Difference between revisions of "Kwame Nkrumah" - New World Encyclopedia
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|caption =Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet postage stamp | |caption =Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet postage stamp | ||
|order =1st [[Prime Minister of Ghana]]<br />First Republic | |order =1st [[Prime Minister of Ghana]]<br />First Republic | ||
− | |term_start = | + | |term_start =March 6, 1957 |
− | |term_end = | + | |term_end =July 1, 1960| deputy = |
− | |president =[[Queen Elizabeth II]]<br />(colonial head)<br /><small>represented by the following:</small><br /> [[Charles Noble Arden-Clarke|Sir Charles Noble Arden-Clarke]]<br /><small>(March 6 - | + | |president =[[Queen Elizabeth II]]<br />(colonial head)<br /><small>represented by the following:</small><br /> [[Charles Noble Arden-Clarke|Sir Charles Noble Arden-Clarke]]<br /><small>(March 6 - June 24, 1957)</small><br /> [[William Hare, 5th Earl of Listowel|Lord Listowel]]<br /><small>(24 June 1957 - 1 July 1960)</small> |
|predecessor =None | |predecessor =None | ||
|successor =Position abolished | |successor =Position abolished | ||
− | |order2 =1st | + | |order2 =1st President of Ghana<br />First Republic |
− | |term_start2 = | + | |term_start2 =July 1, 1960 |
− | |term_end2 = | + | |term_end2 =February 24, 1966 |
|predecessor2 =[[Queen Elizabeth II]] | |predecessor2 =[[Queen Elizabeth II]] | ||
|successor2 =[[Joseph Arthur Ankrah|Lt. Gen. J. A. Ankrah]]<br /><small>(Military coup d'état)</small> | |successor2 =[[Joseph Arthur Ankrah|Lt. Gen. J. A. Ankrah]]<br /><small>(Military coup d'état)</small> | ||
|birth_date ={{birth date|1909|9|21|mf=y}} | |birth_date ={{birth date|1909|9|21|mf=y}} | ||
− | |birth_place = | + | |birth_place =Nkroful, Gold Coast<br />(now [[Ghana]]) |
|death_date ={{death date and age |1972|04|27|1909|09|21}} | |death_date ={{death date and age |1972|04|27|1909|09|21}} | ||
|death_place =[[Bucharest]], [[Romania]] | |death_place =[[Bucharest]], [[Romania]] | ||
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|footnotes = | |footnotes = | ||
}} | }} | ||
− | '''Kwame Nkrumah''' ( | + | '''Kwame Nkrumah''' (September 21, 1909 - April 27, 1972), was an influential twentieth century advocate of [[Pan-Africanism]], and the leader of [[Ghana]] and its predecessor state, the [[Gold Coast (British Colony)|Gold Coast]], from 1952 to 1966. He became Prime Minister in 1952 and President when Ghana adopted a republican comstitution in 1960. He was deposed in 1966 while overseas and ended his life in exile in Guinea, which made him an honorary co-president. His rule had become increasingly authoritarian while Ghana's economy had slipped from one of the strongest to one of the weakest in Africa. Between 1935 and 1945 Nkrumah studied at several Universities in the [[United States]] earning degrees in [[theology]], [[science]] and [[philosophy]]. He taught for some time at Lincoln University. After working for the pan-African movement in [[England]], he returned to Ghana in 1947 where he was appointed General-Secretary of the The United Gold Coast Convention. He entered parliament in 1951. In 1964, he engineered a constitutional amendment making him President for life. |
As Ghana's leader and as an advocate of pan-Africanism, he continued to contribute to the generation of ideas, writing several books although some of these were ghost-written for him by disciples. | As Ghana's leader and as an advocate of pan-Africanism, he continued to contribute to the generation of ideas, writing several books although some of these were ghost-written for him by disciples. | ||
− | The [[Scramble for Africa]] had created many artificial states; pan-Africanism would allow Africans to re-shape the political [[geography]] of Africa in their own, not others' interests. | + | The [[Scramble for Africa]] had created many artificial states; pan-Africanism would allow Africans to re-shape the political [[geography]] of Africa in their own, not others' interests. Although aspects of his philosophy and policies remain controversial, he is widely honored in Africa as a son of the soil who encouraged Africans to throw off the idea, inherited from the days of [[colonialism]], that Africans could only progress by copying [[European]] models and practices. Instead of transplanting either [[capitalism]] or [[communism]] into African soil, African ought to develop genuinely African systems. He is generally, though, identified as pro-[[Marxism|Marxist]]. Nkrumah thought that some traditional African institutions, such as tribal-based kingship, hindered development and that too often these leaders have collaborated with the colonial rulers. He wanted Africans to be dynamic, independent, proud of their [[history]] and [[culture|cultures]]. Gaining political independence would not automatically translate into genuine freedom as long as African's remained financially and also intellectually dependent, always borrowing ideas from outside. On the negative side, he damaged [[democracy]] in Ghana, where a series of coups and counter-coups took place until multi-party politics was restored in 1992. Like many founding fathers of Africa, Nkrumah's political apprenticeship had been served in the struggle to gain independence but they had relatively little experience of carrying the full responsibility of government without colonial oversight. At least some of the blame for the precariousness of democracy across Africa lies at the door of the former colonial powers, who did little to prepare their "wards" for the task of self-determination. |
==Early life and education== | ==Early life and education== | ||
