongo. Mestiços (Angolans of mixed European and African origins) and a small population of whites make up the remainder. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population. Portuguese is both the official and predominant language, spoken in the homes of about two-thirds of the population and as a secondary language by many more.

Catholicism remains the dominant religion, although an increasing number of churches are claiming more followers, particularly evangelicals.

Notes

  1. ↑ Angola Population Worldometer. Retrieved August 28, 2022.
  2. ↑ Angola Population and Housing Census 2014 GHDx. Retrieved August 28, 2022.
  3. ↑ GINI index (World Bank estimate) - Angola The World Bank. Retrieved August 28, 2022.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Cutter, Charles H. Africa 2006. Harpers Ferry, WV: Stryker-Post Publications, 2006. ISBN 1887985727
  • Gailey, Harry A., Jr. History of Africa: From 1800 to 1945. Malabar, FL: Robert Krieger Publishing, 1989. ISBN 0894642952
  • Gailey, Harry A., Jr. History of Africa: From Earliest Times to 1800. Malabar, FL: Robert Krieger Publishing, 1999. ISBN 1575241188

External links

All links retrieved July 27, 2023.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Angola&oldid=1118663

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki