Difference between revisions of "Vajrayana" - New World Encyclopedia

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Vajrayana Buddhism is also known as '''Tantric Buddhism''', '''Tantrayāna''', '''Mantrayana''', '''Mantranaya''', '''Secret Mantra''', '''Esoteric Buddhism''' and the '''Diamond Vehicle''' (Chinese: 金剛乘, ''jīngāngshèng'', or ''Mìzōng'' (密宗) Japanese: 金剛乗, ''kongōjō'', 密教 '''[[Mikkyō]]''', [[Nepal Bhasa]]:'''बज्रयान''' Bajrayan ). These terms are not regarded as equivalent. Vajrayana is as an extension of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism since it differs in its [[Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)|practices]], rather than its [[Buddhist philosophy|philosophy]]. The Mahayana has two practice paths: the ''Sutrayana'' method of perfecting good qualities and the ''Vajrayāna'' method of taking the intended outcome of [[Buddhahood]] as the path. The Vajrayana requires [[mystical]] experience in order to experience [[Buddha-nature]] prior to full [[enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]. In order to transmit these experiences, a body of [[esoteric]] knowlege has been accumulated by Buddhist [[tantric]] [[yogi]]s and is passed via [[lineage (Buddhism)|lineages]] of transmission. In order to access this knowledge, the practitioner requires [[initiation]] from a skilled spiritual teacher or [[guru]].<ref name="autogenerated1">Ray, Reginald A. ''Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet''. Shambhala Publications, Boston: 2001</ref> 
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'''Vajrayāna Buddhism''' (Also known as '''Tantric Buddhism''', '''Tantrayana''', '''Mantrayana''', '''Mantranaya''', '''Esoteric Buddhism''', '''Diamond Vehicle''', or 金剛乘 '''Jingangcheng''' in [[Chinese language|Chinese]]; however, these terms are not always regarded as equivalent: one scholar<ref name=Skilling>Skilling, Peter. ''Mahāsūtras great discourses of the Buddha : critical editions of the Tibetan Mahāsūtras with Pāli and Sanskrit counterparts as available.'' Oxford [England]: Pali Text Society, 1994. ISBN 978-0860133193.</ref> speaks of the tantra divisions of some editions of the [[Kangyur]] as including Sravakayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana texts) is an extension of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] consisting of differences in the adoption of additional techniques ([[upaya]], or 'skillful means') rather than in philosophy. Thus, before terms such as Vajrayāna or Tantrayāna came into use, scholar-monks such as [[Buddhaguhya]] (fl. mid-8th CE) state that Mahāyāna is subdivided into two categories: ''pāramitā-yana'' (the "Perfection Method") and ''mantra-yana'' (the "Mantra Method").  Some of these ''upāya'' are esoteric practices which must be initiated and transmitted only through a skilled spiritual teacher.<ref>Ray, Reginald A. ''Secret of the Vajra World The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet''. Boston: Shambhala, 2001. ISBN 978-1570627729.</ref>  The Vajrayana is often viewed as the third major 'vehicle' ([[Yana (Buddhism)|Yana]]) of [[Buddhism]], alongside the [[Theravada]] and [[Mahayana]].
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The Vajrayana is often viewed as the third major [[Yana (Buddhism)|Yana]] (or 'vehicle') of [[Buddhism]], alongside the [[Theravada]] and [[Mahayana]]. According to this view, there were three 'turnings of the wheel of dharma'<ref>[http://www.kagyuoffice.org/buddhism.3vehicles.html The Three Vehicles of the Teachings of the Buddha - at the Karmapa website<!-- Bot generated title —>]</ref>. In the first turning [[Shakyamuni]] Buddha taught the [[dharma]] as the [[Four Noble Truths]] at [[Varanasi]] which led to the [[Hinayana]] schools, of which only the [[Theravada]] remain today. In the second turning the [[Perfection of Wisdom]] sutras were taught at [[Vulture's Peak]] and led to the [[Mahayana]] schools. The teachings which constituted the third turning of the wheel of dharma were taught at [[Shravasti]] and expounded that all beings have [[Buddha Nature]]. This third turning is described as having led to the Vajrayana.
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== Nomenclature and etymology ==
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Sanskrit: Mantrayana, Vajrayana, <br />
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Tibetan: ''rdo rje theg pa''<br />
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Nepal Bhasa: Bajrayan <br />
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Japanese: ''mikkyō''<br />
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Korean: ''milgyo''<br />
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Mongolian:  ''очирт хөлгөн, тарнийн ёс, vcirtu kölgen, tarni yin yosu'' <br />
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Vietnamese: ''mật tông''<br/>
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English: Diamond Path, Indestructible Path, Mantra Method,
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The term "[[vajra]]" denoted the [[thunderbolt]], a legendary weapon and divine attribute that was made from an [[adamantine]], or indestructible, substance and which could therefore pierce and penetrate any obstacle or [[obfuscation]]. As a secondary meaning, "vajra" refers to this indestructible substance, and so is sometimes translated as "adamantine" or "diamond". So the Vajrayana is sometimes rendered in English as "The Adamantine Vehicle" or "The Diamond Vehicle".
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A vajra is also a scepter-like ritual object, which has a sphere (and sometimes a [[gankyil]]) at its centre, and a variable number of spokes (depending on the [[sadhana]]), enfolding either end of the rod. The vajra is often traditionally employed in tantric rituals in combination with the [[Bell (instrument)|bell]] or [[ghanta]]; symbolically, the vajra may represent [[upaya|method]] and the bell stands for [[prajna|wisdom]].
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It is from the tantra that Vajrayana Buddhism gets the alternative names of Mantrayana and Tantrayana.
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Vajra is also believed to be the weapon of ancient Hindu god Indra, which was made out of the sacrificial offerings of the bones of Rishi Dadhichi.
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==Sub-schools==
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Although there is historical evidence for [[Vajrayana Buddhism in Southeast Asia]] and elsewhere (see '[[Vajrayana#History_of_Vajrayana|History of Vajrayana]]' section below) today the Vajrayana exists primarily in the form of two major sub-schools:
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=== Tibetan Buddhism===
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{{Tibetan_Buddhism}}
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{{main|Tibetan Buddhism}}
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The Tibetan Buddhist schools, based on the lineages and textual traditions of the [[Kangyur]] and [[Tengyur]] of [[Tibet]], are found in Tibet, [[Buddhism in Bhutan|Bhutan]], northern [[Buddhism in India|India]], [[Buddhism in Nepal|Nepal]], southwestern and northern [[Buddhism in China|China]], [[Buddhism in Mongolia|Mongolia]] and various constituent [[republics]] of [[Buddhism in Russia|Russia]] that are adjacent to the area, such as [[Amur Oblast]], [[Buryatia]], [[Chita Oblast]], the [[Tuva Republic]] and [[Khabarovsk Krai]]. Tibetan Buddhism is also the main religion in [[Kalmykia]].  
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Vajrayana Buddhism was established in Tibet in the 8th Century when [[Śāntarakṣita]] was brought to [[Tibet]] from [[India]] at the instigation of the Dharma King [[Trisong Detsen]], some time before 767 CE. He established the [[Nyingma]] school. As a [[Tantra|Tantric]] [[Mahasiddha]] Padmasambhava's contribution ensured that Tibetan Buddhism became part of the Vajrayana tradition.  While Vajrayana Buddhism is a part of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], in that it forms a core part of every major Tibetan Buddhist school, it is not identical with it. Buddhist scholar [[Alexander Berzin]] refers to "the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions of Tibetan Buddhism"<ref>{{cite web | title = Berzin Archives  | url = http://www.berzinarchives.com/web/en/index.html | accessdate = 2008-06-22  }}</ref>. The Vajrayana techniques which add 'skillful means' to the general [[Mahayana]] teachings for advanced students. The 'skillful means' of the Vajrayana in [[Tibetan Buddhism]] refers to [[Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)|tantra techniques]] of tantra, [[Dzogchen]] (Tibetan:''maha-ati'') and [[Mahamudra]] (Tibetan:''Chagchen'').
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===Shingon Buddhism===
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{{JapaneseBuddhism}}
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{{main|Shingon Buddhism}}
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The Shingon school is found in [[Japan]] and includes practices, known in Japan as [[Mikkyo]], which are similar in concept to those in Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism. The lineage for Shingon Buddhism differs from that of Tibetan Vajrayana, having emerged from [[India]] (via [[China]]) and is based on earlier versions of the Indian texts than the Tibetan lineage. Shingon shares material with [[Tibetan Buddhism]] - such as the esoteric sutras (called [[Tantras]] in Tibetan Buddhism) and [[mandala]] - but the actual practices are not related.  The primary texts of Shingon Buddhism are the [[Mahavairocana Sutra]] and Vajrasekhara sutra.  The founder of Shingon Buddhism was [[Kukai]], a Japanese monk who studied in China in the 9th Century during the [[Tang Dynasty]] and brought back Vajrayana scriptures, techniques and mandalas popular in China. This versiony died out in China towards the end of the [[Tang Dynasty]] but flourished in Japan.  Shingon is one of the very few remaining branches of Buddhism in the world that continues to use the [[siddham]] script of the [[Sanskrit]] language.
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Although the [[Tendai]] school in Japan does employ some esoteric practices they are peripheral and therefore Tendai is not seen as a truly esoteric school. The esoteric rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the exoteric teachings of the [[Lotus Sutra]].  By chanting [[Mantras]], maintaining [[Mudras]], or performing certain meditations, one is able to see that the sense experiences are the teachings of Buddha, have faith that one is inherently an enlightened being, and one can attain enlightenment within this very body.
  
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==Subschools==
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===Newar Buddhism===
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{{main|Newar Buddhism}}
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Newar Buddhism is practiced by Newars in Nepal. This is the only Bajrayan Buddhism in which scriptures are written in Sanskrit. The priests do not follow celibacy and are called Bajracharyas.
  