− | In 1909, Francis Nwia Kofi Ngonloma was born to Madam Nyaniba. <ref>[http://rulers.org/indexn2.html#nkrum Nkrumah, Kwame.] Rulers Org. Retrieved December 21, 2008.</ref> in [[Nkroful]], [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]]. Nkrumah graduated from the [[Achimota School]] in [[Accra]] in 1930 studied at a Roman Catholic Seminary, and taught at a Catholic school in [[Axim]]. In 1935 he left Ghana for the United States, receiving a BA from [[Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)|Lincoln University]], [[Pennsylvania]] in 1939, where he pledged the Mu Chapter of [[Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc.]], and received an STB (Bachelor of Sacred Theology) in 1942. Nkrumah earned a Master of Science in education from the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in 1942, and a Master of Arts in philosophy the following year. While lecturing in political science at Lincoln he was elected president of the African Students Organization of America and Canada. | + | In 1909, Francis Nwia Kofi Ngonloma was born to Madam Nyaniba. <ref>[http://rulers.org/indexn2.html#nkrum Nkrumah, Kwame.] Rulers Org. Retrieved December 21, 2008.</ref> in [[Nkroful]], [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]]. Nkrumah graduated from the [[Achimota School]] in [[Accra]] in 1930 studied at a Roman Catholic Seminary, and taught at a Catholic school in [[Axim]]. In 1935 he left Ghana for the United States, receiving a BA from [[Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)|Lincoln University]], [[Pennsylvania]] in 1939, where he pledged the Mu Chapter of [[Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc.]], and received an STB (Bachelor of Sacred Theology) in 1942. Nkrumah earned a Master of Science in education from the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in 1942, and a Master of Arts in philosophy the following year. While lecturing in political science at Lincoln he was elected president of the African Students Organization of America and Canada. As an undergraduate at Lincoln he participated in at least one student theater production and published an essay on European government in Africa in the student newspaper,''The Lincolnian.''<ref>[http://www.lincoln.edu/library/project.html Special Collections and Archives, Lincoln University]. Lincoln University. Retrieved December 21, 2008.</ref> |
During his time in the United States, Nkrumah preached at black [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian|Churches in [[Philadelphia]] and [[New York City]]. He read books about politics and divinity, and tutored students in philosophy. Nkrumah encountered the ideas of [[Marcus Garvey]], and in 1943 met and began a lengthy correspondence with Trinidadian Marxist [[C.L.R. James]], Russian expatriate [[Raya Dunayevskaya]], and Chinese-American [[Grace Lee Boggs]], all of whom were members of a US based Trotskyist intellectual cohort. Nkrumah later credited James with teaching him 'how an underground movement worked'. | During his time in the United States, Nkrumah preached at black [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian|Churches in [[Philadelphia]] and [[New York City]]. He read books about politics and divinity, and tutored students in philosophy. Nkrumah encountered the ideas of [[Marcus Garvey]], and in 1943 met and began a lengthy correspondence with Trinidadian Marxist [[C.L.R. James]], Russian expatriate [[Raya Dunayevskaya]], and Chinese-American [[Grace Lee Boggs]], all of whom were members of a US based Trotskyist intellectual cohort. Nkrumah later credited James with teaching him 'how an underground movement worked'. | ||
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When he returned to Ghana, he became General Secretary of the United Gold Coast Convention. He was elected to Parliament in 1951, becoming Prime Minister the following year. As a leader of this government, Nkrumah faced three serious challenges: first, to learn to govern; second, to unify the nation of Ghana from the four territories of the Gold Coast; third, to win his nation’s complete independence from the United Kingdom. Nkrumah was successful at all three goals. Within six years of his release from prison, he was the leader of an independent nation. | When he returned to Ghana, he became General Secretary of the United Gold Coast Convention. He was elected to Parliament in 1951, becoming Prime Minister the following year. As a leader of this government, Nkrumah faced three serious challenges: first, to learn to govern; second, to unify the nation of Ghana from the four territories of the Gold Coast; third, to win his nation’s complete independence from the United Kingdom. Nkrumah was successful at all three goals. Within six years of his release from prison, he was the leader of an independent nation. | ||
− | At 12 a.m. on | + | At 12 a.m. on March 6, 1957, Nkrumah declared Ghana independent. Nkrumah was hailed as "Osagyefo" - which means "redeemer" in the Akan language.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/04/23/opinion/edzimmerman.php |title=The ghost of Kwame Nkrumah |accessdate=2008-10-23 |last=Zimmerman |first=Jonathan |date=2008-10-23 |work=International Herald Tribune}}</ref> He remained Prime Minister until 1960. |
− | On | + | On 6 March, 1960, Nkrumah announced plans for a new constitution which would make Ghana a [[republic]]. The draft included a provision to surrender Ghanaian sovereignty to a union of African states. On 19, 23, and 27 April 1960 a [[Ghanaian presidential election, 1960|presidential election]] and [[Ghanaian constitutional referendum, 1960|plebiscite on the constitution]] were held. The constitution was ratified and Nkrumah was elected president over [[J. B. Danquah]], the UP candidate, 1,016,076 to 124,623. In 1961, Nkrumah laid the first stones in the foundation of the [[Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute]] created to train Ghanaian civil servants as well as promote Pan-Africanism. In 1963, Nkrumah was awarded the [[Lenin Peace Prize]] by the [[Soviet Union]]. Ghana became a charter member of the [[Organization of African Unity]] in 1963. |
The Gold Coast had been among the wealthiest and most socially advanced areas in Africa, with schools, railways, hospitals, social security and an advanced economy. Under Nkrumah’s leadership, Ghana adopted some socialistic policies and practices. Nkrumah created a welfare system, started various community programs, and established schools. He ordered the construction of roads and bridges to further commerce and communication. To improve public health in villages, tap water systems were installed, and concrete drains for latrines were constructed. | The Gold Coast had been among the wealthiest and most socially advanced areas in Africa, with schools, railways, hospitals, social security and an advanced economy. Under Nkrumah’s leadership, Ghana adopted some socialistic policies and practices. Nkrumah created a welfare system, started various community programs, and established schools. He ordered the construction of roads and bridges to further commerce and communication. To improve public health in villages, tap water systems were installed, and concrete drains for latrines were constructed. | ||
==Politics== | ==Politics== | ||
− | He generally took a [[non-aligned]] [[Marxist]] perspective on economics, and believed [[capitalism]] had malign effects that were going to stay with Africa for a long time. | + | He generally took a [[non-aligned]] [[Marxist]] perspective on economics, and believed [[capitalism]] had malign effects that were going to stay with Africa for a long time. Although he was clear on distancing himself from the [[African socialism]] of many of his contemporaries; Nkrumah argued that [[socialism]] was the system that would best accommodate the changes that capitalism had brought, while still respecting African values. He specifically addresses these issues and his politics in several of his books. He wrote: |
− | <blockquote>"We know that the traditional African society was founded on principles of [[equality|egalitarianism]]. In its actual workings, however, it had various shortcomings. Its humanist impulse, nevertheless, is something that continues to urge us towards our all-African socialist reconstruction. We postulate each man to be an end in himself, not merely a means; and we accept the necessity of guaranteeing each man equal opportunities for his development. The implications of this for socio-political practice have to be worked out scientifically, and the necessary social and economic policies pursued with resolution. Any meaningful humanism must begin from egalitarianism and must lead to objectively chosen policies for safeguarding and sustaining egalitarianism. Hence, socialism. Hence, also, scientific socialism."<ref> | + | <blockquote>"We know that the traditional African society was founded on principles of [[equality|egalitarianism]]. In its actual workings, however, it had various shortcomings. Its humanist impulse, nevertheless, is something that continues to urge us towards our all-African socialist reconstruction. We postulate each man to be an end in himself, not merely a means; and we accept the necessity of guaranteeing each man equal opportunities for his development. The implications of this for socio-political practice have to be worked out scientifically, and the necessary social and economic policies pursued with resolution. Any meaningful humanism must begin from egalitarianism and must lead to objectively chosen policies for safeguarding and sustaining egalitarianism. Hence, socialism. Hence, also, scientific socialism."<ref>Nkrumah. 1973. page 441.</blockquote> |
− | Nkrumah was also perhaps best known politically for his strong commitment to and promotion of [[Pan-Africanism]]. Having been inspired by the writings and his relationships with black intellectuals like [[Marcus Garvey]], [[W.E.B. DuBois]], and [[George Padmore]]; Nkrumah went on to himself inspire and encourage Pan-Africanist positions amongst a number of other African independence leaders such as Edward Okadjian, and activists from the Eli Nrwoku's [[African diaspora]]. With perhaps Nkrumah's biggest success in this area coming with his significant influence in the founding of the [[Organization of African Unity]]. He wanted African countries to play their role on the world stage. It was this that contributed to his overthrow, since he was visiting Vietnam in an attempt to end the [[Vietnam War]] when the coup against his regime took place. | + | Nkrumah was also perhaps best known politically for his strong commitment to and promotion of [[Pan-Africanism]]. Having been inspired by the writings and his relationships with black intellectuals like [[Marcus Garvey]], [[W.E.B. DuBois]], and [[George Padmore]]; Nkrumah went on to himself inspire and encourage Pan-Africanist positions amongst a number of other African independence leaders such as Edward Okadjian, and activists from the Eli Nrwoku's [[African diaspora]]. With perhaps Nkrumah's biggest success in this area coming with his significant influence in the founding of the [[Organization of African Unity]]. He wanted African countries to play their role on the world stage. It was this that contributed to his overthrow, since he was visiting Vietnam in an attempt to end the [[Vietnam War]] when the coup against his regime took place. He was chair of the [[African Union}Organization of African Unity]] from October 1965 until his overthrow. |
==Economics== | ==Economics== | ||
− | Nkrumah attempted to rapidly [[industry|industrialize]] Ghana's economy. He reasoned that if Ghana escaped the colonial [[trade]] system by reducing dependence on foreign [[Capital (economics)|capital]], technology, and material goods, it could become truly independent. Unfortunately, industrialization hurt the country’s [[cocoa]] sector. Many economic projects he initiated were unsuccessful, or with delayed benefits. The [[Akosombo Dam]] was expensive, but today produces most of Ghana's hydroelectric power. Nkrumah's policies did not free Ghana from dependence on Western imports. | + | Nkrumah attempted to rapidly [[industry|industrialize]] Ghana's economy. He reasoned that if Ghana escaped the colonial [[trade]] system by reducing dependence on foreign [[Capital (economics)|capital]], technology, and material goods, it could become truly independent. Unfortunately, industrialization hurt the country’s [[cocoa]] sector. Many economic projects he initiated were unsuccessful, or with delayed benefits. The [[Akosombo Dam]] was expensive, but today produces most of Ghana's hydroelectric power. Nkrumah's policies did not free Ghana from dependence on Western imports. By the time he was deposed in 1966, Ghana had fallen from one of the richest countries in Africa, to one of the poorest. |
==Decline and fall== | ==Decline and fall== | ||
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[[Image:Nkrumah.JPG||thumb|left|225px||Nkrumah Hall at the [[University of Dar es Salaam]] in [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]].]] | [[Image:Nkrumah.JPG||thumb|left|225px||Nkrumah Hall at the [[University of Dar es Salaam]] in [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]].]] | ||
− | The Detention Act led to widespread disaffection with Nkrumah’s administration. Some of his associates used the [[law]] to arrest innocent people to acquire their political offices and business assets. Advisers close to Nkrumah became reluctant to question policies for fear that they might be seen opponents. When the clinics ran out of [[pharmaceutical]]s, no one notified him. Some people believed that he no longer cared. [[Police]] came to resent their role in society. Nkrumah disappeared from public view out of a justifiable fear of [[assassination]]. | + | The Detention Act led to widespread disaffection with Nkrumah’s administration. Some of his associates used the [[law]] to arrest innocent people to acquire their political offices and business assets. Advisers close to Nkrumah became reluctant to question policies for fear that they might be seen opponents. When the clinics ran out of [[pharmaceutical]]s, no one notified him. Some people believed that he no longer cared. [[Police]] came to resent their role in society. Nkrumah disappeared from public view out of a justifiable fear of [[assassination]]. In 1964, he proposed a [[Ghanaian constitutional referendum, 1964|constitutional amendment]] making the CPP [[One-party state|the only legal party]] and himself [[president for life]] of both nation and party. The amendment passed with over 99 percent of the vote—an implausibly high total that could have only been obtained through fraud. In any event, Ghana had effectively been a one-party state since becoming a republic—the amendment effectively transformed Nkrumah's presidency into a legal [[dictatorship]]. |
− | Nkrumah's advocacy of industrial development at any cost, with help of longtime friend and Minister of Finance, [[Komla Agbeli Gbedema]], led to the construction of a hydroelectric power plant, the [[Akosombo Dam]] on the Volta River in eastern Ghana. American companies agreed to build the dam for Nkrumah, but restricted what could be produced using the power generated. Nkrumah borrowed money to build the dam, and placed Ghana in debt. To finance the debt, he raised taxes on the cocoa farmers in the south. This accentuated regional differences and jealousy. The dam was completed and opened by Nkrumah amidst world publicity on | + | Nkrumah's advocacy of industrial development at any cost, with help of longtime friend and Minister of Finance, [[Komla Agbeli Gbedema]], led to the construction of a hydroelectric power plant, the [[Akosombo Dam]] on the Volta River in eastern Ghana. American companies agreed to build the dam for Nkrumah, but restricted what could be produced using the power generated. Nkrumah borrowed money to build the dam, and placed Ghana in debt. To finance the debt, he raised taxes on the cocoa farmers in the south. This accentuated regional differences and jealousy. The dam was completed and opened by Nkrumah amidst world publicity on January 22, 1966. Nkrumah appeared to be at the zenith of his power, but the end of his regime was only days away. |
− | Nkrumah wanted Ghana to have modern armed forces, so he acquired aircraft and ships, and introduced conscription. | + | Nkrumah wanted Ghana to have modern armed forces, so he acquired aircraft and ships, and introduced conscription. Increasingly, more Russian advisers than those from elsewhere found a warm welcome. |
− | He also gave military support to those fighting the [[Ian Smith|Smith administration]] in [[Zimbabwe]], then called Rhodesia. In February 1966, while Nkrumah on a state visit to [[Vietnam]], his government was overthrown in a military [[coup]], which some claim was backed by the CIA.<ref name="coup">Botwe-Asamoah, Kwame. ''Kwame Nkrumah's Politico-Cultural Thought and Politics: An African-centered Paradigm for the Second Phase of the African Revolution.'' Page 16.</ref><ref name="coupdate">Carl Oglesby and Richard Shaull. ''Containment and Change.'' Page 105.</ref><ref>Interview with [[John Stockwell]] in ''[[Pandora's Box (television documentary series)|Pandora's Box]]: Black Power'' ([[Adam Curtis]], [[BBC Two]], | + | He also gave military support to those fighting the [[Ian Smith|Smith administration]] in [[Zimbabwe]], then called Rhodesia. In February 1966, while Nkrumah on a state visit to [[Vietnam]], his government was overthrown in a military [[coup]], which some claim was backed by the CIA.<ref name="coup">Botwe-Asamoah, Kwame. ''Kwame Nkrumah's Politico-Cultural Thought and Politics: An African-centered Paradigm for the Second Phase of the African Revolution.'' Page 16.</ref><ref name="coupdate">Carl Oglesby and Richard Shaull. ''Containment and Change.'' Page 105.</ref><ref>Interview with [[John Stockwell]] in ''[[Pandora's Box (television documentary series)|Pandora's Box]]: Black Power'' ([[Adam Curtis]], [[BBC Two]], 22 June 1992)</ref> Today, Nkrumah is one of the most respected leaders in African history. In 2000, he was voted Africa's man of the millennium by listeners to the [[BBC World Service]]. |
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==Legacy== | ==Legacy== | ||
