Difference between revisions of "Tsunami" - New World Encyclopedia

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''For other meanings of tsunami, see [[tsunami (disambiguation)]]''.{{Claimed}}
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[[Image:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake Maldives tsunami wave.jpg|thumb|250px|The tsunami that struck [[Malé]] in the [[Maldives]] on [[December 26]], [[2004]].]]
 
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A '''tsunami''' (pronounced {{IPA|/tsʊˈnɑːmi/}} or {{IPA|/sʊˈnɑːmi/}}) is a series of [[Ocean surface wave|waves]] created when a body of water, such as an [[ocean]] is rapidly displaced on a massive scale. [[Earthquake]]s, [[mass movement]]s above or below water, [[volcanic eruption]]s and other [[underwater explosion]]s, [[landslides]] and large [[meteorite impact]]s all have the potential to generate a tsunami.  The effects of a tsunami can range from unnoticeable to devastating. 
 
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The term ''tsunami'' comes from the [[Japanese language]] meaning ''harbour'' ("tsu", [[wikt:津|津]]) and ''wave'' ("nami", [[wikt:波|波]]).  Although in Japanese ''tsunami'' is used for both the singular and plural, in English ''tsunamis'' is often used as the plural. The term was created by fishermen who returned to port to find the area surrounding their [[harbour]] devastated, although they had not been aware of any [[wave]] in the open water.  Tsunamis are common throughout Japanese history, approximately 195 events in Japan have been recorded.
 
  
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A tsunami has a much smaller [[amplitude]] (wave heights) offshore, and a very long [[wavelength]] (often hundreds of kilometres long), which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a passing "hump" in the ocean. Tsunamis have been historically referred to as ''[[tidal wave]]s'' because as they approach land, they take on the characteristics of a violent onrushing [[tide]] rather than the sort of cresting waves that are formed by wind action upon the ocean (with which people are more familiar). Since they are not actually related to tides the term is considered misleading and its usage is discouraged by [[oceanographer]]s. [http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topics/canit.php] Since not all ''tsunamis'' occur in harbours, however, that term is equally misleading, although it does have the benefit of being misleading in a different language.
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[[Image:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake Maldives tsunami wave.jpg|thumb|250px|The tsunami that struck [[Malé]] in the [[Maldives]] on December 26, 2004.]]
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A '''tsunami''' ([[IPA]]: {{IPA|/(t)sʊˈnɑːmi/}}) is a series of [[wave]]s created when a body of water, such as an [[ocean]], is rapidly displaced. [[Earthquake]]s, [[mass movement]]s above or below water, [[volcanic eruption]]s and other [[underwater explosion]]s, [[landslides]], large [[impact event|meteorite impacts]], and [[nuclear weapon]]s testing at sea all have the potential to generate a tsunami. A tsunami can have a range of effects, from unnoticeable to devastating.
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A tsunami has a much smaller [[amplitude]] (wave height) offshore, and a very long [[wavelength]] (often hundreds of kilometers long). Consequently, they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a passing "hump" in the ocean.
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{{toc}}
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[[Image:Tsunami3.JPG|thumb|250px|Volcanic eruptions inject tons of wash in the oceanic soil, generating devastating waves]]
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[[Image:Tsunami4.JPG|thumb|250px|Submarine earthquakes dislocate the oceanic crust, pushing water upwards.]]
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Tsunami have been historically referred to as ''[[tidal wave]]s'' because, as they approach land, they take on the characteristics of a violent, onrushing [[tide]], rather than the sort of cresting waves formed by wind action on the ocean. Given that they are not actually related to tides, the term is considered misleading and its usage is discouraged by [[oceanographer]]s.<ref>[http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topics/canit.php Can It Happen Here?] ''USGS''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>
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== Etymology ==
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The term tsunami comes from the [[Japanese language|Japanese words]] (津波、つなみ) meaning ''[[harbor]]'' ("tsu," [[wikt:津|津]]) and ''[[Ocean surface wave|wave]]'' ("nami," [[wikt:波|波]]). [a. Jap. tsunami, tunami, f. ''tsu'' harbor + ''nami'' waves. - ''Oxford English Dictionary'']. For the plural, one can either follow ordinary English practice and add an ''s'', or use an invariable plural as in Japanese. The term was created by fishermen who returned to port to find the area surrounding their harbor devastated, although they had not been aware of any wave in the [[open water]]. Tsunami are common throughout [[Japanese history]]; approximately 195 events in Japan have been recorded.  
  
 
== Causes ==
 
== Causes ==
 
[[Image:Tsunami comic book style.png|right|thumb|Generation of a tsunami]]  
 
[[Image:Tsunami comic book style.png|right|thumb|Generation of a tsunami]]  
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Tsunamis can be generated when the [[sea floor]] abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Such large vertical movements of the Earth’s crust can occur at [[plate boundaries]]. [[Subduction]] earthquakes are particularly effective in generating tsunamis.
 
  
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Submarine [[landslide]]s (which are sometimes triggered by large earthquakes) as well as collapses of volcanic edifices may also disturb the overlying water column as sediment and rocks slide downslope and are redistributed across the sea floor. Similarly, a violent submarine volcanic eruption can uplift the water column and form a tsunami.
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A tsunami can be generated when the [[plate boundaries]] abruptly deform and vertically displace the overlying water. Such large vertical movements of the Earth’s crust can occur at plate boundaries. [[Subduction]] earthquakes are particularly effective in generating tsunami. Also, one tsunami in the 1940s in Hilo, Hawaii, was actually caused by an earthquake on one of the [[Aleutian Islands]] in Alaska. That earthquake was 7.8 on the [[Richter_Scale|Richter Scale]].  
  
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Tsunamis are [[gravity wave|surface gravity waves]] that are formed as the displaced water mass moves under the influence of [[gravity]] and radiate across the ocean like ripples on a pond.
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Tsunami are formed as the displaced water mass moves under the influence of [[gravity]] and radiates across the ocean like ripples on a pond.
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In the 1950s, it was discovered that larger tsunami than previously believed possible could be caused by [[landslide]]s, explosive volcanic action, and [[impact event]]s when they contact water. These phenomena rapidly displace large volumes of water, as energy from falling debris or expansion is transferred to the water into which the debris falls. Tsunami caused by these mechanisms, unlike the ocean-wide tsunami caused by some earthquakes, generally dissipate quickly and rarely affect coastlines distant from the source due to the small area of sea affected. These events can give rise to much larger local [[shock wave]]s ([[solitons]]), such as the landslide at the head of [[Lituya Bay]] which produced a water wave estimated at 50&nbsp;&ndash; 150&nbsp;m and reached 524&nbsp;m up local mountains. However, an extremely large landslide could generate a “[[megatsunami]]” that might have ocean-wide impacts.
  
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In the 1950s it was discovered that larger tsunamis than previously believed possible could be caused by landslides, explosive volcanic action, and [[impact event]]s. These phenomena rapidly displace large volumes of water, as energy from falling debris or expansion is transferred to the water into which the debris falls. Tsunamis caused by these mechanisms, unlike the ocean-wide tsunamis caused by some earthquakes, generally dissipate quickly and rarely affect coastlines distant from the source due to the small area of sea affected. These events can give rise to much larger local shock waves ([[solitons]]), such as the landslide at the head of [[Lituya Bay]] which produced a water wave estimated at 50&nbsp;&ndash; 150&nbsp;m and reached 524&nbsp;m up local mountains. However, an extremely large landslide could generate a [[megatsunami]] that might have ocean-wide impacts.
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The geological record tells us that there have been massive tsunami in Earth's past.
  
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The geological record tells us that there have been massive tsunamis in Earth's past.  These tsunamis were so large that they caused landslides on the opposite coast triggering another massive tsunami, or "bounce back" tsunami.  An example today would be a landslide equivalent to everything west of Portland (Oregon, USA) falling in to the Pacific ocean, resulting in a tsunami that would then hit the Chinese coast with enough force to erode the coast, triggering a landslide large enough to send a tsunami that would in turn inundate the US west coast and would wipe out Portland.
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== Signs of an approaching tsunami ==
  
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== Characteristics ==
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There is often no advance warning of an approaching tsunami. However, since earthquakes are often a cause of tsunami, an earthquake felt near a body of water may be considered an indication that a tsunami will shortly follow.
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[[Image:Tsunami by hokusai 19th century.jpg|thumb|right|300px|There is a common misconception that tsunamis behave like wind-driven waves or swells with air behind them, as in this celebrated nineteenth-century woodcut by Katsushika Hokusai. In fact, a tsunami is better understood as a new and suddenly higher sea level, which manifests as a shelf or shelves of water. The leading edge of a tsunami superficially resembles a breaking wave but behaves differently: the rapid rise in sea level, combined with the weight and pressure of the ocean behind it, has far greater force.]]
 
  
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Often referred to as "tidal waves", a tsunami does not look like the popular impression of "a normal wave, only much bigger". Instead it looks rather like an endlessly onrushing tide that forces its way around and through any obstacle. Most of the damage is caused by the huge mass of water behind the initial wave front, as the height of the sea keeps rising fast and floods power in the coastal area. The sheer weight of water is enough to pulverize objects in its path, often reducing buildings to their foundations and scouring exposed ground to the bedrock. Large objects such as ships and boulders can be carried several miles inland before the tsunami subsides.
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When the first part of a tsunami to reach land is a trough rather than a crest of the wave, the water along the shoreline may recede dramatically, exposing areas that are normally always submerged. This can serve as an advance warning of the approaching crest of the tsunami, although the warning arrives only a very short time before the crest, which typically arrives seconds to minutes later.<ref>[http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami/PNG/Upng/Davies020411/ The Aitape 1998 tsunami: Reconstructing the event from interviews and field mapping.] ''NOAA''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref> In the 2004 tsunami that occurred in the [[Indian Ocean]], the sea receding was not reported on the African coast or any other western coasts it hit, when the tsunami approached from the east.
  
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Tsunamis act very differently from typical surf swells: they contain immense energy, propagate at high speeds and can travel great trans-oceanic distances with little overall energy loss. A tsunami can cause damage thousands of kilometres from its origin, so there may be several hours between its createand its impacton a coastarriving long after the [[seismic wave]] generated by the originating event arrives. Although the total or overall loss of energy is small, the total energy is spread over a larger and larger circumference as the wave travels. The energy per linear metre in the wave proportional to the inverse of the distance from the source.{{fact}} (In other words, it decreases linearly with distance.) This is the two-dimensional equivalent of the [[inverse square law]], which is obeyed by waves which propagate in three dimensions (in a sphere instead of a circle).
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Tsunami occur most frequently in the Pacific Ocean, but are a global phenomenon; they are possible wherever large bodies of water are found, including inland lakes, where they can be caused by [[landslide]]s. Very small tsunami, non-destructive and undetectable without specialized equipment, occur frequently as a result of minor earthquakes and other events.
  
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A single tsunami event may involve a series of waves of varying heights; so the set of waves is called a ''train''. In open water, tsunamis have extremely long [[Periodicity|period]]s (the time for the next wave top to pass a point after the previous one), from minutes to hours, and long wavelengths of up to several hundred [[kilometres]]. This is very different from typical wind-generated swells on the ocean, which might have periods of about 10 seconds and wavelengths of 150 [[meter]]*s.
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== Warnings and prevention ==
  
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The height of a tsunami wave in open water is often less than one meter, and the height is spread over the wavelength of the tsunami which is multiple kilometers. This is unnoticeable to people on ships in deep water. Because it has such a large wavelength, the energy of a tsunami mobilizes the entire water column down to the sea bed. Typical [[ocean surface waves]] in deep water cause water motion to a depth equal to half their wavelength. This means that ocean surface wave motion will only reach down to a depth of a few 100&nbsp;m or less. Tsunamis, by contrast, behave as 'shallow water waves' in the deep ocean.  
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A tsunami can also be known to come when the water leaves an ocean or large body of water, and then the water in it causes a large series of waves to approach land.
  
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Because a tsunami behaves like a 'shallow water wave,' its speed is based on the depth of the water. Typically, a tsunami wave will travel across a deep ocean at an average speed of 400 to 500&nbsp;mph.(''[http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami/Faq/c_tsunami.htm#2]''). As the wave approaches land, the sea shallows and the tsunami wave no longer travels as quickly, so it begins to 'pile-up'; the wave-front becomes steeper and taller, and there is less distance between crests. While a person at the surface of deep water would probably not even notice the tsunami, the wave can increase to a height of six stories or more as it approaches the coastline and compresses. The steepening process is analogous to the cracking of a tapered [[whip]]. As a wave goes down the whip from handle to tip, the same energy is carried by less and less material, which as a consequence then moves more violently.
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[[Image:Tsunami wall.jpg|right|thumb|Tsunami wall at [[Tsu, Mie|Tsu]], [[Japan]]]]
  
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A wave becomes a 'shallow-water wave' when the ratio between the water depth and its wavelength gets very small, and since a tsunami has an extremely large wavelength (hundreds of kilometres), tsunamis act as a shallow-water wave even in deep oceanic water. Shallow-water waves move at a speed that is equal to the [[square root]] of the product of the [[acceleration]] of gravity (9.8&nbsp;m/s<sup>2</sup>) and the water depth. For example, in the [[Pacific Ocean]], where the typical water depth is about 4000&nbsp;m, a tsunami travels at about 200&nbsp;m/s (720&nbsp;km/h or 450&nbsp;mph) with little energy loss, even over long distances. At a water depth of 40&nbsp;m, the speed would be 20&nbsp;m/s (about 72&nbsp;km/h or 45&nbsp;mph), which is much slower than the speed in the open ocean but the wave would still be difficult to outrun.
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Tsunami cannot be prevented or precisely predicted, but there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and there are many systems being developed and in use to reduce the damage from tsunami.
  
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Tsunamis propagate outward from their source, so coasts in the "shadow" of affected land masses are usually fairly safe. However, tsunami waves can [[diffraction|diffract]] around land masses. They are also not necessarily [[symmetrical]]; tsunami waves may be much stronger in one direction than another, depending on the nature of the source and the surrounding [[geography]].
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In instances where the leading edge of the tsunami wave is its trough, the sea will recede from the coast half of the wave's period before the wave's arrival. If the slope is shallow, this recession can exceed many hundreds of meters. People unaware of the danger may remain at the shore due to curiosity, or for collecting shellfish from the exposed seabed.
  
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Local geographic peculiarities can lead to [[seiche]] or standing waves forming, which can amplify the onshore damage. For instance, the tsunami that hit Hawaii on [[April 1]], [[1946]] had a fifteen-minute interval between wave fronts. The natural resonant period of [[Hilo]] Bay is about thirty minutes. That meant that every second wave was in phase with the motion of Hilo Bay, creating a seiche in the bay. As a result, Hilo suffered worse damage than any other place in Hawaii, with the tsunami/seiche reaching a height of 14&nbsp;m and killing 159 inhabitants.
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Regions with a high risk of tsunami may use [[tsunami warning system|tsunami warning systems]] to detect tsunami and warn the general population before the wave reaches land. In some communities on the west coast of the United States, which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunami, warning signs advise people where to run in the event of an incoming tsunami. [[Computer model]]s can roughly predict tsunami arrival and impact based on information about the event that triggered it and the shape of the seafloor ([[bathymetry]]) and coastal land ([[topography]]).<ref>[http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/tsunami_story.html The Tsunami Story]. ''NOAA''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>
  
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== Signs of an approaching tsunami ==
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One of the early warnings comes from nearby animals. Many [[animal]]s sense danger and flee to higher ground before the water arrives. The [[Lisbon]] quake is the first documented case of such a phenomenon in Europe. The phenomenon was also noted in [[Sri Lanka]] in the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4381395.stm Tsunami: Anatomy of a disaster]. ''BBC News''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref> Some scientists speculate that animals may have an ability to sense subsonic [[Rayleigh waves]] from an earthquake minutes or hours before a tsunami strikes shore<ref>Christine Kenneally, 2004, [http://www.slate.com/id/2111608 Surviving the Tsunami]. ''Slate''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>). More likely, though, is that the certain large animals (e.g., elephants) heard the sounds of the tsunami as it approached the coast. The [[elephant]]s' reactions were to go in the direction opposite of the noise, and thus go inland. Humans, on the other hand, head down to the shore to investigate.
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There is often no advance warning of an approaching tsunami. However, since earthquakes are often a cause of tsunami, an earthquake felt near a body of water may be considered an indication that a tsunami will shortly follow.  
 
  
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When the first part of a tsunami to reach land is a trough rather than a crest of the wave, the water along the shoreline may recede dramatically, exposing areas that are normally always submerged. This can serve as an advance warning of the approach crest of the tsunami, although the warning arrives only a very short time before the crest, which typically arrives seconds to minutes later.[http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami/PNG/Upng/Davies020411/]
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While it is not possible to prevent tsunami, in some particularly tsunami-prone countries some measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore. Japan has implemented an extensive programme of building [[tsunami wall|tsunami walls]] of up to 4.5 m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated coastal areas. Other localities have built floodgates and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunami. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunami are often higher than the barriers. For instance, the tsunami which struck the island of [[Hokkaidō]] on July 12, 1993 created waves as much as 30 m (100 ft) tall - as high as a ten-story building. The port town of [[Aonae]] was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami, but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life.  
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Although in the 2004 tsunami in the indian ocean the sea receding was not reported on the African coast or any other western coasts that it hit, when the tsunami approached from the east.
 
  
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== Warnings and prevention ==
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The effects of a tsunami can be mitigated by natural factors such as tree cover on the shoreline. Some locations in the path of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami escaped almost unscathed as a result of the tsunami’s energy being sapped by a belt of trees such as [[coconut palm]]s and [[mangrove]]s. In one striking example, the village of [[Naluvedapathy]] in India's [[Tamil Nadu]] region suffered minimal damage and few deaths as the wave broke up on a forest of 80,244 trees planted along the shoreline in 2002 in a bid to enter the [[Guinness Book of Records]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4269847.stm Tsunami villagers give thanks to trees.] ''BBC News''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref> Environmentalists have suggested tree planting along stretches of seacoast which are prone to tsunami risks. While it would take some years for the trees to grow to a useful size, such plantations could offer a much cheaper and longer-lasting means of tsunami mitigation than the costly and environmentally destructive method of erecting artificial barriers.
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{| align=right
 
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| [[Image:Tsunamihazardzonesign.jpg|right|thumb|"Tsunami Hazard Zone" sign at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]]]]
 
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| [[Image:Tsunami wall.jpg|right|thumb|Tsunami wall at [[Tsu, Mie|Tsu]], Japan]]
 
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Tsunamis cannot be prevented or precisely predicted, but there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and there are many systems being developed and in use to reduce the damage from tsunamis.
 
  
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In instances where the leading edge of the tsunami wave is its trough, the sea will recede from the coast half of the wave's period before the wave's arrival. If the slope is shallow, this recession can exceed many hundreds of metres. People unaware of the danger may remain at the shore due to curiosity, or for collecting fish from the exposed sea bed.
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== Historic Tsunami ==
  
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Regions with a high risk of tsunamis may use [[tsunami warning system]]s to detect tsunamis and warn the general population before the wave reaches land. In some communities on the west coast of the United States, which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunamis, warning signs advise people where to run in the event of an incoming tsunami. [[Computer model]]s can roughly predict tsunami arrival and impact based on information about the event that triggered it and the shape of the seafloor ([[bathymetry]]) and coastal land ([[topography]]). [http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/tsunami_story.html]
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Tsunami occur most frequently in the Pacific Ocean, but are a global phenomenon; they are possible wherever large bodies of water are found, including inland lakes, where they can be caused by landslides. Very small tsunami, non-destructive and undetectable without specialized equipment, occur frequently as a result of minor earthquakes and other events.  
  
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One of the early warnings comes from nearby animals. Many animals sense danger and flee to higher ground before the water arrives. The Lisbon quake is the first documented case of such a phenomenon in Europe. The phenomenon was also noted in [[Sri Lanka]] in the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4381395.stm] Some scientists speculate that animals may have an ability to sense subsonic [[Rayleigh waves]] from an earthquake minutes or hours before a tsunami strikes shore (Kenneally, [http://www.slate.com/id/2111608]).
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Japan is the nation with the most recorded tsunami in the world. The earliest recorded disaster was the tsunami associated with the 684 C.E. [[Hakuho Earthquake]]. The number of tsunami in Japan totals 195 over a 1,313 year period, averaging one event every 6.7 years, the highest rate of occurrence in the world. These waves have hit with such violent fury that entire towns have been destroyed.  
  
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While it is not possible to prevent a tsunami, in some particularly tsunami-prone countries some measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore. Japan has implemented an extensive programme of building tsunami walls of up to 4.5 m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated coastal areas. Other localities have built floodgates and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunamis. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunamis are often higher than the barriers. For instance, the tsunami which hit the island of [[Hokkaidō]] on [[July 12]], [[1993]] created waves as much as 30 m (100 ft) tall - as high as a 10-story building. The port town of [[Aonae]] was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life.
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The destruction of much of [[Alexandria]] on August 21, 365 C.E. is presently attributed to a tsunami. In the witness account collected soon afterward by [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] (in his "Roman history," book 26) all the typical features of a tsunami can be recognized: “The sea was driven back, and its waters flowed away to such an extent that the deep sea bed was laid bare, and many kinds of sea creatures could be seen. (…) Many ships were therefore stranded as if on dry land, and many people wandered freely (…) gathering fish and similar creatures (…) huge masses of water flowed back when least expected, and now overwhelmed and killed many thousands of people (…) Some great ships were hurled by the fury of the waves on to roof tops (as happened at Alexandria) and others were thrown up to two miles from the shore”<ref>Jean-Daniel Stanley and Thomas F. Jorstad. 2005. [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2005AM/finalprogram/abstract_96386.htm The 365 C.E. tsunami destruction of Alexandria, Egypt: erosion, deformation of strata and introduction of allochthonous material]. ''GSA''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>.
  