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Vajrayana exists today in the form of two major sub-schools:
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==Relationship with Mahayana==
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*[[Tibetan Buddhism]], found traditionally in [[Tibet]], [[Buddhism in Bhutan|Bhutan]], northern [[Buddhism in India|India]], [[Buddhism in Nepal|Nepal]], southwestern and northern [[Buddhism in China|China]], [[Buddhism in Mongolia|Mongolia]] and various constituent [[republics]] of [[Buddhism in Russia|Russia]] that are adjacent to the area, such as: [[Amur Oblast]], [[Buryatia]], [[Chita Oblast]], [[Tuva Republic]], and [[Khabarovsk Krai]]. There is also [[Kalmykia]], another constituent republic of Russia that is the only Buddhist region in Europe, located in the north [[Caucasus]]. While Vajrayana Buddhism is a part of Tibetan Buddhism (in that it forms a core part of every major Tibetan Buddhist school), it is not identical with it, as the Vajrayana is seen as adding to the general [[Mahayana]] teachings for somewhat advanced students. Vajrayana in Tibetan Buddhism, properly speaking, refers to [[tantra]], [[Dzogchen]] (mahasandhi), and Chagchen ([[mahamudra]]).
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According to [[Tibetan Buddhist]] practitioner and teacher [[Tenzin Palmo]]:<blockquote>
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Vajrayana shares its philosophy with [[Mahayana]]. The Vajrayana is not a philosophy. It is a practice technique and a view, or vision. It takes its philosophical stance from the Mahayana. Actually it seems to be a combination of [[Yogachara]] and [[Madhyamaka]] viewpoints.<ref>{{cite book|last=Palmo|first=Tenzin|title=Reflections on a Mountain Lake:Teachings on Practical Buddhism|publisher=Snow Lion Publications|year=2002|pages=p.224|isbn=I-55939-175-8}}</ref> 
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</blockquote>
  
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*[[Shingon Buddhism]], found in [[Japan]], includes many esoteric practices which are similar in concept to those used in Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism.  However, the lineage for Shingon Buddhism is entirely different than that found in Tibetan Vajrayana, having emerged from India (via China) much earlier than the Tibetan lineage. As such Shingon shares common material such as the esoteric sutras and mandala, but the actual practices are not related.  The primary text for Shingon is the [[Mahavairocana Sutra]].  The founder of Shingon Buddhism is [[Kukai]] a Japanese monk who studied in China during the [[Tang Dynasty]], and brought back Vajrayana scriptures, techniques and mandalas that were popular at the time. This lineage of esoteric Buddhism later died out in China during the end of the Tang Dynasty, but was preserved and later flourished in Japan.  Shingon is the one of the very few remaining branches of Buddhism in the world that continues to use the [[siddham]] script of [[Sanskrit]] language.
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According to [[Khenpo Palden Sherab]], Vajrayana view is based upon the [[Prajnaparamita]] which "is the basis of every practice."<ref>{{cite book|last=Sherab|first=Khenpo Palden|title=Ceaseless Echoes of the Great Silence: A Commentary on the Heart Sutra, Prajnaparamita|publisher=Sky Dancer Press|year=1999|pages=p. 35|isbn=ISBN 1-880976-01-7}}</ref>
  
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== Etymology ==
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While tantra and esoterism distinguish Vajrayana Buddhism, from the Tibetan Buddhist point of view it is a form of [[Mahayana Buddhism]], rooted in the same philosophical approach to [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]'s teachings. [[Sutra]]s important to Mahayana are important to Vajrayana, although Vajrayana adds texts of its own, primarily the [[tantras]]. The importance of [[bodhisattva]]s and a pantheon of deities in Mahayana carries over to Vajrayana, as well as the perspective that Buddhism and Buddhist spiritual practice are not intended just for ordained monks, but for the laity too.
  
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The term "[[vajra]]" originally denoted the [[thunderbolt]], a legendary weapon and divine attribute that was made from an [[adamantine]], that is indestructible, substance and which could therefore pierce and penetrate any obstacle or [[obfuscation]]. As a secondary meaning, "vajra" therefore also refers to this indestructible substance, and so is sometimes translated as "adamantine" or "diamond." So the Vajrayana is sometimes rendered in English as "The Adamantine Vehicle" or "The Diamond Vehicle."
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The Japanese Vajrayana teacher [[Kūkai]] expressed a view that appears contrary to the Tibetan Buddhist perspective as it makes a clear distinction between Mahayana and Vajrayana. Kūkai characterises the Mahayana in its entirety as exoteric, and therefore provisional. From this point of view the esoteric Vajrayana is the only Buddhist teaching which is not a compromise with the limited nature of the audience to which it is directed, since the teachings are said to be the [[Dharmakaya]] (the principle of enlightenment) in the form of [[Mahavairocana]], engaging in a monologue with himself.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} From this view, the Hinayana and Mahayana can be seen as provisional and compromised aspects of the Vajrayana.
  
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A vajra is also a ritual object that is like a small sceptre. It usually takes the form of a bronze rod, like a mace; it has a sphere (and sometimes a [[gankyil]]) at its centre, and a variable number of spokes (depending on the [[sadhana]]), enfolding either end of the rod. The vajra is often traditionally employed in tantric rituals in combination with the [[bell]] or [[ghanta]]; symbolically, the vajra may represent [[upaya|method]] and the bell stands for [[prajna|wisdom]]. In Mantrayana lineages the [[phurba]] and [[singing bowl]] hold this application and symbolism.
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Some aspects of Vajrayana have filtered back into Mahayana. In particular, the Vajrayana fondness for powerful symbols may be found in weakened form in Mahayana temples where [[dharmapala|protector deities]] may be found glaring down at visitors.
  
 
==Distinguishing features of Vajrayana==
 
==Distinguishing features of Vajrayana==
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According to the traditions and lineages of Vajrayana Buddhism, the Vajrayana [[upaya]] or techniques, provide an accelerated path to [[bodhi|enlightenment]].  This is achieved through use of [[tantra]] techniques, which are practical aids to spiritual development, and esoteric transmission (explained below). Whereas earlier schools might provide ways to achieve [[nirvana]] over the course of many lifetimes, Vajrayana techniques are said to make full enlightenment or [[buddhahood]] possible in a shorter time, perhaps in a single lifetime.  Vajrayana Buddhists do not claim that [[Theravada]] or [[Mahayana]] practices are invalid; in fact, the teachings from those traditions are said to lay an essential foundational practice on which the Vajrayana practices may be built. While the Mahayana and Theravada paths are said to be paths to enlightenment in their own right, the teachings from each of those vehicles must be heeded for the Vajrayana to work. The Vajrayana path is considered to be a path within the Mahayana which employs special means or practices to "accelerate" the process of awakening. It should also be noted that the goal of the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions is to become a Buddha by following the [[bodhisattva]] path, whereas an alternative, and more common, goal for Theravada practice is 'simply' liberation from the cycle of rebirth ([[samsara]]) by achieving nirvana. In fact the distinction between these traditions is not always rigid: the tantra sections of editions of the [[Kangyur]] sometimes include material not usually thought of as tantric outside the Tibetan tradition, such as the [[Heart Sutra]] and even versions of material found in the [[Pali Canon]].<ref name=Skilling/>
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[[Image:Ladakhceremony.jpg|thumb|A Buddhist ceremony in [[Ladakh]].]]
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The goal of spiritual practice within the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions is to become a [[Buddhahood|Buddha]] by following the [[bodhisattva]] path, whereas the alternative goal for [[Theravada]] practice is liberation from the cycle of rebirth ([[samsara]]) by achieving [[nirvana]]. For a comparison of the various practices of laypeople in the [[Theravada]], [[Mahayana]] and Vajrayana schools see [[Householder_(Buddhism)#Contemporary Buddhist householder practices|contemporary Buddhist householder practices]]. The distinction between these traditions is not always rigid. For example, the [[tantra]] sections of the [[Kangyur|Tibetan Buddhist canon of texts]] sometimes include material not usually thought of as tantric outside the [[Tibetan Buddhist]] tradition, such as the [[Heart Sutra]]<ref>Conze, ''The Prajnaparamita Literature''</ref> and even versions of material found in the [[Pali Canon]].<ref>Skilling, ''Mahasutras'', volume I, parts I & II, 1997, Pali Text Society, page 78, speaks of the tantra divisions of some editions of the [[Kangyur]] as including Sravakayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana texts</ref>.<ref>Peter Skilling, ''Mahasutras'', volume I, 1994, [[Pali Text Society]][http://www.palitext.com], Lancaster, page xxiv</ref>
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As with the Mahayana, motivation is a vital component of Vajrayana practice, and all practices are undertaken with the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. [[Dalai Lama XIV]] has said that <blockquote>"Tantra is limited to persons whose compassion is so great that they cannot bear to spend unnecessary time in attaining Buddhahood, as they want to be a supreme source of help and happiness for others quickly"<ref>quoted in p. 111 of [[Jeffrey Hopkins (Tibetologist)|Jeffrey Hopkins]]'s ''Meditation on Emptiness'', Wisdom Publication, 1996, ISBN 0861711106.</ref> </blockquote>
  
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===Tantra techniques===
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The Vajrayana is based on the concept of 'skillful means' (Sanskrit: [[upaya]]) as formulated in Mahayana Buddhism. It is a system of [[lineage (Buddhism)|lineages]], whereby those who succesfully receive an initiation (permission to practice) are seen to share in the [[mindstream]] of the realisation of a particular 'skillful means' of the vajra Master. In the Vajrayana these 'skillful means' mainly relate to [[Tantra|tantric]], [[Mahamudra]] or [[Dzogchen]] practices. According to the traditions and lineages, the Vajrayana techniques provide an accelerated path to [[bodhi|enlightenment]] (explained below).  Whereas earlier (Theravada and Mahayana) schools might provide ways to achieve [[nirvana]] over the course of many lifetimes, Vajrayana techniques are said to make full enlightenment or [[buddhahood]] possible in a shorter time, perhaps in a single lifetime. Vajrayana teacher [[Tenzin Palmo]] describes the different approaches to Buddhist practice: <blockquote>
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According to the Hinayana school of Buddhism, we are trapped in this realm of endless birth, death, rebirth and re-death because we desire things and hold on to them so tightly... The Hinayana school places emphasis on eradicating even the finest roots of our desire. According to the Mahayana, it is because of our ignorance that we are trapped on this wheel... Everything we think reflects a misapprehension of how things really are. Therefore our task is to develop what is called "transcendental wisdom", which will eradicate the very roots of our ignorance. According to Vajrayana, we are trapped in this realm of endless birth and death because of our impure perceptions. We believe that what we see is solid, ordinary, and defiled. The antidote to this is to develop pure perception".<ref>{{cite book|last=Palmo|first=Tenzin|title=Reflections on a Mountain Lake:Teachings on Practical Buddhism|publisher=Snow Lion Publications|year=2002|pages=p.223|isbn=1-55939-175-8}}</ref>
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</blockquote>
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Vajrayana Buddhists do not claim that [[Theravada]] or [[Mahayana]] practices are invalid; on the contrary, the teachings from those traditions are said to lay an essential foundational understanding on which the Vajrayana practices may be built. While the Mahayana and Theravada paths are said to be paths to enlightenment in their own right, the teachings from each of those vehicles must be heeded for the Vajrayana techniques to be effective.
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===Path of the fruit===
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The [[Two truths doctrine]] is a central concept in the Vajrayana practice path and is the philosophical basis for its methods. The Two Truths identifies 'conventional' and 'ultimate' truths. Conventional truth is the truth of [[consensus reality]], [[common sense]] notions of what does and does not exist. Ultimate truth is reality as viewed by an awakened, or [[enlightenment (concept)|enlightened]] mind. In the 'Sutrayana' practice path of the [[Mahayana]] the 'path of the cause' is taken, whereby a practitioner starts with their potential [[Buddha-nature]] and nurtures it to produce the fruit of [[Buddhahood]]. In the Vajrayana the 'path of the fruit' is taken whereby the practitioner takes their inherant Buddha-nature as the means of practice. The premise is that since we inherently have an enlightened mind, practicing seeing the world in terms of ultimate truth can help us to attain our full Buddha-nature.<ref>{{cite book|last=Palmo|first=Tenzin|title=Reflections on a Mountain Lake:Teachings on Practical Buddhism|publisher=Snow Lion Publications|year=2002|pages=pp.224-5|isbn=1-55939-175-8}}</ref>  Experiencing ultimate truth is the purpose of all the various [[Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)|tantric techniques]] practiced in the Vajrayana. Apart from the advanced meditation practices such as [[Dzogchen]] and [[Mahamudra]], which aim to experience the [[voidness|empty]] nature of the enlightened mind that can see ultimate truth, all practices are aimed in some way at purifying the impure perception of the practitioner to allow ultimate truth to be seen. These may be [[ngondro]], or preliminary practices, or the more advanced techniques of the [[tantric]] [[sadhana]].
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===Vows and behaviour===
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In general, practitioners of the Vajrayana need to abide by a various vows ([[samaya]]) of behaviour, based on the rules of the [[Pratimoksha]] vows and [[Bodhisattva vows]] for the lower levels of tantras. The special tantric vows need to be kept when practicing the highest levels of tantra (these can vary somewhat depending on the specific practice (for example, the [[Kalachakra]] tantra has its own set of vows).
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Apart from many different requirements for a tantric Master, which obviously includes these vows, also proper conduct is especially necessary for a qualified Vajrayana guru. The ''Ornament for the Essence'' of Manjushrikirti states:
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:Distance yourself from Vajra Masters who are not keeping the three vows
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:who keep on with a root downfall, who are miserly with the Dharma,
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:and who engage in actions that should be forsaken.
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:Those who worship them go to hell and so on as a result.<ref>Tantric Ethics: An Explanation of the Precepts for Buddhist Vajrayana Practice by Tsongkhapa, ISBN 0-86171-290-0, page 46</ref>
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The [[Ngagpa]] [[Yogis]] from the [[Nyingma]] school keep a special lay ordination.
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===Esoteric transmission (initiation) and secrecy===
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{{main|Esoteric transmission|Samaya}}
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Vajrayana Buddhism is [[esoteric]].  In this context esoteric means that the transmission of certain accelerating factors only occurs directly from teacher to student during an [[initiation]] or [[Empowerment (Tibetan Buddhism)|empowerment]] and cannot be simply learned from a book.  Many techniques are also commonly said to be secret, but some Vajrayana teachers have responded that secrecy itself is not important and only a side-effect of the reality that the techniques have no validity outside the teacher-student lineage.<ref>Dhammasaavaka. ''The Buddhism Primer: An Introduction to Buddhism'', p. 79. ISBN 1411663349</ref> In order to engage in Vajrayana practice, a student should have received such an initiation or permission.
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Reginald Ray writes that "If these techniques are not practiced properly, practitioners may harm themselves physically and mentally. In order to avoid these dangers, the practice is kept "secret" outside the teacher/student relationship. Secrecy and the commitment of the student to the vajra guru are aspects of the [[samaya]] (Tib. ''damtsig''), or "sacred bond", that protects both the practitioner and the integrity of the teachings."<ref name="autogenerated1" />
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The teachings may also be considered "self-secret" meaning that even if they were to be told directly to a person, that person would not necessarily understand the teachings without proper context. In this way the teachings are "secret" to the minds of those who are not following the path with more than a curious investigation.<ref>Morreale, Don (1998) ''The Complete Guide to Buddhist America'' ISBN 1-57062-270-1 p.215</ref><ref>Trungpa, Chögyam and Chödzin, Sherab (1992) ''The Lion's Roar: An Introduction to Tantra'' ISBN 0-87773-654-5 p. 144</ref>
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The esoteric transmission framework can take varying forms. The [[Nyingma]] school of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] uses a method called [[Dzogchen]]. The Tibetan [[Kagyu]] school and the [[Shingon]] school in Japan use an alternative method called [[Mahamudra]].
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==Tantra techniques==
 
{{main|Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)}}
 
{{main|Tantra techniques (Vajrayana)}}
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According to the Vajrayana tradition,<ref>''Luminous Emptiness.'' 2001. [[Francesca Fremantle]]. Boston: Shambala Publications. ISBN 1-57062-450-X </ref> at certain times the [[bodymind]]<ref>Arpaia, Joseph & D. Lobsang Rapgay (2004).  ''Tibetan Wisdom for Modern Life''. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass.  ISBN 81-208-1955-1.</ref> is in a very subtle state which can be used by advanced practitioners to transform the [[mindstream]]. Such [[liminal]] times are known in [[Tibetan Buddhism]] as [[Bardo]] states and include such transistional states as
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during meditation, dreaming, sex and death. 
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===Deity yoga===
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Deity yoga (Tibetan: ''lha'i rnal 'byor''; Sanskrit: ''[[Devata]]-[[yoga]]'') is the fundamental Vajrayana practice, often involving a [[sadhana]] liturgy and form, in which the practitioner visualizes themselves as the meditation Buddha or [[yidam]]. The purpose of [[Deity yoga]] is to bring the meditator to the realization that the deity and the practitioner are in essence the same, [[non-dual]]. By visualizing one's self and environment entirely as a projection of mind, it helps the practitioner become familiar with the mind's ability and habit of projecting conceptual layers over all experience. This experience undermines a habitual belief that views of reality and self are solid and fixed. Deity yoga enables the practitioner to release, or 'purify' him or herself from spiritual obscurations (Sanskrit: [[klesha]]) and to practice compassion and wisdom simultaneously.
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Beer (2004: p.142) states:
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<blockquote>
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Deity Yoga employs highly refined techniques of creative imagination, visualisation, and photism in order to self-identify with the divine form and qualities of a particular deity as the union of method or skilful means and wisdom. As His Holiness the Dalai Lama says, "In brief, the body of a Buddha is attained through meditating on it".<ref>Beer, Robert (2004). ''The Encyclopedia of Tibetan Symbols and Motifs''. Serindia Publications, Inc. ISBN 1932476105.  p.142. Source: [http://books.google.com/books?id=XlqeS3WjSWIC&pg=PA142&lpg=PA142&dq=death+yoga+vajrayana+tibet&source=web&ots=iGZAiL-ZBP&sig=KFghYWnRnJHmCxwnUKpwmYoF1_Y] (accessed: January 9, 2008)</ref>
 +
</blockquote>
  
−
According to the Vajrayana tradition <ref>Fremantle, Francesca, and Karma-gliṅ-pa. ''Luminous Emptiness Understanding the Tibetan Book of the Dead''. Boston: Shambhala, 2001. ISBN 978-1570624506.
+
'''Four Purities''' (Tibetan: ''yongs su dag pa bzhi''; ''yongs dag bzhi'')<ref>Source: [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/translation/Tibetan+%2528Transliterated%2529/yongs+dag+bzhi] (accessed: January 3, 2008)</ref> In defining Vajrayana, Yuthok ''et al.'' identify the "Four Purities" which define the principal Tantric methodology of Deity Yoga that distinguishes it from the rest of Buddhism:
−
</ref>, at certain times during sex, death, meditation and dreaming and at other [[liminal]]  states, the [[bodymind]] <ref>Arpaia, Joseph, and Lobsang Rapgay. ''Tibetan Wisdom for Modern Life.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2004. ISBN 978-8120819559.</ref> is in a very subtle state which can be used by advanced practitioners to transform the [[mindstream]]. According to the Vajrayana tradition it is possible to attain enlightenment in a single lifetime by practicing certain techniques.
+
<blockquote>
 +
Vajrayana...is a subdivision of Mahayana, which may be divided into Sutrayana and Vajrayana (or Tantrayana). Vajrayana is regarded as a swifter path and is considered superior to Sutrayana. Whereas Sutrayana focuses on the causal method, Vajrayana teaches the Resultant method [sic] because it includes the 'four purities': (1) purity of environment (2) purity of body (3) purity of resources and (4) purity of deeds.<ref>Yuthok, Choedak (1997) p.27. ''Lamdre: Dawn of Enlightenment.'' (Transcribed and edited by Pauline Westwood with valued assistance
 +
from Ot Rastsaphong, Rob Small, Brett Wagland and Whitethorn. Cover Design: Rob Small) Canberra, Australia: Gorum Publications. ISBN 0 9587085 0 9. Source: [http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/lamdre.pdf] (accessed: January 3, 2008) </ref>
 +
</blockquote>
  
−
'''Guru yoga''' (or 'teacher communion') is a [[sadhana]] that has many variations, but may be understood as a tantric devotional process where the sadhaka unites their mindstream with the [[mindstream]] of the guru's [[Three Vajras]].  The guru is engaged as [[yidam]], as a [[nirmanakaya]] manifestation of a [[Buddha]]. The process of guru yoga often entails [[visualization]] of a [[refuge tree]] as an invocation of the lineage. Guru yoga may entail a [[liturgy]] or mantra though this is neither necessary nor mandatory.
+
''Kalachakranet'' identifies and defines the "Four Purities" in a complementary though different fashion:
 +
<blockquote>
 +
The main tantric practices can be summarised in the "Four Purities":
 +
:1. Seeing one's body as the body of the deity
 +
:2. Seeing one's environment as the [[pure land]] or [[mandala]] of the deity
 +
:3. Perceiving one's enjoyments as bliss of the deity, free from attachment
 +
:4. Performing one's actions only for the benefit of others (bodhicitta motivation, altruism)<ref>Kalachakranet (2006). ''Tantric Practice''. Source: [http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/tantra_practice.html] (Source: January 3, 2008)</ref>
 +
</blockquote>
  
−
The Guru or spiritual teacher is essential as a guide during tantric practice, without their example, blessings and grace, genuine progress is held to be impossible for all but the most keen and gifted. Many tantric texts qualify the [[Triratna]] thus: "Guru is Buddha, Guru is Dharma and Guru is Sangha" to reflect their importance for the disciple.
+
'''Imagery and ritual in deity yoga''': representations of the deity, such as a statues ([[murti]]), paintings ([[thangka]]), or [[mandala]], are often employed as an aid to [[visualization]], in Deity yoga. Mandalas are sacred enclosures, [[sacred architecture]] that house and contain the uncontainable essence of a yidam. In the book, ''The World of Tibetan Buddhism'', the Dalai Lama describes mandalas thus: “This is the celestial mansion, the pure residence of the deity.”
  
−
'''Deity yoga''' (or 'deity practice') is the fundamental practice in Tantra in which meditators visualize themselves as the deity or [[yidam]]. The purpose of Deity yoga is to bring the meditator to the realization that the deity and oneself are in essence the same. It allows the meditator to release themselves from worldly attachments and to practice compassion and wisdom simultaneously.
+
In the same context, all ritual in Vajrayana practice can be seen as aiding in this process of visualization and identification. The practitioner can use various hand implements such as a vajra, bell, hand-drum ([[damaru]]) or a ritual dagger ([[phurba]]), but also ritual hand gestures ([[mudra]]s) can be made, special chanting techniques can be used, and in elaborate offering rituals or initiations, many more ritual implements and tools are used, each with an elaborate symbolic meaning to create a special environment for practice. Vajrayana has thus become a major inspiration in traditional [[Tibetan art]].
−
Together with images ([[murti]], [[thangka]]s) of the deities, [[mandalas]] are often used as [[visualization]], [[invocation]] and [[evocation]] architecture in Deity yoga.
 
−
Mandalas are sacred enclosures, [[sacred architecture]] that house and contain the uncontainable essence of a [[yidam]]. In the book, ''The World of Tibetan Buddhism'', the Dalai Lama describes them thus: “This is the celestial mansion, the pure residence of the deity.”
 