− | Nkrumah's role as philosopher of Africa was later challenged by [[Julius Nyerere]] who denounced his ideas. | + | Nkrumah's role as philosopher of Africa was later challenged by [[Julius Nyerere]] who denounced his ideas. On the other hand, friend [[Milton Obote]] of [[Uganda]] admired Nkrumah and based some of his policies on his ideas including dismantling Uganda's three traditional monarchies, and centralizing governance. Nkrumah, however, is not the only father of an African state who exercised more or less absolute power. Nor is he the only leader to create a one-party system, or to become President for Life. Others have chosen to manipulate elections to prolong their stay in office. It may, however, be unfair to lay all the blame for this on Nkrumah and his fellow African leaders. Like many founding fathers of Africa, Nkrumah's political apprenticeship had been served in the struggle to gain independence, with only a short period in a position of real responsibility before independence and that was under the supervision of the colonial power. Like others, he had relatively little experience of carrying the full responsibility of government. At least some of the blame for the precariousness of democracy across Africa lies at the door of the former colonial powers, who did little to prepare their "wards" for the task of self-determination. |
===Honors=== | ===Honors=== | ||
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* 1973. ''The Struggle Continues.'' London: Panaf. ISBN 9780901787415. | * 1973. ''The Struggle Continues.'' London: Panaf. ISBN 9780901787415. | ||
*''I Speak of Freedom: A Statement of African Ideology.'' Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780837185712 | *''I Speak of Freedom: A Statement of African Ideology.'' Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780837185712 | ||
− | *' 1973. 'Revolutionary Path.'' NY: International Publishers. ISBN 9780717804009 | + | *' 1973. ''Revolutionary Path.'' NY: International Publishers. ISBN 9780717804009 |
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{{reflist}} | {{reflist}} | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
− | *Birmingham, David. 1998. | + | *Birmingham, David. 1998. ''Kwame Nkrumah: The Father of African Nationalism.'' Athens: Ohio University Press. ISBN 9780821412428. |
*Tuchscherer, Konrad. 2006. "Kwame Francis Nwia Kofie Nkrumah." 217-220 ''Encyclopedia of Modern Dictators.'' ed. by Frank J. Coppa. NY: Peter Lang. ISBN 9780820450100. | *Tuchscherer, Konrad. 2006. "Kwame Francis Nwia Kofie Nkrumah." 217-220 ''Encyclopedia of Modern Dictators.'' ed. by Frank J. Coppa. NY: Peter Lang. ISBN 9780820450100. | ||
*Davidson, Basil. 2007. ''Black Star - A View of the Life and Times of Kwame Nkrumah.'' Oxford: James Currey Publishers. ISBN 9781847010100. | *Davidson, Basil. 2007. ''Black Star - A View of the Life and Times of Kwame Nkrumah.'' Oxford: James Currey Publishers. ISBN 9781847010100. | ||
*Mwakikagile, Godfrey. 206. ''Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era.'' Pretoria, South Africa: New Africa Press. ISBN 0980253411Chapter Twelve, "Nyerere and Nkrumah: Towards African Unity." pages 347 - 355. | *Mwakikagile, Godfrey. 206. ''Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era.'' Pretoria, South Africa: New Africa Press. ISBN 0980253411Chapter Twelve, "Nyerere and Nkrumah: Towards African Unity." pages 347 - 355. | ||
+ | * Nkrumah, Kwame. 1973. ''Revolutionary path.'' New York: International Publishers. ISBN 9780717804009 | ||
* Rahman, Ahmad A. 2007. ''The regime change of Kwame Nkrumah: epic heroism in Africa and the diaspora.'' New York, N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403965691. | * Rahman, Ahmad A. 2007. ''The regime change of Kwame Nkrumah: epic heroism in Africa and the diaspora.'' New York, N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403965691. | ||
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Revision as of 19:14, 21 December 2008
{{#invoke:Message box|ambox}}
Kwame Nkrumah | |
Kwame Nkrumah on a Soviet postage stamp | |
1st Prime Minister of Ghana
First Republic | |
In office March 6, 1957 – July 1, 1960 | |
President | Queen Elizabeth II (colonial head) represented by the following: Sir Charles Noble Arden-Clarke (March 6 - June 24, 1957) Lord Listowel (24 June 1957 - 1 July 1960) |
---|---|
Preceded by | None |
Succeeded by | Position abolished |
1st President of Ghana
First Republic | |
In office July 1, 1960 – February 24, 1966 | |
Preceded by | Queen Elizabeth II |
Succeeded by | Lt. Gen. J. A. Ankrah (Military coup d'état) |
Born | September 21 1909 Nkroful, Gold Coast (now Ghana) |
Died | April 27 1972 (aged 62) Bucharest, Romania |
Political party | Convention Peoples' Party |
Spouse | Fathia Rizk |
Children | Francis, Gamal, Samia, Sekou |
Profession | Lecturer |
Kwame Nkrumah (September 21, 1909 - April 27, 1972), was an influential twentieth century advocate of Pan-Africanism, and the leader of Ghana and its predecessor state, the Gold Coast, from 1952 to 1966. He became Prime Minister in 1952 and President when Ghana adopted a republican comstitution in 1960. He was deposed in 1966 while overseas and ended his life in exile in Guinea, which made him an honorary co-president. His rule had become increasingly authoritarian while Ghana's economy had slipped from one of the strongest to one of the weakest in Africa. Between 1935 and 1945 Nkrumah studied at several Universities in the United States earning degrees in theology, science and philosophy. He taught for some time at Lincoln University. After working for the pan-African movement in England, he returned to Ghana in 1947 where he was appointed General-Secretary of the The United Gold Coast Convention. He entered parliament in 1951. In 1964, he engineered a constitutional amendment making him President for life. As Ghana's leader and as an advocate of pan-Africanism, he continued to contribute to the generation of ideas, writing several books although some of these were ghost-written for him by disciples.