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The effects of a tsunami can be mitigated by natural factors such as tree cover on the shoreline. Some locations in the path of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami escaped almost unscathed as a result of the tsunami's energy being sapped by a belt of trees such as [[coconut palm]]s and [[mangrove]]s. In one striking example, the village of Naluvedapathy in India's [[Tamil Nadu]] region suffered minimal damage and few deaths as the wave broke up on a forest of 80,244 trees planted along the shoreline in 2002 in a bid to enter the [[Guinness Book of Records]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4269847.stm] Environmentalists have suggested tree planting along stretches of sea coast which are prone to tsunami risks. While it would take some years for the trees to grow to a useful size, such plantations could offer a much cheaper and longer-lasting means of tsunami mitigation than the costly and environmentally destructive method of erecting artificial barriers.
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In 1607, [[Bristol Channel]] floods resulted in the drowning of an estimated 2000 or more people, with houses and villages swept away, farmland inundated and livestock destroyed, wrecking the local economy along the coasts of the Bristol Channel, UK. Some churches have plaques up to 8ft above sea level to show how high the waters rose.
  
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== Historical tsunamis ==
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The cause of the flood is not yet proven, but a research paper published in the journal ''Archaeology in the Severn Estuary'' in 2002 following investigations by Professor Simon Haslett, from [[Bath Spa University]], and Australian geologist Ted Bryant, from the [[University of Wollongong]], proposed that the flooding was caused by a tsunami.  
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''See also [[List of natural disasters by death toll#Tsunami|List of historic tsunamis by death toll]].''
 
  
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Tsunamis occur most frequently in the Pacific Ocean, but are a global phenomenon; they are possible wherever large bodies of water are found, including inland lakes, where they can be caused by landslides. Very small tsunamis, non-destructive and undetectable without specialized equipment, occur frequently as a result of minor earthquakes and other events.  
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The [[British Geological Survey]] has suggested an earthquake on a known unstable [[Geologic fault|fault]] off the coast of [[Ireland]] causing the vertical displacement of the sea floor as the possible cause.
  
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Japan is a nation with the most recorded tsunamis in the world.  The earliest recorded disaster being that of the 684 C.E. Hakuho Quake. The number of tsunamis in Japan totals 195 over a 1,313 year period, averaging one event every 6.7 years, the highest rate of occurrence in the world.  These waves have hit with such violent fury that entire towns have been destroyed.
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=== 684 Kii Channel Earthquake, Japan ===
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The first recorded tsunami ever was in Japan on October 14, 684. It occurred off the shore of the [[Kii Peninsula]]. It has been estimated to be a magnitude 8.3. It was followed by a huge tsunami, but no estimates on how many deaths.
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On [[December 26]] 2004, an undersea earthquake measuring 9.3 on the Earthquake Magnitude scale occurred 160&nbsp;km (100 mi) off the western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia. It was the fifth largest earthquake in recorded history and generated massive tsunamis, which caused widespread devastation when they hit land, leaving an estimated 230,000 people dead in countries around the Indian Ocean
 
  
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<sup> [http://www.rekihaku.ac.jp/e_news/index75/index.html] </sup>
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=== 1096/1099 Quakes, Japan ===
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[[Suruga Bay]] and [[Izu Peninsula]] experienced great tsunamis in 1096, followed by [[Shikoku]] and [[Kii Peninsula]] great tsunami of 1099. The magnitudes of both are estimated to have been in the 8 range.
  
 
=== 1700 - Vancouver Island, Canada ===
 
=== 1700 - Vancouver Island, Canada ===
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[[January 26]] - The [[Cascadia Earthquake]], one of the largest earthquakes on record (estimated MW 9.3 magnitude), ruptured the Cascadia subduction zone (CSZ) offshore from [[Vancouver Island]] to northern California, and caused massive tsunamis across the [[Pacific Northwest]] logged in Japan and oral traditions of the Native Americans. Brian F. ATWATER, MUSUMI-ROKKAKU Satoko, SATAKE Kenji, TSUJI Yoshinobu, UEDA Kazue, and David K. YAMAGUCH prepared a "scientific detective story" investigating this tsunami entitled ''The Orphan Tsunami of 1700—Japanese Clues to a Parent Earthquake in North America''. This document is downloadable and available [http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/pp1707/ online:].
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January 26, 1700 - The [[Cascadia Earthquake]], one of the largest earthquakes on record (estimated MW 9 magnitude), ruptured the [[Cascadia subduction zone]] (C[[subduction zone|SZ]]) offshore from [[Vancouver Island]] to northern California, and caused massive tsunami across the [[Pacific Northwest]] logged in Japan and oral traditions of the [[Native Americans]]. [[Brian Atwater|Brian F. Atwater]], Musumi-Rokkaku Satoko, Satake Kenji, Tsuji Yoshinobu, Ueda Kazue, and David K. Yamaguch prepared a "scientific detective story" investigating this tsunami entitled ''The Orphan Tsunami of 1700—Japanese Clues to a Parent Earthquake in North America''.<ref>''U.S. Geological Survey
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Professional Paper 1707.'' [http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/pp1707/ The Orphan Tsunami of 1700—Japanese Clues to a Parent Earthquake in North America]. ''USGS''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>
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=== 1703 Kanto Quake, Japan ===
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In Nov 23, 1703, an offshore earthquake produced a massive tsunami, hitting the southern shores of [[Kanagawa prefecture]]. [[Mount Fuji]] erupted, spewing heavy ash over [[Edo]] (now [[Tokyo]]). It was estimated to be magnitude 8.1, and 5,200 people died from the combined quake and tsunami, later more died from the ashfall crushing roofs.
  
 
=== 1755 - Lisbon, Portugal ===
 
=== 1755 - Lisbon, Portugal ===
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Tens of thousands of Portuguese who survived the great '''[[1755 Lisbon earthquake]]''' on [[November 1]] were killed by a tsunami which followed a half hour later. Many townspeople fled to the waterfront, believing the area safe from fires and from falling debris from aftershocks. Before the great wall of water hit the harbour, waters retreated, revealing lost cargo and forgotten shipwrecks.  
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Tens of thousands of Portuguese who survived the '''[[1755 Lisbon earthquake|Great Lisbon Earthquake]]''' on November 1 were killed by a tsunami which followed a half hour later. Many townspeople fled to the waterfront, believing the area safe from fires and from falling debris from aftershocks. Before the great wall of water hit the harbor, waters retreated, revealing lost [[cargo]] and forgotten [[shipwreck]]s. These people did not know that a Tsunami is a succession of waves, rather than just a single one.
  