  
−
'''Death yoga''' (or 'death practice') is another important aspect of Tantra techniques.  Although it is called Death yoga, most of the practice actually happens during life. It is the accumulation of meditative practice that helps to prepare the practitioner for what they need to do at the time of death. At the time of death the mind is in a state (clear light) that can open the mind to enlightenment, when used very skillfully.  It is said that masters like Lama [[Tsong Khapa]] used these techniques to achieve enlightenment during the death process.  
+
===Guru yoga===
 +
Guru yoga (or 'teacher practice') (Tibetan: ''bla ma'i rnal 'byor'')<ref>[[Patrul Rinpoche|Rinpoche, Patrul]] (author); Brown, Kerry (ed.); and Sharma, Sima (ed.)(1994). ''The Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (Tibetan title: ''kunzang lama'i shelung''). Translated by the Padmakara Translation Group. With a forward by the Dalai Lama. San Francisco, California, USA: HarperCollins''Publishers''. ISBN 0-06-066449-5 (cloth: alk. paper). P.416</ref> is a practice that has many variations, but may be understood as a tantric devotional process where the practitioners unite their mindstream with the mindstream of the guru. The guru is engaged as [[yidam]], as a [[nirmanakaya]] manifestation of a [[Buddha (general)|Buddha]].  The process of guru yoga might entail [[visualization]] of an entire lineage of masters ([[refuge tree]]) as an invocation of the lineage. It usually involves visualization of the guru above or in front of the practitioner.  Guru yoga may entail a [[liturgy]] or mantra such as the ''Prayer in Seven Lines'' (Tibetan: ''tshig bdun gsol 'debs'')<ref>[[Patrul Rinpoche|Rinpoche, Patrul]] (author); Brown, Kerry (ed.); and Sharma, Sima (ed.)(1994). ''The Words of My Perfect Teacher'' (Tibetan title: ''kunzang lama'i shelung''). Translated by the Padmakara Translation Group. With a forward by the Dalai Lama. San Francisco, California, USA: HarperCollins''Publishers''. ISBN 0-06-066449-5 (cloth: alk. paper). P.442</ref>, an [[evocation]] and [[invocation]] of [[Padmasambhava]], though this is neither necessary nor mandatory.
 +
 
 +
The Guru or spiritual teacher is essential as a guide during tantric practice, without their example, blessings and grace, genuine progress is held to be impossible for all but the most keen and gifted. Many tantric texts qualify the Three Jewels of Buddha, Dharama and Sangha ([[Triratna]]) thus: "Guru is Buddha, Guru is Dharma and Guru is Sangha" to reflect their importance for the disciple. The guru is considered even more compassionate and more potent than the Buddha because we can have a direct relationship with the guru.
 +
 
 +
===Death yoga===
 +
Death yoga (or 'death practice') is another important aspect of Tantra techniques.  Although it is called Death yoga, most of the practice actually happens during life. It is the accumulation of meditative practice that helps to prepare the practitioner for what they need to do at the time of death. At the time of death the mind is in a state (clear light) that can open the mind to enlightenment, when used very skillfully.  It is said that masters like Lama [[Tsong Khapa]] used these techniques to achieve enlightenment during the death process.  
 
Actually, there are three stages at which it is possible to do this; at the end of the death process, during the [[bardo]] (or 'in between period') and during the process of rebirth. During these stages, the mind is in a very subtle state, and an advanced practitioner can use these natural states to make significant progress on the spiritual path. The [[Bardo Thodol|Tibetan Book of the Dead]] is an important commentary for this kind of traditional practice.  
 
Actually, there are three stages at which it is possible to do this; at the end of the death process, during the [[bardo]] (or 'in between period') and during the process of rebirth. During these stages, the mind is in a very subtle state, and an advanced practitioner can use these natural states to make significant progress on the spiritual path. The [[Bardo Thodol|Tibetan Book of the Dead]] is an important commentary for this kind of traditional practice.  
  
 
This Death yoga should not be confused with normal meditation on death, which is a common practice within Buddhist traditions. In most non-tantra traditions it is done to reduce attachment and desire, and not to use the death process itself as a means to practice.
 
This Death yoga should not be confused with normal meditation on death, which is a common practice within Buddhist traditions. In most non-tantra traditions it is done to reduce attachment and desire, and not to use the death process itself as a means to practice.
 +
 +
===Generation and completion stage practice in the annutarayoga tantras===
 +
{{main|Generation stage}} {{main|Completion stage}}
 +
In the highest class of tantra, two stages of practice are distinguished. In the first stage of generation, one practices oneself in the identification with the meditational Buddha ([[yidam]]), generally until one can meditate single-pointedly on 'being' the deity (see above deity yoga). In the next stage of completion, one engages in practices with the subtle energy system of the body ([[chakra]]s and energy channels etc.) to actualize the physical and mental transformation into the meditation Buddha. (Similar practices are also found in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] tantra and yoga.)
 +
In some Buddhist tantras, both stages can be practiced simultaneously, whereas in others, one first actualizes the generation stage before continuing with the completion stage practices.
 +
 +
Details of these practices are normally only explained to practitioners by their teachers after receiving an initiation or 'permission to practice'.
  
 
==Classifications of tantra==
 
==Classifications of tantra==
−
 
 
===New Translation Schools' tantric classification===
 
===New Translation Schools' tantric classification===
 
The [[Sarma]] or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism ([[Gelug]], [[Sakya]], and [[Kagyu]])  divide the Tantras into four hierarchical categories, namely,
 
The [[Sarma]] or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism ([[Gelug]], [[Sakya]], and [[Kagyu]])  divide the Tantras into four hierarchical categories, namely,
Line 48: Line 148:
 
* [[Yogatantra]]
 
* [[Yogatantra]]
 
* [[Anuttarayogatantra]]
 
* [[Anuttarayogatantra]]
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** further divided into "mother," "father" and "non-dual" tantras.
+
** further divided into "mother", "father" and "non-dual" tantras.
  
 
===Ancient Translation School tantric classification===
 
===Ancient Translation School tantric classification===
−
 
 
A different division is used by the [[Nyingma]] or Ancient school:
 
A different division is used by the [[Nyingma]] or Ancient school:
  
Line 65: Line 164:
  
 
===Classifications and numerology===
 
===Classifications and numerology===
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Numbers, numerology and the spirituality of numerals is key to the [[Twilight language|Twilight Language]] and endemic to Vajrayana as it is throughout [[Dharmic Traditions]].  Numbers that are particularly frequent in classification are three, five and nine:
+
Numbers, numerology and the spirituality of numerals is key to the [[Twilight language]] and endemic to Vajrayana as it is throughout [[Indian religions]].  Numbers that are particularly frequent in classification are three, five and nine:
  
−
As Bucknell, ''et. al.'' (1986: p.110) state:
+
As Bucknell, ''et al.'' (1986: p.110) state <ref>Bucknell, Roderick & Stuart-Fox, Martin (1986). ''The Twilight Language: Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism''. Curzon Press: London. ISBN 0-312-82540-4</ref>:
 
<blockquote>
 
<blockquote>
−
The fivefold classification presented in the ''tantras'' is remarkably comprehensive, embracing objects of every conceivable type; it includes the infamous set of 'five Ms' (fish, meat, wine, ''mudrā'', sexual intercourse) and even a set of five 'body fluids' faeces, urine, blood, semen, flesh.<ref>Walker, Benjamin. ''The Hindu World; An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism''. New York: Praeger, 1968. OCLC 331163</ref> In addition it includes sets of doctrinal principles, such as the five ''skandhas'' (factors of existence), the four ''kāyas'' (Buddha-bodies) and the triad ''prajña'', ''upāya'', ''bodhicitta'' (wisdom, means, enlightenment-mind).  For example, ''prajña'', ''upāya'', and ''bodhicitta'' are identified with the triads female/male/union, Amitābha/Akṣobhya/Vairocana, and so on, and are thus implicitly assigned to the water, fire, and space groups respectively.<ref>Snellgrove, David L., and Kṛiṣṇācāryapd̄a. ''The Hevajra Tantra; A Critical Study.'' London oriental series, v. 6. London: Oxford University Press, 1959. OCLC 381941</ref>
+
The fivefold classification presented in the ''tantras'' is remarkably comprehensive, embracing objects of every conceivable type; it includes the infamous set of 'five Ms' (fish, meat, wine, ''mudrā'', sexual intercourse) and even a set of five 'body fluids' faeces, urine, blood, semen, flesh.<ref>On the 'five Ms', see Benjamin Walker, ''The Hindu World'', vol. I (New York: Praeger, 1968), p.221; on the five 'body-fluids' see Elder, 'Problems of Language in Buddhist Tantra', pp.241 - 2.</ref> In addition it includes sets of doctrinal principles, such as the five ''skandhas'' (factors of existence), the four ''kāyas'' (Buddha-bodies) and the triad ''prajña'', ''upāya'', ''bodhicitta'' (wisdom, means, enlightenment-mind).  For example, ''prajña'', ''upāya'', and ''bodhicitta'' are identified with the triads female/male/union, Amitābha/Akṣobhya/Vairocana, and so on, and are thus implicitly assigned to the water, fire, and space groups respectively.<ref>See Wayman, 'Female Energy and Symbolism', pp. 89-90; also Snellgrove, ''The Hevajra Tantra'' vol. I, p.27.</ref>
 
</blockquote>
 
</blockquote>
−
 
−
===Esoteric transmission (initiation) and samaya (vow)===
 
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{{main|Esoteric transmission|Samaya}}
 
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−
The other conspicuous aspect of Vajrayana Buddhism is that it is [[esoteric]].  In this context esoteric means that the transmission of certain accelerating factors only occurs directly from teacher to student during an initiation and cannot be simply learned from a book.  Many techniques are also commonly said to be secret, but some Vajrayana teachers have responded that secrecy itself is not important and only a side-effect of the reality that the techniques have no validity outside the teacher-student lineage.<ref>Dhammasaavaka. 2005. ''The Buddhism Primer: An Introduction to Buddhism''. Lulu.com. ISBN 1411663349.</ref>
 
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−
Reginald Ray writes that "If these techniques are not practiced properly, practitioners may harm themselves physically and mentally. In order to avoid these dangers, the practice is kept "secret" outside the teacher/student relationship. Secrecy and the commitment of the student to the vajra guru are aspects of the [[samaya]] (Tib. ''damtsig''), or "sacred bond," that protects both the practitioner and the integrity of the teachings."<ref>Ray, Reginald A. ISBN 978-1570627729.</ref>
 
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Another interpretation{{Who|date=October 2007}} of the idea of "secret" teachings, is that even if they were to be told directly to a person, that person would not necessarily understand the teachings without proper context. In this way the teachings are "secret" to the minds of those who are not following the path with more than a curious investigation.{{Fact|date=October 2007}}
 
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The esoteric transmission framework can take varying forms. The [[Nyingma]] school of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] uses a method called [[Dzogchen]]. The Tibetan [[Kagyu]] school and the [[Shingon]] school in Japan use an alternative method called [[Mahamudra]].
 
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==Relationship with Mahayana==
 
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While tantra and esoterism distinguish Vajrayana Buddhism, from the Tibetan Buddhist point of view it is a form of [[Mahayana Buddhism]], as the endgoal of the practice is Buddhahood (in order to be of greatest benefit of other sentient beings).  [[Sutras]] important to Mahayana are generally important to Vajrayana, although Vajrayana adds some of its own (see [[Buddhist texts]], [[List of sutras]], [[Tibetan Buddhist canon]]).  The importance of [[bodhisattva]]s and a pantheon of deities in Mahayana carries over to Vajrayana, as well as the perspective that Buddhism and Buddhist spiritual practice are not intended just for ordained monks, but for the laity too.
 
−
 
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The Japanese Vajrayana teacher [[Kūkai]] expressed a view contrary to this by making a clear distinction between Mahayana and Vajrayana. Kūkai characterizes the Mahayana in its entirety as esoteric, and therefore provisional. From this point of view the esoteric Vajrayana is the only Buddhist teaching which is not a compromise with the limited nature of the audience to which it is directed, since the teachings are said to be the Dharmakaya (the principle of enlightenment) in the form of [[Mahavairocana]], engaging in a monologue with himself. From this view the Hinayana and Mahayana are provisional and compromised aspects of the Vajrayana - rather than seeing the Vajrayana as primarily a form of Mahayana Buddhism. This view is also found in Tibetan Buddhism, where it is taught that ultimately one can only become a Buddha by practicing tantra (even if only for the very last step of the path).
 