The Scramble for Africa had created many artificial states; pan-Africanism would allow Africans to re-shape the political geography of Africa in their own, not others' interests. Although aspects of his philosophy and policies remain controversial, he is widely honored in Africa as a son of the soil who encouraged Africans to throw off the idea, inherited from the days of colonialism, that Africans could only progress by copying European models and practices. Instead of transplanting either capitalism or communism into African soil, African ought to develop genuinely African systems. He is generally, though, identified as pro-Marxist. Nkrumah thought that some traditional African institutions, such as tribal-based kingship, hindered development and that too often these leaders have collaborated with the colonial rulers. He wanted Africans to be dynamic, independent, proud of their history and cultures. Gaining political independence would not automatically translate into genuine freedom as long as African's remained financially and also intellectually dependent, always borrowing ideas from outside. On the negative side, he damaged democracy in Ghana, where a series of coups and counter-coups took place until multi-party politics was restored in 1992. Like many founding fathers of Africa, Nkrumah's political apprenticeship had been served in the struggle to gain independence but they had relatively little experience of carrying the full responsibility of government without colonial oversight. At least some of the blame for the precariousness of democracy across Africa lies at the door of the former colonial powers, who did little to prepare their "wards" for the task of self-determination.
Early life and education
In 1909, Francis Nwia Kofi Ngonloma was born to Madam Nyaniba. [1] in Nkroful, Gold Coast. Nkrumah graduated from the Achimota School in Accra in 1930 studied at a Roman Catholic Seminary, and taught at a Catholic school in Axim. In 1935 he left Ghana for the United States, receiving a BA from Lincoln University, Pennsylvania in 1939, where he pledged the Mu Chapter of Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc., and received an STB (Bachelor of Sacred Theology) in 1942. Nkrumah earned a Master of Science in education from the University of Pennsylvania in 1942, and a Master of Arts in philosophy the following year. While lecturing in political science at Lincoln he was elected president of the African Students Organization of America and Canada. As an undergraduate at Lincoln he participated in at least one student theater production and published an essay on European government in Africa in the student newspaper,The Lincolnian.[2]
During his time in the United States, Nkrumah preached at black [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian|Churches in Philadelphia and New York City. He read books about politics and divinity, and tutored students in philosophy. Nkrumah encountered the ideas of Marcus Garvey, and in 1943 met and began a lengthy correspondence with Trinidadian Marxist C.L.R. James, Russian expatriate Raya Dunayevskaya, and Chinese-American Grace Lee Boggs, all of whom were members of a US based Trotskyist intellectual cohort. Nkrumah later credited James with teaching him 'how an underground movement worked'.
He arrived in London in May 1945 intending to study at the LSE. After meeting with George Padmore, he helped organize the Fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester, England. Then he founded the West African National Secretariat to work for the decolonization of Africa. Nkrumah served as Vice-President of the West African Students' Union (WASU).
Independence
When he returned to Ghana, he became General Secretary of the United Gold Coast Convention. He was elected to Parliament in 1951, becoming Prime Minister the following year. As a leader of this government, Nkrumah faced three serious challenges: first, to learn to govern; second, to unify the nation of Ghana from the four territories of the Gold Coast; third, to win his nation’s complete independence from the United Kingdom. Nkrumah was successful at all three goals. Within six years of his release from prison, he was the leader of an independent nation.
At 12 a.m. on March 6, 1957, Nkrumah declared Ghana independent. Nkrumah was hailed as "Osagyefo" - which means "redeemer" in the Akan language.[3] He remained Prime Minister until 1960.
On 6 March, 1960, Nkrumah announced plans for a new constitution which would make Ghana a republic. The draft included a provision to surrender Ghanaian sovereignty to a union of African states. On 19, 23, and 27 April 1960 a presidential election and plebiscite on the constitution were held. The constitution was ratified and Nkrumah was elected president over J. B. Danquah, the UP candidate, 1,016,076 to 124,623. In 1961, Nkrumah laid the first stones in the foundation of the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute created to train Ghanaian civil servants as well as promote Pan-Africanism. In 1963, Nkrumah was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize by the Soviet Union. Ghana became a charter member of the Organization of African Unity in 1963.