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The earthquake, tsunami, and subsequent fires killed more than a third of Lisbon's pre-quake population of 275,000. Historical records of explorations by [[Vasco da Gama]] and other early navigators were lost, and countless buildings were destroyed (including most examples of Portugal's [[Manueline]] architecture). Europeans of the 18th century struggled to understand the disaster within [[religion|religious]] and [[rationality|rational]] belief systems. Philosophers of the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], notably [[Voltaire]], wrote about the event. The [[philosophy|philosophical]] concept of the [[sublime (philosophy)|sublime]], as described by philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] in the ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]'', took inspiration in part from attempts to comprehend the enormity of the Lisbon quake and tsunami.
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The earthquake, tsunami, and many forest fires killed between 60,000 and 100,000 of Lisbon's pre-quake population of 275,000. Historical records of explorations by [[Vasco da Gama]] and other early navigators were lost, and countless buildings were destroyed (including most examples of Portugal's [[Manueline]] architecture). Europeans of the eighteenth century struggled to understand the disaster within [[religion|religious]] and [[rationality|rational]] belief systems. Philosophers of the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], notably [[Voltaire]], wrote about the event. The [[philosophy|philosophical]] concept of the [[sublime (philosophy)|sublime]], as described by philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] in the ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]],'' took inspiration in part from attempts to comprehend the enormity of the Lisbon quake and tsunami.
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The tsunami took just over four hours to travel over 1000 miles to [[Cornwall#Tsunami in 1755|Cornwall]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. An account by [[Arnold Boscowitz]] (a century later) claimed "great loss of life."
  
 
=== 1771 - Yaeyama Islands, Okinawa, Japan ===
 
=== 1771 - Yaeyama Islands, Okinawa, Japan ===
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An undersea earthquake of estimated magnitude 7.4 occurred near [[Yaeyama Islands]] in [[Okinawa]], [[Japan]] on [[4 April]], [[1771]] at about 8am. The earthquake is not believed to have directly resulted in any deaths but a resulting tsunami is thought to have killed about 12000 people, (9313 on the Yaeyama Islands and 2548 on Miyako Islands according to one source([http://www3.pref.okinawa.jp/site/view/contview.jsp?cateid=41&id=3360&page=1]). Estimates of the highest seawater runup on [[Ishigaki Island]], range between 30 metres and 85.4 metres. The tsunami put an abrupt stop to population growth on the islands, and was followed by malaria epidemics and crop failures which decreased the population further. It was to be another 148 years before population returned to pretsunami level
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An undersea earthquake of estimated magnitude 7.4 occurred near [[Yaeyama Islands]] in [[Okinawa]], [[Japan]] on April 4, 1771 at about 8 <small>A.M.</small> The earthquake is not believed to have directly resulted in any deaths, but a resulting tsunami is thought to have killed about 12,000 people, (9313 on the Yaeyama Islands and 2548 on Miyako Islands according to one source. Estimates of the highest seawater runup on [[Ishigaki Island]], range between 30 meters and 85.4 meters. The tsunami put an abrupt stop to population growth on the islands, and was followed by [[malaria]] epidemics and crop failures which decreased the population further. It was to be another 148 years before population returned to its pre-tsunami level.
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=== 1792 - Tsunami in Kyūshū, Japan ===
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Tsunamis were the main cause of death for Japan's worst-ever volcanic disaster, due to an eruption of [[Mount Unzen]] in [[Nagasaki Prefecture]], [[Kyūshū]], [[Japan]]. It began towards the end of 1791 as a series of earthquakes on the western flank of Mount Unzen which gradually moved towards ''Fugen-daké,'' one of Mount Unzen's peaks. In February 1792, ''Fugen-daké'' started to erupt, triggering a lava flow which continued for two months. Meanwhile, the earthquakes continued, shifting nearer to the city of [[Shimabara, Nagasaki|Shimabara]]. On the night of May 21, two large earthquakes were followed by a collapse of the eastern flank of Mount Unzen's Mayuyama dome, causing an avalanche which swept through Shimabara and into Ariake Bay, triggering a tsunami. It is not known to this day whether the collapse occurred as a result of an eruption of the dome or as a result of the earthquakes. The tsunami struck [[Higo Province]] on the other side of [[Ariake Bay]] before bouncing back and hitting Shimabara again. Out of an estimated total of 15,000 fatalities, around 5,000 is thought to have been killed by the landslide, around 5000 by the tsunami across the bay in Higo Province, and a further 5000 by the tsunami returning to strike Shimabara.
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=== 1854 Ansei Nankai Quakes in South Coast of Japan===
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The Great Ansei Nankai quake, was actually set of three quakes, two magnitude 8.4 quakes and a 7.4 quake all in three days. The first on Nov. 4, 1854 near what is today [[Aichi Prefecture]] and [[Shizuoka Prefecture]] with tsunami, followed by another 8.4 the next day in [[Wakayama Prefecture]], which created a 10-meter high tsunami that hit the south coast of Japan. The third was a 7.4 quake on Nov. 7, 1854 in [[Ehime Prefecture]] and [[Oita Prefecture]]. The result was 80,000-100,000 deaths.<ref>[http://www.bo-sai.co.jp/anseinankai.htm 安政南海地震]. (Japanese). Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>
  
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=== 1792 - Tsunami in Kyushu, Japan caused by a collapsing volcano ===
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The following year, the 1854 Edo Ansei Quake hit ([[Tokyo]] region), killing 4,500 to 10,000 people. Popular stories of the time blamed the quakes and tsunamis on giant [[catfish]] thrashing about.
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Tsunami was the main cause of death for Japan's worst ever volcanic disaster, due to an eruption of [[Mount Unzen]] in [[Nagasaki Prefecture]], [[Kyushu]], [[Japan]]. It began towards the end of 1791 as a series of earthquakes on the western flank of Mount Unzen which gradually moved towards Fugen-dake, one of Mount Unzen's peaks. In February 1792, Fugen-dake started to erupt, triggering a lava flow which continued for two months. Meanwhile, the earthquakes continued, shifting nearer to the city of [[Shimabara, Nagasaki|Shimabara]]. On the night of 21st May, two large earthquakes were followed by a collapse of the eastern flank of Mount Unzen's Mayuyama dome, causing an avelanche which swept through Shimabara and into Ariake Bay, triggering a tsunami. It is not known to this day whether the collapse occurred as a result of an eruption of the dome or as a result of the earthquakes. The tsunami struck [[Higo Province]] on the other side of Ariake Bay before bouncing back and hitting Shimabara again. Out of an estimated total of 15,000 fatalities, around 5000 is thought to have been killed by the landslide, around 5000 by the tsunami across the bay in Higo Province, and a further 5000 by the tsunami returning to strike Shimabara.  
 