−
 
−
Some aspects of Vajrayana have also filtered back into Mahayana.  In particular, the Vajrayana fondness for powerful symbols may be found in weakened form in Mahayana temples where [[dharmapala|protector deities]] may be found glaring down at visitors.
 
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The Vajrayana has a rich array of vows of conduct and behavior which is based on the rules of the [[Pratimoksha]] and the [[Bodhisattva]] code of discipline. The ''Ornament for the Essence'' of Manjushrikirti states:
 
−
 
−
:Distance yourself from Vajra Masters who are not keeping the three vows
 
−
:who keep on with a root downfall, who are miserly with the Dharma,
 
−
:and who engage in actions that should be forsaken.
 
−
:Those who worship them go to hell and so on as a result.<ref>Tsoṅ-kha-pa Blo-bzaṅ-grags-pa, and Gareth Sparham. ISBN 978-0861712908.</ref>
 
−
 
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This as well as other sources express the need to build the Vajrayana on the foundation of the [[Pratimoksha]] and [[Bodhisattva vows]]. Lay persons can follow the lay ordination. The Ngagpa Yogis from the Nyingma school keep a special lay ordination.
 
−
 
−
Besides this, there are also special tantric vows that need to be kept when practicing the highest levels of tantra, which can vary somewhat depending on the specific practice.
 
  
 
==History of Vajrayana==
 
==History of Vajrayana==
 +
{{Buddhism}}
 
===India===
 
===India===
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There are differing views as to where Vajrayana began. Some believe it originated in [[Bengal]],<ref>Banerji, Sures Chandra. ''Tantra in Bengal A Study in Its Origin, Development, and Influence''. New Delhi: Manohar Publications, 1992. ISBN 978-8185425634.</ref> now divided between the [[India|Republic of India]] and [[Bangladesh]], with others claiming it began in [[Udyana|Uddiyana]], located by some scholars in the modern day [[Swat (Pakistan)|Swat Valley]] in [[Pakistan]], or in [[South India]]. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historical Shakyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are 'secret' teachings outside the teacher/disciple relationship, they were written down generally long after the Buddha's other teachings, known as [[sutras]].
+
There are differing views as to where in the Indian sub-continent Vajrayana began. Some believe it originated in [[Bengal]],<ref>Banerjee, S. C. ''Tantra in Bengal: A Study in Its Origin, Development and Influence''. Manohar. ISBN 8185425639.</ref> now divided between the [[India|Republic of India]] and [[Bangladesh]], with others claiming it began in [[Udyana|Uddiyana]], located by some scholars in the modern day [[Swat (Pakistan)|Swat Valley]] in [[Pakistan]], or in [[South India]]. In the [[Tibetan Buddhist]] tradition, it is claimed that the historical [[Gotama Buddha|Shakyamuni Buddha]] taught [[tantras|tantra]], but that since these are 'secret' teachings, confined to the [[guru]]/disciple relationship, they were generally written down long after the Buddha's other teachings, the [[Pali Canon]] and the  [[Mahayana sutras]].
  
−
The earliest texts appeared around the early [[4th century]].
+
The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. [[Nalanda|Nalanda University]] in northern India became a center for the development of Vajrayana theory, although it is likely that the university followed, rather than led, the early [[Tantric]] movement. India would continue as the source of leading-edge Vajrayana practices up until the 11th century producing many renowned [[Mahasiddha]].
−
[[Nalanda|Nalanda University]] in northern India became a center for the development of Vajrayana theory, although it is likely that the university followed, rather than led, the early Tantric movement. India would continue as the source of leading-edge Vajrayana practices up through the [[11th century]].
 
  
−
(Vajrayana) Buddhism had mostly died out in [[India]] by the [[13th century]], and tantric religions of Buddhism and Hinduism were also experiencing pressure from invading Islamic armies. By that time, the vast majority of the practices were also made available in Tibet, where they were preserved until recently.
+
(Vajrayana) Buddhism had mostly died out in [[India]] by the 13th century, and tantric religions of Buddhism and Hinduism were also experiencing pressure from invading Islamic armies. By that time, the vast majority of the practices were also available in Tibet, where they were preserved until recently.
  
−
In the second half of the [[20th century]] a sizable number of Tibetan exiles fled the oppressive, anti-religious rule of the [[PRC|Communist Chinese]] to establish Tibetan Buddhist communities in northern India, particularly around [[Dharamsala]].  They remain the primary practitioners of Tantric Buddhism in India and the entire world.
+
In the second half of the 20th century a sizable number of Tibetan exiles fled the oppressive, anti-religious rule of the [[PRC|Communist Chinese]] to establish Tibetan Buddhist communities in northern India, particularly around [[Dharamsala]].  They remain the primary practitioners of Tantric Buddhism in India and the entire world.
  
 
===China===
 
===China===
−
Vajrayana followed the same route into northern [[China]] as [[Buddhism]] itself, arriving from India via the [[Silk Road]] some time during the first half of the [[7th century]].  It arrived just as Buddhism was reaching its zenith in China, receiving sanction from the emperors of the [[Tang Dynasty]].  The Tang capital at [[Chang'an]] (modern-day [[Xi'an]]) became an important center for Buddhist studies, and Vajrayana ideas (東密)no doubt received great attention as pilgrim monks returned from India with the latest texts and methods (see [[Buddhism in China]], ''[[Journey to the West]]'').
+
Vajrayana followed the same route into northern [[China]] as [[Buddhism]] itself, arriving from [[India]] via the [[Silk Road]] some time during the first half of the 7th century.  It arrived just as Buddhism was reaching its zenith in China, receiving sanction from the emperors of the [[Tang Dynasty]].  The Tang capital at [[Chang'an]] (modern-day [[Xi'an]]) became an important center for Buddhist studies, and Vajrayana ideas no doubt received great attention as pilgrim monks returned from India with the latest texts and methods (see [[Buddhism in China]], ''[[Journey to the West]]'').
  
 
===Tibet and other Himalayan kingdoms===
 
===Tibet and other Himalayan kingdoms===
−
[[Image:Ladakhceremony.jpg|thumb|A Buddhist ceremony in [[Ladakh]].]]
+
[[Image:Young Monk in Shalu Monastery Shigatse Tibet Luca Galuzzi 2006.jpg|left|thumb|Young Monk in Shalu Monastery, [[Shigatse]], [[Tibet]]]]
−
[[Image:Young Monk in Shalu Monastery Shigatse Tibet Luca Galuzzi 2006.jpg|thumb|Young Monk in Shalu Monastery, [[Shigatse]], [[Tibet]]]]
+
In 747 the Indian master [[Padmasambhava]] traveled from [[Afghanistan]] to bring Vajrayana Buddhism to [[Tibet]] and [[Bhutan]], at the request of the king of Tibet. This was the original transmission which anchors the lineage of the [[Nyingma]] school.  During the 11th century and early 12th century a second important transmission occurred with the lineages of [[Atisa]], [[Marpa]] and [[Brogmi]], giving rise to the other schools of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], namely [[Kadam]], [[Kagyu]], [[Sakya]], and [[Geluk]] (the school of the [[Dalai Lama]]).
−
In 747 the Indian master [[Padmasambhava]] traveled from [[Afghanistan]] to bring Vajrayana Buddhism to [[Tibet]] and [[Bhutan]], at the request of the king of Tibet. This was the original transmission which anchors the lineage of the [[Nyingma]] school.  During the [[11th century]] and early [[12th century]] a second important transmission occurred with the lineages of [[Atisa]], [[Marpa]] and [[Brogmi]], giving rise to the other schools of [[Tibetan Buddhism]], namely [[Kadampa]], [[Kagyupa]], [[Sakyapa]], and [[Gelukpa]] (the school of the [[Dalai Lama]]).
 
  
 
===Japan===
 
===Japan===
−
In 804, [[Emperor Kammu]] sent the intrepid monk [[Kūkai]] to the [[Tang Dynasty]] capital at [[Chang'an]] (present-day [[Xi'an]]) to retrieve the latest Buddhist knowledge.  Kūkai absorbed the Vajrayana thinking (東密) and synthesized a version which he took back with him to Japan, where he founded the [[Shingon]] school of Buddhism, a school which continues to this day.
+
In 804, [[Emperor Kammu]] sent the intrepid monk [[Kūkai]] to the [[Tang Dynasty]] capital at [[Chang'an]] (present-day [[Xi'an]]) to retrieve the latest Buddhist knowledge.  Kūkai absorbed the Vajrayana thinking and synthesized a version which he took back with him to Japan, where he founded the [[Shingon]] school of Buddhism, a school which continues to this day.
  
 
===Malay Archipelago===
 
===Malay Archipelago===
−
In the late [[8th century]], Indian models of Vajrayana traveled directly to the island of [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] in the Malay Archipelago where a huge temple complex at [[Borobudur]] was soon built. The empire of [[Srivijaya]] was a centre of Vajrayana learning and [[Atisha]] studied there under [[Serlingpa]], an eminent Buddhist scholar and a prince of the Srivijayan ruling house. Vajrayana Buddhism survived in both islands as well as the [[Malay Peninsula]] until eclipsed  by [[Islam]] in the late [[13th century]] and early [[14th century]].
+
In the late 8th century, Indian models of Vajrayana traveled directly to the island of [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] in the Malay Archipelago where a huge temple complex at [[Borobudur]] was soon built. The empire of [[Srivijaya]] was a centre of Vajrayana learning and [[Atisha]] studied there under [[Serlingpa]], an eminent Buddhist scholar and a prince of the Srivijayan ruling house. Through the early economic relationships with the [[Srivijaya|Srivijaya Empire]] based on Sumatra, the Philippines came under the influence of the Vajrayana religion. Vajrayana Buddhism survived in both islands as well as the [[Malay Peninsula]] until eclipsed  by [[Islam]] in the late 13th century and early 14th century.
  
 
===Mongolia===
 
===Mongolia===
−
In the [[13th century]], long after the original wave of Vajrayana Buddhism had died out in China itself, two eminent Tibetan Sakyapa teachers, [[Sakya Pandita|Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyaltsen]] and [[Chogyal Phagpa]], visited the [[Mongolia]]n royal court. [[Marco Polo]] was serving the royal court at about the same time.  In a competition between [[Christian]]s, [[Muslims]], and Buddhists held before the royal court, [[Prince Godan]] found [[Tibetan Buddhism]] to be the most satisfactory and adopted it as his personal religion, although not requiring it of his subjects.  As [[Kublai Khan]] had just conquered China (establishing the [[Yuan Dynasty]]), his adoption of Vajrayana led to the renewal of Tantric practices in China as the ruling class found it useful to emulate their leader.
+
In the 13th century, long after the original wave of Vajrayana Buddhism had died out in China itself, two eminent Tibetan Sakyapa teachers, [[Sakya Pandita|Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyaltsen]] and [[Chogyal Phagpa]], visited the [[Mongolia]]n royal court. In a competition among [[Christian]]s, [[Muslims]], and Buddhists held before the royal court, [[Prince Godan]] found [[Tibetan Buddhism]] to be the most satisfactory and adopted it as his personal religion, although not requiring it of his subjects.  As [[Kublai Khan]] had just conquered China (establishing the [[Yuan Dynasty]]), his adoption of Vajrayana led to the renewal of Tantric practices in China as the ruling class found it useful to emulate their leader.
  