The Gold Coast had been among the wealthiest and most socially advanced areas in Africa, with schools, railways, hospitals, social security and an advanced economy. Under Nkrumah’s leadership, Ghana adopted some socialistic policies and practices. Nkrumah created a welfare system, started various community programs, and established schools. He ordered the construction of roads and bridges to further commerce and communication. To improve public health in villages, tap water systems were installed, and concrete drains for latrines were constructed.
Politics
He generally took a non-aligned Marxist perspective on economics, and believed capitalism had malign effects that were going to stay with Africa for a long time. Although he was clear on distancing himself from the African socialism of many of his contemporaries; Nkrumah argued that socialism was the system that would best accommodate the changes that capitalism had brought, while still respecting African values. He specifically addresses these issues and his politics in several of his books. He wrote:
"We know that the traditional African society was founded on principles of egalitarianism. In its actual workings, however, it had various shortcomings. Its humanist impulse, nevertheless, is something that continues to urge us towards our all-African socialist reconstruction. We postulate each man to be an end in himself, not merely a means; and we accept the necessity of guaranteeing each man equal opportunities for his development. The implications of this for socio-political practice have to be worked out scientifically, and the necessary social and economic policies pursued with resolution. Any meaningful humanism must begin from egalitarianism and must lead to objectively chosen policies for safeguarding and sustaining egalitarianism. Hence, socialism. Hence, also, scientific socialism."Cite error: Closing
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tag[4][5] Today, Nkrumah is one of the most respected leaders in African history. In 2000, he was voted Africa's man of the millennium by listeners to the BBC World Service.
Exile, death and tributes
Nkrumah never returned to Ghana, but he continued to push for his vision of African unity. He lived in exile in Conakry, Guinea, as the guest of President Ahmed Sékou Touré, who made him honorary co-president of the country. He read, wrote, corresponded, gardened, and entertained guests. Despite retirement from public office, he was still frightened of western intelligence agencies. When his cook died, he feared that someone would poison him, and began hoarding food in his room. He suspected that foreign agents were going through his mail, and lived in constant fear of abduction and assassination. In failing health, he flew to Bucharest, Romania, for medical treatment in August 1971. He died of skin cancer in April 1972 at the age of 62. Nkrumah was buried in a tomb in the village of his birth, Nkroful, Ghana. While the tomb remains in Nkroful, his remains were transferred to a large national memorial tomb and park in Accra.
Legacy
Nkrumah's role as philosopher of Africa was later challenged by Julius Nyerere who denounced his ideas. On the other hand, friend Milton Obote of Uganda admired Nkrumah and based some of his policies on his ideas including dismantling Uganda's three traditional monarchies, and centralizing governance. Nkrumah, however, is not the only father of an African state who exercised more or less absolute power. Nor is he the only leader to create a one-party system, or to become President for Life. Others have chosen to manipulate elections to prolong their stay in office. It may, however, be unfair to lay all the blame for this on Nkrumah and his fellow African leaders. Like many founding fathers of Africa, Nkrumah's political apprenticeship had been served in the struggle to gain independence, with only a short period in a position of real responsibility before independence and that was under the supervision of the colonial power. Like others, he had relatively little experience of carrying the full responsibility of government. At least some of the blame for the precariousness of democracy across Africa lies at the door of the former colonial powers, who did little to prepare their "wards" for the task of self-determination.
Honors
Over his lifetime, Nkrumah was awarded honorary doctorates by Lincoln University, Moscow State University; Cairo University in Cairo, Egypt; Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland; Humboldt University in the former East Berlin; and other universities. Various memorials to his legacy include a University Hall in University of Dar es Salaam and a monument in Accra.
Selected Works by Kwame Nkrumah
It has been argued that the earlier books were written by Nkrumah but that later texts were written in his name by his disciples. According to one source, he did not actually read the mss of Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism (1965).[6] Most of these books exist in multiple edition. The titles, such as Class Struggle in Africa and Revolutionary Path indicate his Marxist leanings.
- "Negro History: European Government in Africa." The Lincolnian, April 12, 1938, p. 2 (Lincoln University, Pennsylvania).
- 1957. Ghana: The Autobiography of Kwame Nkrumah. NY: Nelson. ISBN 9780901787347
- 1963. Africa Must Unite. NY F.A. Praeger ISBN 97809017871
- 1965. Neo-Colonialism: the Last Stage of Imperialism. NY: International Publishers. ISBN 9780717801404
- 1967. Axioms of Kwame Nkrumah. London: Nelson ISBN 9780901787538
- ' 1967. 'African Socialism Revisited. Prague: Peace and Socialism Publishers.
- 1967. Voice From Conakry. London: Panaf Publication. ISBN 9780901787026
- 1970. Consciencism: Philosophy and Ideology for De-Colonisation. London: Panaf. ISBN 9780901787118
- 1970.Class Struggle in Africa. NY: International Publishers. ISBN 9780717803132
- 1973. The Struggle Continues. London: Panaf. ISBN 9780901787415.