  
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=== 1868 - Hawaiian local tsunami generated by earthquake ===
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=== 1868 - Hawaiian Islands local tsunami generated by earthquake ===
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On [[April 2]], [[1868]], a local earthquake with a magnitude estimated between 7.25 and 7.75 rocked the southeast coast of the Big Island of [[Hawaii]]. It triggered a landslide on the slopes of the [[Mauna Loa]] volcano, five miles north of [[Pahala]], killing 31 people. A tsunami then claimed 46 additional lives. The villages of [[Punaluu]], Ninole, Kawaa, Honuapo, and Keauhou Landing were severely damaged. According to one account, the tsunami "rolled in over the tops of the cocoanut trees, probably 60 feet high .... inland a distance of a quarter of a mile in some places, taking out to sea when it returned, houses, men, women, and almost everything movable." This was reported in the 1988 edition of Walter C. Dudley's book, "Tsunami!" (ISBN 0-8248-1125-9).
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On April 2, 1868, a local earthquake with a magnitude estimated between 7.25 and 7.75 rocked the southeast coast of the [[Hawaii (island)|Big Island]] of [[Hawaii (state)|Hawai’i]]. It triggered a landslide on the slopes of the [[Mauna Loa]] volcano, five miles north of [[Pahala]], killing 31 people. A tsunami then claimed 46 additional lives. The villages of [[Punaluu]], Ninole, Kawaa, Honuapo, and Keauhou Landing were severely damaged. According to one account, the tsunami "rolled in over the tops of the coconut trees, probably 60 feet high …. inland a distance of a quarter of a mile in some places, taking out to sea when it returned, houses, men, women, and almost everything movable." This was reported in the 1988 edition of Walter C. Dudley's book ''Tsunami!'' (ISBN 0824811259).
  
 
=== 1883 - Krakatoa explosive eruption ===
 
=== 1883 - Krakatoa explosive eruption ===
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The island volcano of '''[[Krakatoa]]''' in Indonesia exploded with devastating fury on August 26-27, 1883, blowing its underground [[magma]] chamber partly empty so that much overlying land and seabed collapsed into it. A series of large tsunami waves was generated from the collapse, some reaching a height of over 40&nbsp;metres above sea level. Tsunami waves were observed throughout the [[Indian Ocean]], the [[Pacific Ocean]], the American West Coast, South America, and even as far away as the [[English Channel]]. On the facing coasts of [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] the sea flood went many miles inland and caused such vast loss of life that one area was never resettled but went back to the [[jungle]] and is now the [[Ujung Kulon]] [[nature reserve]].
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The island volcano of '''[[Krakatoa]]''' in Indonesia exploded with devastating fury on August 26-27, 1883, blowing its underground [[magma]] chamber partly empty so that much overlying land and seabed collapsed into it. A series of large tsunami waves was generated from the collapse, some reaching a height of over 40&nbsp;meters above sea level. Tsunami waves were observed throughout the [[Indian Ocean]], the [[Pacific Ocean]], the American West Coast, South America, and even as far away as the [[English Channel]]. On the facing coasts of [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] the sea flood went many miles inland and caused such vast loss of life that one area was never resettled but went back to the [[jungle]] and is now the [[Ujung Kulon]] [[nature reserve]].
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[[Image:Burnintsunami.jpg|thumb|250px|The aftermath of the tsunami that struck [[Newfoundland]] in 1929.]]
 
  
 
=== 1896 - Sanriku coast, Japan ===
 
=== 1896 - Sanriku coast, Japan ===
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On [[15 June]], [[1896]], at around 19:32 local time, a magnitude-8.5 undersea earthquake off the Sanriku coast of northeastern [[Honshu]], [[Japan]], triggered tsunami waves which struck the coast about half an hour later. Although the earthquake itself is not thought to have resulted in any fatalities, the waves, the highest recorded measurement of which reaching 38.2 metres, killed approximately 20,000 people.
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On 15 June, 1896, at around 19:32 local time, a [[Richter scale|magnitude]] 8.5 undersea earthquake off the Sanriku coast of northeastern [[Honshū]], [[Japan]], triggered tsunami waves which struck the coast about half an hour later. Although the earthquake itself is not thought to have resulted in any fatalities, the waves, the highest recorded measurement of which reaching 38.2 meters, killed approximately 20,000 people. In 2005 the same general area was hit by the [[2005 Sanriku Japan Earthquake]], but with no tsunami.
  
 
=== 1917 - Halifax Explosion and tsunami ===
 
=== 1917 - Halifax Explosion and tsunami ===
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The [[Halifax Explosion]] occurred on Thursday, [[December 6]], [[1917]] at 9:04:35 a.m. local time in [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]] in [[Canada]], when the French munitions ship Mont-Blanc, bound for World War I France, collided with the Norwegian ship Imo chartered to carry Belgian relief supplies. In the aftermath of the collision, Mont-Blanc caught fire and [[explode]]d. The explosion caused a tsunami, and a pressure-wave of air.
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The [[Halifax Explosion]] occurred on Thursday, December 6, 1917 at 9:04:35 A.M. local time in [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]] in [[Canada]], when the French munitions ship ''Mont-Blanc,'' bound for [[World War I]] France, collided with the Norwegian ship ''Imo,'' chartered to carry Belgian relief supplies. In the aftermath of the collision, ''Mont-Blanc'' caught fire and [[explosion|exploded]]. The explosion caused a tsunami, and a [[shock wave|pressure wave]] of air.
  
 
=== 1923 - The Great Kanto Earthquake, Japan ===
 
=== 1923 - The Great Kanto Earthquake, Japan ===
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The [[Great Kanto Earthquake]], which occurred in Eastern [[Japan]] on [[1 September]], [[1923]], and devastated [[Tokyo]], [[Yokohama]] and the surrounding areas, caused tsunamis which struck the [[Shonan]] coast, [[Boso Peninsula]], [[Izu Islands]] and the east coast of [[Izu Peninsula]], within minutes in some cases. In [[Atami]], waves reaching 12 metres were recorded. Examples of tsunami damage include about 100 people killed along Yui-ga-hama beach in [[Kamakura]] and an estimated 50 people on the [[Enoshima]] causeway. However, tsunami only accounted for a small proportion of the final death toll of over 100,000, most of whom were killed in fire.
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The [[Great Kanto Earthquake]], which occurred in Eastern [[Japan]] on September 1, 1923, and devastated [[Tokyo]], [[Yokohama]] and the surrounding areas, caused tsunami which struck the [[Shonan]] coast, [[Boso Peninsula]], [[Izu Islands]] and the east coast of [[Izu Peninsula]], within minutes in some cases. In [[Atami]], waves reaching 12 meters were recorded. Examples of tsunami damage include about 100 people killed along [[Yui-ga-hama]] beach in [[Kamakura, Kanagawa|Kamakura]] and an estimated 50 people on the [[Enoshima]] causeway. However, tsunami only accounted for a small proportion of the final death toll of over 100,000, most of whom were killed in fire.
  
 
=== 1929 - Newfoundland tsunami ===
 
=== 1929 - Newfoundland tsunami ===
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On [[November 18]], [[1929]], an [[1929 Grand Banks earthquake|earthquake of magnitude 7.2]] occurred beneath the [[Laurentian Slope]] on the [[Grand Banks]]. The quake was felt throughout the Atlantic Provinces of [[Canada]] and as far west as [[Ottawa, Ontario]] and as far south as [[Claymont, Delaware]]. The resulting tsunami measured over 7&nbsp;metres in height and took about 2½ hours to reach the [[Burin Peninsula]] on the south coast of [[Newfoundland]], where 29 people lost their lives in various communities.
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On November 18, 1929, an [[1929 Grand Banks earthquake|earthquake of magnitude 7.2]] occurred beneath the [[Laurentian Slope]] on the [[Grand Banks]]. The quake was felt throughout the Atlantic Provinces of [[Canada]] and as far west as [[Ottawa]] and as far south as [[Claymont, Delaware]]. The resulting tsunami measured over 7 meters in height and took about 2½ hours to reach the [[Burin Peninsula]] on the south coast of [[Newfoundland]], where 29 people lost their lives in various communities. It also snapped telegraph lines laid under the Atlantic.
  