−
Vajrayana would decline in China and Mongolia with the fall of the Yuan Dynasty, to be replaced by resurgent [[Daoism]], [[Confucianism]], and [[Pure Land Buddhism]].  However, Mongolia would see yet another revival of Vajrayana in the [[17th century]], with the establishment of ties between the [[Dalai Lama]] in Tibet and the remnants of the [[Mongol Empire]]. This revived the historic pattern of the spiritual leaders of Tibet acting as priests to the rulers of the Mongol empire.   Tibetan Buddhism is still practiced as a folk religion in Mongolia today despite more than 65 years of state-sponsored communism.
+
Vajrayana practice declined in China and Mongolia with the fall of the [[Yuan Dynasty]], to be replaced by resurgent [[Daoism]], [[Confucianism]], and [[Pure Land Buddhism]].  However, Mongolia saw another revival of Vajrayana in the 17th century, with the establishment of ties between the [[Dalai Lama]] in Tibet and the Mongolian princedoms. This revived the historic pattern of the spiritual leaders of Tibet acting as priests to the rulers of the [[Mongol empire]]. Tibetan Buddhism is still practiced as a folk religion in Mongolia today despite more than 65 years of state-sponsored communism.
  
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==See also==
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==Notes==
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* [[Buddhism in Bhutan]]
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{{reflist|2}}
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* [[Buddhism in Russia]]
 
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* [[:Category:Tibetan Buddhist teachers|Tibetan Buddhist teachers]]
 
  
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==Notes==
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==Further reading==
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<references />
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* ''Tantric Ethics: An Explanation of the Precepts for Buddhist Vajrayana Practice'' by Tson-Kha-Pa, ISBN 0-86171-290-0
 +
* ''Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows'' by Ngari Panchen, Dudjom Rinpoche, ISBN 0-86171-083-5
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* ''Buddhist Ethics (Treasury of Knowledge)'' by Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Taye, ISBN 1-55939-191-X
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* ''Āryadeva's Lamp that Integrates the Practices (Caryāmelāpakapradīpa): The Gradual Path of Vajrayāna Buddhism according to  the Esoteric Community Noble Tradition'', ed. and trans by Christian K. Wedemeyer (New York: AIBS/Columbia Univ. Press, 2007). ISBN 978-0-9753734-5-3
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* [http://www.indiaclub.com/Shop/SearchResults.asp?ProdStock=18611 Tantra in Bengal: A Study of Its Origin, Development and Influence] by S. C. Banerji
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
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Revision as of 16:35, 18 October 2008

Vajrayana Buddhism is also known as Tantric Buddhism, Tantrayāna, Mantrayana, Mantranaya, Secret Mantra, Esoteric Buddhism and the Diamond Vehicle (Chinese: 金剛乘, jīngāngshèng, or Mìzōng (密宗) Japanese: 金剛乗, kongōjō, 密教 Mikkyō, Nepal Bhasa:बज्रयान Bajrayan ). These terms are not regarded as equivalent. Vajrayana is as an extension of Mahayana Buddhism since it differs in its practices, rather than its philosophy. The Mahayana has two practice paths: the Sutrayana method of perfecting good qualities and the Vajrayāna method of taking the intended outcome of Buddhahood as the path. The Vajrayana requires mystical experience in order to experience Buddha-nature prior to full enlightenment. In order to transmit these experiences, a body of esoteric knowlege has been accumulated by Buddhist tantric yogis and is passed via lineages of transmission. In order to access this knowledge, the practitioner requires initiation from a skilled spiritual teacher or guru.[1]

The Vajrayana is often viewed as the third major Yana (or 'vehicle') of Buddhism, alongside the Theravada and Mahayana. According to this view, there were three 'turnings of the wheel of dharma'[2]. In the first turning Shakyamuni Buddha taught the dharma as the Four Noble Truths at Varanasi which led to the Hinayana schools, of which only the Theravada remain today. In the second turning the Perfection of Wisdom sutras were taught at Vulture's Peak and led to the Mahayana schools. The teachings which constituted the third turning of the wheel of dharma were taught at Shravasti and expounded that all beings have Buddha Nature. This third turning is described as having led to the Vajrayana.

Nomenclature and etymology

Sanskrit: Mantrayana, Vajrayana,
Tibetan: rdo rje theg pa
Nepal Bhasa: Bajrayan
Japanese: mikkyō
Korean: milgyo
Mongolian: очирт хөлгөн, тарнийн ёс, vcirtu kölgen, tarni yin yosu
Vietnamese: mật tông
English: Diamond Path, Indestructible Path, Mantra Method,

The term "vajra" denoted the thunderbolt, a legendary weapon and divine attribute that was made from an adamantine, or indestructible, substance and which could therefore pierce and penetrate any obstacle or obfuscation. As a secondary meaning, "vajra" refers to this indestructible substance, and so is sometimes translated as "adamantine" or "diamond". So the Vajrayana is sometimes rendered in English as "The Adamantine Vehicle" or "The Diamond Vehicle".

A vajra is also a scepter-like ritual object, which has a sphere (and sometimes a gankyil) at its centre, and a variable number of spokes (depending on the sadhana), enfolding either end of the rod. The vajra is often traditionally employed in tantric rituals in combination with the bell or ghanta; symbolically, the vajra may represent method and the bell stands for wisdom.

It is from the tantra that Vajrayana Buddhism gets the alternative names of Mantrayana and Tantrayana.

Vajra is also believed to be the weapon of ancient Hindu god Indra, which was made out of the sacrificial offerings of the bones of Rishi Dadhichi.

Sub-schools

Although there is historical evidence for Vajrayana Buddhism in Southeast Asia and elsewhere (see 'History of Vajrayana' section below) today the Vajrayana exists primarily in the form of two major sub-schools:

Tibetan Buddhism

Main article: Tibetan Buddhism

The Tibetan Buddhist schools, based on the lineages and textual traditions of the Kangyur and Tengyur of Tibet, are found in Tibet, Bhutan, northern India, Nepal, southwestern and northern China, Mongolia and various constituent republics of Russia that are adjacent to the area, such as Amur Oblast, Buryatia, Chita Oblast, the Tuva Republic and Khabarovsk Krai. Tibetan Buddhism is also the main religion in Kalmykia.

Vajrayana Buddhism was established in Tibet in the 8th Century when Śāntarakṣita was brought to Tibet from India at the instigation of the Dharma King Trisong Detsen, some time before 767 C.E. He established the Nyingma school. As a Tantric Mahasiddha Padmasambhava's contribution ensured that Tibetan Buddhism became part of the Vajrayana tradition. While Vajrayana Buddhism is a part of Tibetan Buddhism, in that it forms a core part of every major Tibetan Buddhist school, it is not identical with it. Buddhist scholar Alexander Berzin refers to "the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions of Tibetan Buddhism"[3]. The Vajrayana techniques which add 'skillful means' to the general Mahayana teachings for advanced students. The 'skillful means' of the Vajrayana in Tibetan Buddhism refers to tantra techniques of tantra, Dzogchen (Tibetan:maha-ati) and Mahamudra (Tibetan:Chagchen).

Shingon Buddhism

Kamakura Budda Daibutsu front 1885.jpg
Japanese
Buddhism

Schools

Tendai • Shingon
Pure Land • Zen
Nichiren

Founders

Saichō • Kūkai
Hōnen • Shinran
Dōgen • Eisai • Ingen
Nichiren

Sacred Texts

Avatamsaka Sutra
Lotus Sutra
Prajnaparamita
Heart Sutra
Infinite Life Sutra
Main article: Shingon Buddhism

The Shingon school is found in Japan and includes practices, known in Japan as Mikkyo, which are similar in concept to those in Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism. The lineage for Shingon Buddhism differs from that of Tibetan Vajrayana, having emerged from India (via China) and is based on earlier versions of the Indian texts than the Tibetan lineage. Shingon shares material with Tibetan Buddhism - such as the esoteric sutras (called Tantras in Tibetan Buddhism) and mandala - but the actual practices are not related. The primary texts of Shingon Buddhism are the Mahavairocana Sutra and Vajrasekhara sutra. The founder of Shingon Buddhism was Kukai, a Japanese monk who studied in China in the 9th Century during the Tang Dynasty and brought back Vajrayana scriptures, techniques and mandalas popular in China. This versiony died out in China towards the end of the Tang Dynasty but flourished in Japan. Shingon is one of the very few remaining branches of Buddhism in the world that continues to use the siddham script of the Sanskrit language.

Although the Tendai school in Japan does employ some esoteric practices they are peripheral and therefore Tendai is not seen as a truly esoteric school. The esoteric rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the exoteric teachings of the Lotus Sutra. By chanting Mantras, maintaining Mudras, or performing certain meditations, one is able to see that the sense experiences are the teachings of Buddha, have faith that one is inherently an enlightened being, and one can attain enlightenment within this very body.

Newar Buddhism

Newar Buddhism is practiced by Newars in Nepal. This is the only Bajrayan Buddhism in which scriptures are written in Sanskrit. The priests do not follow celibacy and are called Bajracharyas.

Relationship with Mahayana

According to Tibetan Buddhist practitioner and teacher Tenzin Palmo:

Vajrayana shares its philosophy with Mahayana. The Vajrayana is not a philosophy. It is a practice technique and a view, or vision. It takes its philosophical stance from the Mahayana. Actually it seems to be a combination of Yogachara and Madhyamaka viewpoints.[4]

According to Khenpo Palden Sherab, Vajrayana view is based upon the Prajnaparamita which "is the basis of every practice."[5]

While tantra and esoterism distinguish Vajrayana Buddhism, from the Tibetan Buddhist point of view it is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, rooted in the same philosophical approach to Buddha's teachings. Sutras important to Mahayana are important to Vajrayana, although Vajrayana adds texts of its own, primarily the tantras. The importance of bodhisattvas and a pantheon of deities in Mahayana carries over to Vajrayana, as well as the perspective that Buddhism and Buddhist spiritual practice are not intended just for ordained monks, but for the laity too.

The Japanese Vajrayana teacher Kūkai expressed a view that appears contrary to the Tibetan Buddhist perspective as it makes a clear distinction between Mahayana and Vajrayana. Kūkai characterises the Mahayana in its entirety as exoteric, and therefore provisional. From this point of view the esoteric Vajrayana is the only Buddhist teaching which is not a compromise with the limited nature of the audience to which it is directed, since the teachings are said to be the Dharmakaya (the principle of enlightenment) in the form of Mahavairocana, engaging in a monologue with himself.[citation needed] From this view, the Hinayana and Mahayana can be seen as provisional and compromised aspects of the Vajrayana.

Some aspects of Vajrayana have filtered back into Mahayana. In particular, the Vajrayana fondness for powerful symbols may be found in weakened form in Mahayana temples where protector deities may be found glaring down at visitors.

Distinguishing features of Vajrayana

File:Ladakhceremony.jpg
A Buddhist ceremony in Ladakh.