- I Speak of Freedom: A Statement of African Ideology. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780837185712
- ' 1973. Revolutionary Path. NY: International Publishers. ISBN 9780717804009
notes
- ↑ Nkrumah, Kwame. Rulers Org. Retrieved December 21, 2008.
- ↑ Special Collections and Archives, Lincoln University. Lincoln University. Retrieved December 21, 2008.
- ↑ Zimmerman, Jonathan (2008-10-23). The ghost of Kwame Nkrumah. International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2008-10-23.
- ↑ Carl Oglesby and Richard Shaull. Containment and Change. Page 105.
- ↑ Interview with John Stockwell in Pandora's Box: Black Power (Adam Curtis, BBC Two, 22 June 1992)
- ↑ Kwame Nkrumah. Political biography. Answers.com. Retrieved December 21, 2008.
References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Birmingham, David. 1998. Kwame Nkrumah: The Father of African Nationalism. Athens: Ohio University Press. ISBN 9780821412428.
- Tuchscherer, Konrad. 2006. "Kwame Francis Nwia Kofie Nkrumah." 217-220 Encyclopedia of Modern Dictators. ed. by Frank J. Coppa. NY: Peter Lang. ISBN 9780820450100.
- Davidson, Basil. 2007. Black Star - A View of the Life and Times of Kwame Nkrumah. Oxford: James Currey Publishers. ISBN 9781847010100.
- Mwakikagile, Godfrey. 206. Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era. Pretoria, South Africa: New Africa Press. ISBN 0980253411Chapter Twelve, "Nyerere and Nkrumah: Towards African Unity." pages 347 - 355.
- Nkrumah, Kwame. 1973. Revolutionary path. New York: International Publishers. ISBN 9780717804009
- Rahman, Ahmad A. 2007. The regime change of Kwame Nkrumah: epic heroism in Africa and the diaspora. New York, N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403965691.
External links
- Ghana-pedia webpage - Dr. Kwame Nkrumah
- Dr Kwame Nkrumah
- Excerpt from Commanding Heights by Daniel Yergin and Joseph Stanislaw
- Timeline of events related to the overthrow of Kwame Nkruma
- The Kwame Nkrumah Lectures at the University of Cape Coast, Ghana, 2007
- Dr Kwame Nkrumah's Midnight Speech on the day of Ghana's independence - 6th March 1957
Party Political Offices New Title Leader of the Convention People's Party
1948 – 1966Succeeded by: Parties banned Political offices New Title Prime Minister of the Gold Coast
1952 – 1957Succeeded by: Himself as Prime Minister of Ghana Preceded by:
Himself as Prime Minister of the Gold CoastPrime Minister of Ghana
1957–1960Succeeded by: Himself as President Preceded by:
Himself as Prime MinisterPresident of Ghana
1960–1966Succeeded by: Lt. Gen. Joseph A. Ankrah
Military Head of StateNew Title Foreign Minister
1957 – 1958Succeeded by: Kojo Botsio Preceded by:
Ebenezer Ako-AdjeiForeign Minister
1962 – 1963Succeeded by: Kojo Botsio Preceded by:
Gamal Abdel NasserChairperson of the Organization of African Unity
1965 – 1966Succeeded by: Joseph Arthur Ankrah
Template:GhanaPresidents
The Big Six (Ghana) Ebenezer Ako-Adjei • Edward Akufo-Addo • J. B. Danquah • Kwame Nkrumah • Emmanuel Obetsebi-Lamptey • William Ofori Atta Template:African Union chairpersons
Pan-Africanism Proponents Molefi Kete Asante · Nnamdi Azikiwe · Steve Biko · Francis Ohanyido ·Edward Wilmot Blyden · Amílcar Cabral · David Comissiong · Cheikh Anta Diop · W. E. B. Du Bois · Frantz Fanon · Muammar al-Gaddafi · Marcus Garvey · Yosef Ben-Jochannan · Sankofa Juba · Maulana Karenga · Kenneth Kaunda · Jomo Kenyatta · Akwatu Khenti · Patrice Lumumba · Bob Marley · Malcolm X · Thabo Mbeki · Zephania Mothopeng · Abdias do Nascimento · Kwame Nkrumah · Julius Nyerere · George Padmore · Dr Motsoko Pheko · John Nyathi Pokela · Runoko Rashidi · Walter Rodney · Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia · Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe · Burning Spear · Henry Sylvester-Williams · Ahmed Sékou Touré · Kwame Ture (Stokely Carmichael) · I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson · Omali Yeshitela
Concepts Organizations and movements African Union (OAU) · AAPRP · Uhuru Movement · UNIA-ACL · AllAfrica.com · African Unification Front · African diaspora
Persondata NAME Nkrumah, Kwame ALTERNATIVE NAMES Ngonloma, Francis Nwia Kofi SHORT DESCRIPTION Pan Africanist and First Prime Minister and President of Ghana DATE OF BIRTH September 21 1909 PLACE OF BIRTH Nkroful, Western Region, Ghana DATE OF DEATH 27 April 1972 PLACE OF DEATH Bucharest, Romania ak:Kwame Nkrumah ee:Kwame Nkrumah tw:Kwame Nkrumah
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