 
=== 1933 - Sanriku coast, Japan ===
 
=== 1933 - Sanriku coast, Japan ===
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On [[March 3]], [[1933]], the Sanriku coast of northeastern [[Honshu]], [[Japan]] which had already suffered a devastating tsunami in 1896 (see above) was again stuck by tsunami waves as a result of an offshore magnitude-8.1 earthquake. The quake destroyed about 5000 homes and killed 3068 people, the vast majority as a result of tsunami waves. Especially hard hit was the coastal village of Taro (now part of [[Miyako, Iwate|Miyako city]]) in [[Iwate Prefecture]], which lost 42% of its total population and 98% of its buildings. Taro is now protected by an enormous tsunami wall, currently 10 metres in height and over 2 kilometres long. The original wall, constructed in 1958, saved Taro from yet another destruction from the 1960 Chilean tsunami (see below).  
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On March 3, 1933, the Sanriku coast of northeastern [[Honshū]], [[Japan]] which had already suffered a devastating tsunami in 1896 (see above) was again stuck by tsunami waves as a result of an offshore magnitude 8.1 earthquake. The quake destroyed about 5,000 homes and killed 3,068 people, the vast majority as a result of tsunami waves. Especially hard hit was the coastal village of Taro (now part of [[Miyako, Iwate|Miyako city]]) in [[Iwate Prefecture]], which lost 42 percent of its total population and 98% of its buildings. Taro is now protected by an enormous tsunami wall, currently 10 meters in height and over 2 kilometers long. The original [[seawall|wall]], constructed in 1958, saved Taro from yet another destruction from the 1960 Chilean tsunami (see below).
  
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=== 1944 - Tonankai earthquake, Japan ===
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=== 1944 - Tonankai Earthquake, Japan ===
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A magnitude-8 earthquake on [[7 December]], [[1944]], about 20 km off the  [[Shima Peninsula]] in [[Japan]], caused tsunami which struck the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of central Japan, mainly [[Mie Prefecture|Mie]], [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]] and [[Shizuoka Prefecture]]s. News of the event was downplayed by the authorities in order to protect wartime morale and as a result the full extent of the damage is not known, but the quake is estimated to have killed 1223 people, tsunami being the leading cause of fatalities.
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A magnitude 8.0 earthquake on 7 December, 1944, about 20 km off the  [[Shima Peninsula]] in [[Japan]], which struck the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of central Japan, mainly [[Mie Prefecture|Mie]], [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]], and [[Shizuoka Prefecture]]s. News of the event was downplayed by the authorities in order to protect [[World War II|wartime]] [[morale]], and as a result the full extent of the damage is not known, but the quake is estimated to have killed 1223 people, the tsunami being the leading cause of the fatalities.
  
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=== 1946 - Nankai earthquake, Japan ===
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=== 1946 - Nankai Earthquake, Japan ===
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The Nankai earthquake, a periodic earthquake of around magnitude-8, which occurs off the southern coast of [[Kii Peninsula]] and [[Shikoku]], Japan, every 100 to 150 years, last struck on [[21 December]], [[1946]]. The resulting tsunami hit the Pacific coast of western Japan. Particularly hard hit were the coastal towns of
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The Nankai earthquake, a periodic earthquake of around magnitude 8.0 which occurs off the southern coast of [[Kii Peninsula]] and [[Shikoku]], Japan every 100 to 150 years, last struck on 21 December, 1946. The resulting tsunami hit the Pacific coast of western Japan. Particularly hard hit were the coastal towns of [[Kushimoto, Wakayama|Kushimoto]] and [[Kainan, Wakayama|Kainan]] on the Kii Peninsula. The quake led to more than 1400 deaths, tsunami being the leading cause .
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[[Kushimoto, Wakayama|Kushimoto]] and [[Kainan, Wakayama|Kainan]] on the Kii Peninsula. The quake led to more than 1400 deaths, tsunami being the leading cause.
 
  
 
=== 1946 - Pacific tsunami ===
 
=== 1946 - Pacific tsunami ===
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[[Image:Tsunami large.jpg|thumb|250px|Hawai`i residents run from an approaching tsunami in Hilo, Hawai'i]]
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[[Image:Tsunami large.jpg|thumb|250px|Residents run from an approaching tsunami in [[Hilo, Hawaii|Hilo, Hawai’i]]]]
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The [[April 1]] '''[[Aleutian Island earthquake]]''' tsunami that killed 159 people on [[Hawaii]] and five in [[Alaska]] resulted in the creation of a [[tsunami warning system]] (specifically The [[Pacific Tsunami Warning Center]]), established in 1949 for [[Pacific Ocean]] area countries. The tsunami is locally known in Hawaii as the '''April Fools Day Tsunami''' in Hawaii due to people thinking the warnings were an [[April Fool]]s prank.
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The April 1 [[Aleutian Island earthquake]] tsunami that killed 159 people on [[Hawaii (island)|Hawai’i]] and five in [[Alaska]] (the [[lighthouse]] keepers at the [[Scotch Cap Light]] in the [[Aleutian Islands|Aleutians]]) resulted in the creation of a [[tsunami warning system|tsunami warning system]] known as the Pacific Tsunami Warning System (specifically the [[Pacific Tsunami Warning Center|PTWC]]), established in 1949 for [[Pacific Ocean]] area countries. The tsunami is known as the ''[[April Fools Day]] Tsunami'' in Hawai’i due to people thinking the warnings were an April Fools prank.
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=== 1958 - Lituya Bay megatsunami ===
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On July 9, 1958, an earthquake with a magnitude of 8.3 on the [[Richter scale]] rocked a small [[inlet]] in [[Alaska]] called [[Lituya Bay]]. It then caused part of a mountain at the back of the bay to collapse, causing a monstrous tsunami (an [[Megatsunami|''iminami'']]) to fly headlong through the bay. At a mountain at the mouth of the bay, the run was measured to be 524 [[Metre|m]] (about 1742 [[foot (unit)|ft]]) making it the largest wave in recorded history. It swept up three boats; one managed to ride the wave, but the other two were swept into the [[Pacific Ocean]], where they were completely destroyed and four people aboard them were killed.
  
 
=== 1960 - Chilean tsunami ===
 
=== 1960 - Chilean tsunami ===
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The magnitude-9.5 '''[[Great Chilean Earthquake]]''' of [[May 22]], [[1960]] is the strongest earthquake ever recorded. Its [[epicentre]], off the coast of South Central [[Chile]], generated one of the most destructive tsunamis of the 20th century.  
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The magnitude 9.5 '''[[Great Chilean Earthquake]]''' of May 22, 1960 is the strongest earthquake ever recorded. Its [[epicenter]], off the coast of South Central [[Chile]], generated one of the most destructive tsunami of the 20th Century.  
  