The goal of spiritual practice within the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions is to become a Buddha by following the bodhisattva path, whereas the alternative goal for Theravada practice is liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) by achieving nirvana. For a comparison of the various practices of laypeople in the Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana schools see contemporary Buddhist householder practices. The distinction between these traditions is not always rigid. For example, the tantra sections of the Tibetan Buddhist canon of texts sometimes include material not usually thought of as tantric outside the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, such as the Heart Sutra[6] and even versions of material found in the Pali Canon.[7].[8]

As with the Mahayana, motivation is a vital component of Vajrayana practice, and all practices are undertaken with the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. Dalai Lama XIV has said that

"Tantra is limited to persons whose compassion is so great that they cannot bear to spend unnecessary time in attaining Buddhahood, as they want to be a supreme source of help and happiness for others quickly"[9]

The Vajrayana is based on the concept of 'skillful means' (Sanskrit: upaya) as formulated in Mahayana Buddhism. It is a system of lineages, whereby those who succesfully receive an initiation (permission to practice) are seen to share in the mindstream of the realisation of a particular 'skillful means' of the vajra Master. In the Vajrayana these 'skillful means' mainly relate to tantric, Mahamudra or Dzogchen practices. According to the traditions and lineages, the Vajrayana techniques provide an accelerated path to enlightenment (explained below). Whereas earlier (Theravada and Mahayana) schools might provide ways to achieve nirvana over the course of many lifetimes, Vajrayana techniques are said to make full enlightenment or buddhahood possible in a shorter time, perhaps in a single lifetime. Vajrayana teacher Tenzin Palmo describes the different approaches to Buddhist practice:

According to the Hinayana school of Buddhism, we are trapped in this realm of endless birth, death, rebirth and re-death because we desire things and hold on to them so tightly... The Hinayana school places emphasis on eradicating even the finest roots of our desire. According to the Mahayana, it is because of our ignorance that we are trapped on this wheel... Everything we think reflects a misapprehension of how things really are. Therefore our task is to develop what is called "transcendental wisdom", which will eradicate the very roots of our ignorance. According to Vajrayana, we are trapped in this realm of endless birth and death because of our impure perceptions. We believe that what we see is solid, ordinary, and defiled. The antidote to this is to develop pure perception".[10]

Vajrayana Buddhists do not claim that Theravada or Mahayana practices are invalid; on the contrary, the teachings from those traditions are said to lay an essential foundational understanding on which the Vajrayana practices may be built. While the Mahayana and Theravada paths are said to be paths to enlightenment in their own right, the teachings from each of those vehicles must be heeded for the Vajrayana techniques to be effective.

Path of the fruit

The Two truths doctrine is a central concept in the Vajrayana practice path and is the philosophical basis for its methods. The Two Truths identifies 'conventional' and 'ultimate' truths. Conventional truth is the truth of consensus reality, common sense notions of what does and does not exist. Ultimate truth is reality as viewed by an awakened, or enlightened mind. In the 'Sutrayana' practice path of the Mahayana the 'path of the cause' is taken, whereby a practitioner starts with their potential Buddha-nature and nurtures it to produce the fruit of Buddhahood. In the Vajrayana the 'path of the fruit' is taken whereby the practitioner takes their inherant Buddha-nature as the means of practice. The premise is that since we inherently have an enlightened mind, practicing seeing the world in terms of ultimate truth can help us to attain our full Buddha-nature.[11] Experiencing ultimate truth is the purpose of all the various tantric techniques practiced in the Vajrayana. Apart from the advanced meditation practices such as Dzogchen and Mahamudra, which aim to experience the empty nature of the enlightened mind that can see ultimate truth, all practices are aimed in some way at purifying the impure perception of the practitioner to allow ultimate truth to be seen. These may be ngondro, or preliminary practices, or the more advanced techniques of the tantric sadhana.

Vows and behaviour

In general, practitioners of the Vajrayana need to abide by a various vows (samaya) of behaviour, based on the rules of the Pratimoksha vows and Bodhisattva vows for the lower levels of tantras. The special tantric vows need to be kept when practicing the highest levels of tantra (these can vary somewhat depending on the specific practice (for example, the Kalachakra tantra has its own set of vows). Apart from many different requirements for a tantric Master, which obviously includes these vows, also proper conduct is especially necessary for a qualified Vajrayana guru. The Ornament for the Essence of Manjushrikirti states:

Distance yourself from Vajra Masters who are not keeping the three vows
who keep on with a root downfall, who are miserly with the Dharma,
and who engage in actions that should be forsaken.
Those who worship them go to hell and so on as a result.[12]

The Ngagpa Yogis from the Nyingma school keep a special lay ordination.

Esoteric transmission (initiation) and secrecy

Vajrayana Buddhism is esoteric. In this context esoteric means that the transmission of certain accelerating factors only occurs directly from teacher to student during an initiation or empowerment and cannot be simply learned from a book. Many techniques are also commonly said to be secret, but some Vajrayana teachers have responded that secrecy itself is not important and only a side-effect of the reality that the techniques have no validity outside the teacher-student lineage.[13] In order to engage in Vajrayana practice, a student should have received such an initiation or permission. Reginald Ray writes that "If these techniques are not practiced properly, practitioners may harm themselves physically and mentally. In order to avoid these dangers, the practice is kept "secret" outside the teacher/student relationship. Secrecy and the commitment of the student to the vajra guru are aspects of the samaya (Tib. damtsig), or "sacred bond", that protects both the practitioner and the integrity of the teachings."[1]

The teachings may also be considered "self-secret" meaning that even if they were to be told directly to a person, that person would not necessarily understand the teachings without proper context. In this way the teachings are "secret" to the minds of those who are not following the path with more than a curious investigation.[14][15]

The esoteric transmission framework can take varying forms. The Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism uses a method called Dzogchen. The Tibetan Kagyu school and the Shingon school in Japan use an alternative method called Mahamudra.

Tantra techniques

According to the Vajrayana tradition,[16] at certain times the bodymind[17] is in a very subtle state which can be used by advanced practitioners to transform the mindstream. Such liminal times are known in Tibetan Buddhism as Bardo states and include such transistional states as during meditation, dreaming, sex and death.

Deity yoga

Deity yoga (Tibetan: lha'i rnal 'byor; Sanskrit: Devata-yoga) is the fundamental Vajrayana practice, often involving a sadhana liturgy and form, in which the practitioner visualizes themselves as the meditation Buddha or yidam. The purpose of Deity yoga is to bring the meditator to the realization that the deity and the practitioner are in essence the same, non-dual. By visualizing one's self and environment entirely as a projection of mind, it helps the practitioner become familiar with the mind's ability and habit of projecting conceptual layers over all experience. This experience undermines a habitual belief that views of reality and self are solid and fixed. Deity yoga enables the practitioner to release, or 'purify' him or herself from spiritual obscurations (Sanskrit: klesha) and to practice compassion and wisdom simultaneously.

Beer (2004: p.142) states:

Deity Yoga employs highly refined techniques of creative imagination, visualisation, and photism in order to self-identify with the divine form and qualities of a particular deity as the union of method or skilful means and wisdom. As His Holiness the Dalai Lama says, "In brief, the body of a Buddha is attained through meditating on it".[18]

Four Purities (Tibetan: yongs su dag pa bzhi; yongs dag bzhi)[19] In defining Vajrayana, Yuthok et al. identify the "Four Purities" which define the principal Tantric methodology of Deity Yoga that distinguishes it from the rest of Buddhism:

Vajrayana...is a subdivision of Mahayana, which may be divided into Sutrayana and Vajrayana (or Tantrayana). Vajrayana is regarded as a swifter path and is considered superior to Sutrayana. Whereas Sutrayana focuses on the causal method, Vajrayana teaches the Resultant method [sic] because it includes the 'four purities': (1) purity of environment (2) purity of body (3) purity of resources and (4) purity of deeds.[20]

Kalachakranet identifies and defines the "Four Purities" in a complementary though different fashion:

The main tantric practices can be summarised in the "Four Purities":

1. Seeing one's body as the body of the deity
2. Seeing one's environment as the pure land or mandala of the deity
3. Perceiving one's enjoyments as bliss of the deity, free from attachment
4. Performing one's actions only for the benefit of others (bodhicitta motivation, altruism)[21]

Imagery and ritual in deity yoga: representations of the deity, such as a statues (murti), paintings (thangka), or mandala, are often employed as an aid to visualization, in Deity yoga. Mandalas are sacred enclosures, sacred architecture that house and contain the uncontainable essence of a yidam. In the book, The World of Tibetan Buddhism, the Dalai Lama describes mandalas thus: “This is the celestial mansion, the pure residence of the deity.”

In the same context, all ritual in Vajrayana practice can be seen as aiding in this process of visualization and identification. The practitioner can use various hand implements such as a vajra, bell, hand-drum (damaru) or a ritual dagger (phurba), but also ritual hand gestures (mudras) can be made, special chanting techniques can be used, and in elaborate offering rituals or initiations, many more ritual implements and tools are used, each with an elaborate symbolic meaning to create a special environment for practice. Vajrayana has thus become a major inspiration in traditional Tibetan art.

Guru yoga

Guru yoga (or 'teacher practice') (Tibetan: bla ma'i rnal 'byor)[22] is a practice that has many variations, but may be understood as a tantric devotional process where the practitioners unite their mindstream with the mindstream of the guru. The guru is engaged as yidam, as a nirmanakaya manifestation of a Buddha. The process of guru yoga might entail visualization of an entire lineage of masters (refuge tree) as an invocation of the lineage. It usually involves visualization of the guru above or in front of the practitioner. Guru yoga may entail a liturgy or mantra such as the Prayer in Seven Lines (Tibetan: tshig bdun gsol 'debs)[23], an evocation and invocation of Padmasambhava, though this is neither necessary nor mandatory.

The Guru or spiritual teacher is essential as a guide during tantric practice, without their example, blessings and grace, genuine progress is held to be impossible for all but the most keen and gifted. Many tantric texts qualify the Three Jewels of Buddha, Dharama and Sangha (Triratna) thus: "Guru is Buddha, Guru is Dharma and Guru is Sangha" to reflect their importance for the disciple. The guru is considered even more compassionate and more potent than the Buddha because we can have a direct relationship with the guru.

Death yoga

Death yoga (or 'death practice') is another important aspect of Tantra techniques. Although it is called Death yoga, most of the practice actually happens during life. It is the accumulation of meditative practice that helps to prepare the practitioner for what they need to do at the time of death. At the time of death the mind is in a state (clear light) that can open the mind to enlightenment, when used very skillfully. It is said that masters like Lama Tsong Khapa used these techniques to achieve enlightenment during the death process. Actually, there are three stages at which it is possible to do this; at the end of the death process, during the bardo (or 'in between period') and during the process of rebirth. During these stages, the mind is in a very subtle state, and an advanced practitioner can use these natural states to make significant progress on the spiritual path. The Tibetan Book of the Dead is an important commentary for this kind of traditional practice.

This Death yoga should not be confused with normal meditation on death, which is a common practice within Buddhist traditions. In most non-tantra traditions it is done to reduce attachment and desire, and not to use the death process itself as a means to practice.

Generation and completion stage practice in the annutarayoga tantras

In the highest class of tantra, two stages of practice are distinguished. In the first stage of generation, one practices oneself in the identification with the meditational Buddha (yidam), generally until one can meditate single-pointedly on 'being' the deity (see above deity yoga). In the next stage of completion, one engages in practices with the subtle energy system of the body (chakras and energy channels etc.) to actualize the physical and mental transformation into the meditation Buddha. (Similar practices are also found in Hindu tantra and yoga.) In some Buddhist tantras, both stages can be practiced simultaneously, whereas in others, one first actualizes the generation stage before continuing with the completion stage practices.

Details of these practices are normally only explained to practitioners by their teachers after receiving an initiation or 'permission to practice'.

Classifications of tantra

New Translation Schools' tantric classification

The Sarma or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism (Gelug, Sakya, and Kagyu) divide the Tantras into four hierarchical categories, namely,

  • Kriyayoga
  • Charyayoga
  • Yogatantra
  • Anuttarayogatantra
    • further divided into "mother", "father" and "non-dual" tantras.

Ancient Translation School tantric classification

A different division is used by the Nyingma or Ancient school:

  • Three Outer Tantras:
    • Kriyayoga
    • Charyayoga
    • Yogatantra
  • Three Inner Tantras, which correspond to the Anuttarayogatantra:
    • Mahayoga
    • Anuyoga
    • Atiyoga (Tib. Dzogchen)
      • The practice of Atiyoga is further divided into three classes: Mental SemDe, Spatial LongDe, and Esoteric Instructional MenNgagDe.

Classifications and numerology

Numbers, numerology and the spirituality of numerals is key to the Twilight language and endemic to Vajrayana as it is throughout Indian religions. Numbers that are particularly frequent in classification are three, five and nine:

As Bucknell, et al. (1986: p.110) state [24]:

The fivefold classification presented in the tantras is remarkably comprehensive, embracing objects of every conceivable type; it includes the infamous set of 'five Ms' (fish, meat, wine, mudrā, sexual intercourse) and even a set of five 'body fluids' faeces, urine, blood, semen, flesh.[25] In addition it includes sets of doctrinal principles, such as the five skandhas (factors of existence), the four kāyas (Buddha-bodies) and the triad prajña, upāya, bodhicitta (wisdom, means, enlightenment-mind). For example, prajña, upāya, and bodhicitta are identified with the triads female/male/union, Amitābha/Akṣobhya/Vairocana, and so on, and are thus implicitly assigned to the water, fire, and space groups respectively.[26]

History of Vajrayana

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Pali Canon · Mahayana Sutras
Tibetan Canon

Comparative Studies
Culture · List of topics

India

There are differing views as to where in the Indian sub-continent Vajrayana began. Some believe it originated in Bengal,[27] now divided between the Republic of India and Bangladesh, with others claiming it began in Uddiyana, located by some scholars in the modern day Swat Valley in Pakistan, or in South India. In the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, it is claimed that the historical Shakyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but that since these are 'secret' teachings, confined to the guru/disciple relationship, they were generally written down long after the Buddha's other teachings, the Pali Canon and the Mahayana sutras.

The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nalanda University in northern India became a center for the development of Vajrayana theory, although it is likely that the university followed, rather than led, the early Tantric movement. India would continue as the source of leading-edge Vajrayana practices up until the 11th century producing many renowned Mahasiddha.

(Vajrayana) Buddhism had mostly died out in India by the 13th century, and tantric religions of Buddhism and Hinduism were also experiencing pressure from invading Islamic armies. By that time, the vast majority of the practices were also available in Tibet, where they were preserved until recently.

In the second half of the 20th century a sizable number of Tibetan exiles fled the oppressive, anti-religious rule of the Communist Chinese to establish Tibetan Buddhist communities in northern India, particularly around Dharamsala. They remain the primary practitioners of Tantric Buddhism in India and the entire world.

China

Vajrayana followed the same route into northern China as Buddhism itself, arriving from India via the Silk Road some time during the first half of the 7th century. It arrived just as Buddhism was reaching its zenith in China, receiving sanction from the emperors of the Tang Dynasty. The Tang capital at Chang'an (modern-day Xi'an) became an important center for Buddhist studies, and Vajrayana ideas no doubt received great attention as pilgrim monks returned from India with the latest texts and methods (see Buddhism in China, Journey to the West).

Tibet and other Himalayan kingdoms

File:Young Monk in Shalu Monastery Shigatse Tibet Luca Galuzzi 2006.jpg
Young Monk in Shalu Monastery, Shigatse, Tibet

In 747 the Indian master Padmasambhava traveled from Afghanistan to bring Vajrayana Buddhism to Tibet and Bhutan, at the request of the king of Tibet. This was the original transmission which anchors the lineage of the Nyingma school. During the 11th century and early 12th century a second important transmission occurred with the lineages of Atisa, Marpa and Brogmi, giving rise to the other schools of Tibetan Buddhism, namely Kadam, Kagyu, Sakya, and Geluk (the school of the Dalai Lama).

Japan

In 804, Emperor Kammu sent the intrepid monk Kūkai to the Tang Dynasty capital at Chang'an (present-day Xi'an) to retrieve the latest Buddhist knowledge. Kūkai absorbed the Vajrayana thinking and synthesized a version which he took back with him to Japan, where he founded the Shingon school of Buddhism, a school which continues to this day.

Malay Archipelago

In the late 8th century, Indian models of Vajrayana traveled directly to the island of Java and Sumatra in the Malay Archipelago where a huge temple complex at Borobudur was soon built. The empire of Srivijaya was a centre of Vajrayana learning and Atisha studied there under Serlingpa, an eminent Buddhist scholar and a prince of the Srivijayan ruling house. Through the early economic relationships with the Srivijaya Empire based on Sumatra, the Philippines came under the influence of the Vajrayana religion. Vajrayana Buddhism survived in both islands as well as the Malay Peninsula until eclipsed by Islam in the late 13th century and early 14th century.

Mongolia

In the 13th century, long after the original wave of Vajrayana Buddhism had died out in China itself, two eminent Tibetan Sakyapa teachers, Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyaltsen and Chogyal Phagpa, visited the Mongolian royal court. In a competition among Christians, Muslims, and Buddhists held before the royal court, Prince Godan found Tibetan Buddhism to be the most satisfactory and adopted it as his personal religion, although not requiring it of his subjects. As Kublai Khan had just conquered China (establishing the Yuan Dynasty), his adoption of Vajrayana led to the renewal of Tantric practices in China as the ruling class found it useful to emulate their leader.

Vajrayana practice declined in China and Mongolia with the fall of the Yuan Dynasty, to be replaced by resurgent Daoism, Confucianism, and Pure Land Buddhism. However, Mongolia saw another revival of Vajrayana in the 17th century, with the establishment of ties between the Dalai Lama in Tibet and the Mongolian princedoms. This revived the historic pattern of the spiritual leaders of Tibet acting as priests to the rulers of the Mongol empire. Tibetan Buddhism is still practiced as a folk religion in Mongolia today despite more than 65 years of state-sponsored communism.

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Ray, Reginald A. Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet. Shambhala Publications, Boston: 2001
  2. ↑ The Three Vehicles of the Teachings of the Buddha - at the Karmapa website
  3. ↑ Berzin Archives. Retrieved 2008-06-22.
  4. ↑ Palmo, Tenzin (2002). Reflections on a Mountain Lake:Teachings on Practical Buddhism. Snow Lion Publications, p.224. ISBN I-55939-175-8. 
  5. ↑ Sherab, Khenpo Palden (1999). Ceaseless Echoes of the Great Silence: A Commentary on the Heart Sutra, Prajnaparamita. Sky Dancer Press, p. 35. ISBN ISBN 1-880976-01-7. 
  6. ↑ Conze, The Prajnaparamita Literature
  7. ↑ Skilling, Mahasutras, volume I, parts I & II, 1997, Pali Text Society, page 78, speaks of the tantra divisions of some editions of the Kangyur as including Sravakayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana texts
  8. ↑ Peter Skilling, Mahasutras, volume I, 1994, Pali Text Society[1], Lancaster, page xxiv
  9. ↑ quoted in p. 111 of Jeffrey Hopkins's Meditation on Emptiness, Wisdom Publication, 1996, ISBN 0861711106.
  10. ↑ Palmo, Tenzin (2002). Reflections on a Mountain Lake:Teachings on Practical Buddhism. Snow Lion Publications, p.223. ISBN 1-55939-175-8. 
  11. ↑ Palmo, Tenzin (2002). Reflections on a Mountain Lake:Teachings on Practical Buddhism. Snow Lion Publications, pp.224-5. ISBN 1-55939-175-8. 
  12. ↑ Tantric Ethics: An Explanation of the Precepts for Buddhist Vajrayana Practice by Tsongkhapa, ISBN 0-86171-290-0, page 46
  13. ↑ Dhammasaavaka. The Buddhism Primer: An Introduction to Buddhism, p. 79. ISBN 1411663349
  14. ↑ Morreale, Don (1998) The Complete Guide to Buddhist America ISBN 1-57062-270-1 p.215
  15. ↑ Trungpa, Chögyam and Chödzin, Sherab (1992) The Lion's Roar: An Introduction to Tantra ISBN 0-87773-654-5 p. 144
  16. ↑ Luminous Emptiness. 2001. Francesca Fremantle. Boston: Shambala Publications. ISBN 1-57062-450-X
  17. ↑ Arpaia, Joseph & D. Lobsang Rapgay (2004). Tibetan Wisdom for Modern Life. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1955-1.
  18. ↑ Beer, Robert (2004). The Encyclopedia of Tibetan Symbols and Motifs. Serindia Publications, Inc. ISBN 1932476105. p.142. Source: [2] (accessed: January 9, 2008)
  19. ↑ Source: [3] (accessed: January 3, 2008)
  20. ↑ Yuthok, Choedak (1997) p.27. Lamdre: Dawn of Enlightenment. (Transcribed and edited by Pauline Westwood with valued assistance from Ot Rastsaphong, Rob Small, Brett Wagland and Whitethorn. Cover Design: Rob Small) Canberra, Australia: Gorum Publications. ISBN 0 9587085 0 9. Source: [4] (accessed: January 3, 2008)
  21. ↑ Kalachakranet (2006). Tantric Practice. Source: [5] (Source: January 3, 2008)
  22. ↑ Rinpoche, Patrul (author); Brown, Kerry (ed.); and Sharma, Sima (ed.)(1994). The Words of My Perfect Teacher (Tibetan title: kunzang lama'i shelung). Translated by the Padmakara Translation Group. With a forward by the Dalai Lama. San Francisco, California, USA: HarperCollinsPublishers. ISBN 0-06-066449-5 (cloth: alk. paper). P.416
  23. ↑ Rinpoche, Patrul (author); Brown, Kerry (ed.); and Sharma, Sima (ed.)(1994). The Words of My Perfect Teacher (Tibetan title: kunzang lama'i shelung). Translated by the Padmakara Translation Group. With a forward by the Dalai Lama. San Francisco, California, USA: HarperCollinsPublishers. ISBN 0-06-066449-5 (cloth: alk. paper). P.442
  24. ↑ Bucknell, Roderick & Stuart-Fox, Martin (1986). The Twilight Language: Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism. Curzon Press: London. ISBN 0-312-82540-4
  25. ↑ On the 'five Ms', see Benjamin Walker, The Hindu World, vol. I (New York: Praeger, 1968), p.221; on the five 'body-fluids' see Elder, 'Problems of Language in Buddhist Tantra', pp.241 - 2.
  26. ↑ See Wayman, 'Female Energy and Symbolism', pp. 89-90; also Snellgrove, The Hevajra Tantra vol. I, p.27.
  27. ↑ Banerjee, S. C. Tantra in Bengal: A Study in Its Origin, Development and Influence. Manohar. ISBN 8185425639.

Further reading

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Bucknell, Roderick S., and Martin Stuart-Fox. The Twilight Language Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism. London: Curzon Press, 1986. ISBN 978-0312825409.
  • Tsoṅ-kha-pa Blo-bzaṅ-grags-pa, and Gareth Sparham. Tantric Ethics An Explanation of the Precepts for Buddhist Vajrayāna Practice. Boston, Mass: Wisdom Publications, 2005. ISBN 978-0861712908.
  • 'Jigs-bral-ye-śes-rdo-rje, and Padma-dbaṅ-rgyal <mṄa'-ris Paṇ-chen>. 1997. Perfect Conduct Ascertaining the Three Vows, Ngari Panchen, Pema Wangyi Gyalpo : Commentary. Boston, MA: Wisdom Publ. ISBN 978-0861710836.
  • Tayé, Jamgön Kongtrul Lodrö. 1998. Buddhist ethics. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications. ISBN 1559390662.

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