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It spread across the entire Pacific Ocean, with waves measuring up to 25&nbsp;metres high. The first tsunami arrived at [[Hilo, Hawaii]] approximately 14.8 hrs after it originated off the coast of South Central Chile. The highest wave at Hilo Bay was measured at around 10.7 m (35 ft.). 61 lives were lost allegedly due to people's failure to heed warning sirens.  
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It spread across the entire Pacific Ocean, with waves measuring up to 25 meters high. The first tsunami arrived at [[Hilo, Hawai'i|Hilo]] approximately 14.8 hrs after it originated off the coast of South Central Chile. The highest wave at Hilo Bay was measured at around 10.7 m (35 ft). 61 lives were lost allegedly due to people's failure to heed warning sirens.  
  
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Almost 22 hours after the quake, the waves hit the ill-fated Sanriku coast of Japan, reaching up to 3 m above high tide, and killed 142 people.
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Almost 22 hours after the quake, the waves hit the ill-fated Sanriku coast of Japan, reaching up to 3 m above high tide, and killed 142 people. Up to 6,000 people died in total worldwide due to the earthquake and tsunami.<ref>[http://www.em-dat.net Emergency & Disasters Data Base.] ''CRED''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>
  
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Up to 6,000 people died in total worldwide due to the earthquake and tsunami.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.em-dat.net|accessdate=2006-05-30|publisher=CRED|title="Emergency & Disasters Data Base"}}</ref>
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[[Image:La_diga_del_Vajont_vista_da_Longarone_18-8-2005.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Vajont Dam]] as seen from [[Longarone]] today, showing approximately the top 60-70 metres of concrete. The 200-250 metre wall of water (megatsunami) that over-topped the dam would have obscured virtually all of the sky in this picture.]]
  
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=== 1963 - Vajont Dam disaster ===
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=== 1963 - Vajont Dam Megatsunami ===
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On [[October 9]], [[1963]], the [[reservoir (water)|reservoir]] behind the '''[[Vajont Dam]]''' in northern [[Italy]] was struck by an enormous [[landslide]]. A  tsunami was triggered which swept over the top of the dam (without bursting it) and into the valley below. Nearly 2,000 people were killed.
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The [[Vajont Dam]] was completed in 1961 under [[Monte Toc]], 100 km north of [[Venice]], [[Italy]]. At 262 metres, it was one of the highest dams in the world. On October 9, 1963 an enormous landslide of about 260 million cubic metres of forest, earth, and rock, fell into the reservoir at up to 110 km per hour (68 mph). The resulting displacement of water caused 50 million cubic metres of water to overtop the dam in a 250-metre high wave. The flooding destroyed the villages of [[Longarone]], [[Pirago]], [[Rivalta]], [[Villanova]] and [[Faè]], killing 1,450 people. Almost 2,000 people (some sources report 1,909) perished in total.
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=== 1964 - Niigata Earthquake ===
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The 1964 Niigata earthquake in [[Japan]] killed 28 people, and liquefacted whole apartment buildings.  A subsequent [[tsunami]] destroyed the port of [[Niigata, Niigata|Niigata]] city.
  
 
=== 1964 - Good Friday tsunami ===
 
=== 1964 - Good Friday tsunami ===
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After the magnitude 9.2 '''[[Good Friday Earthquake]]''' (Friday, [[March 27]], [[1964]]), tsunamis struck [[Alaska]], [[British Columbia]], [[California]] and coastal [[Pacific Northwest]] towns, killing 121 people.  The tsunamis were up to 6 m tall, and killed 11 people as far away as [[Crescent City, California]].
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After the magnitude 8.6 "Good Friday Earthquake" tsunami struck [[Alaska]], [[British Columbia]], [[California]], and coastal [[Pacific Northwest]] towns, killing 121 people.  The waves caused by the Tsunami were up to 23 m tall, and killed 11 people as far away as [[Crescent City, California]].This happened on March 27, 1964
  
 
=== 1976 - Moro Gulf tsunami ===
 
=== 1976 - Moro Gulf tsunami ===
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On [[August 16]], [[1976]] at 12:11 A.M., a devastating earthquake of 7.9 hit the island of [[Mindanao]], [[Philippines]]. It created a tsunami that devastated more than 700&nbsp;km of coastline bordering Moro Gulf in the North Celebes Sea. An estimated number of victims for this tragedy left 5,000 dead, 2,200 missing or presumed dead, more than 9,500 injured and a total of 93,500 people were left homeless. It devastated the cities and provinces of [[Pagadian City]], [[Zamboanga del Sur]], [[Zamboanga City]], [[Basilan]], [[Sulu]], [[Sultan Kudarat]], [[Maguindanao]], [[Cotabato City]], [[Lanao del Sur]] and [[Lanao del Norte]].
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On August 16, 1976 at 12:11 A.M., a devastating earthquake of 7.9 hit the island of [[Mindanao]], [[Philippines]]. It created a tsunami that devastated more than 700 km of coastline bordering Moro Gulf in the [[North Celebes Sea]]. An estimated number of victims for this tragedy left 5,000 dead, 2,200 missing or presumed dead, more than 9,500 injured and a total of 93,500 people were left homeless. It devastated the cities of [[Cotabato City|Cotabato]], [[Pagadian City|Pagadian]], and [[Zamboanga City|Zamboanga]], and the and provinces of [[Basilan]], [[Lanao del Norte]], [[Lanao del Sur]], [[Maguindanao]], [[Sultan Kudarat]], [[Sulu]], and [[Zamboanga del Sur]].
  
 
=== 1979 - Tumaco tsunami ===
 
=== 1979 - Tumaco tsunami ===
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A magnitude-7.9 earthquake occurred on [[December 12]], [[1979]] at 7:59:4.3 ([[UTC]]) along the Pacific coast of [[Colombia]] and [[Ecuador]]. The earthquake and the resulting tsunami caused the destruction of at least six fishing villages and the death of hundreds of people in the Colombian province of [[Nariño Department|Nariño]]. The earthquake was felt in [[Bogotá]], [[Cali]], [[Popayán]], [[Buenaventura]] and several other cities and towns in Colombia and in [[Guayaquil]], [[Esmeraldas (city)|Esmeraldas]], [[Quito]] and other parts of Ecuador. When the '''Tumaco Tsunami''' hit the coast, it caused huge destruction in the city of [[Tumaco]], as well as in the small towns of El Charco, San Juan, Mosquera and Salahonda on the Pacific Coast of Colombia. The total number of victims of this tragedy was 259 dead, 798 wounded and 95 missing or presumed dead.
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A magnitude 7.9 earthquake occurred on December 12, 1979 at 7:59:4.3 [[UTC]] along the Pacific coast of [[Colombia]] and [[Ecuador]]. The earthquake and the resulting tsunami caused the destruction of at least six fishing villages and the death of hundreds of people in the Colombian province of [[Nariño Department|Nariño]]. The earthquake was felt in [[Bogotá]], [[Cali]], [[Popayán]], [[Buenaventura]], and several other cities and towns in Colombia and in [[Guayaquil]], [[Esmeraldas (city)|Esmeraldas]], [[Quito]], and other parts of Ecuador. When the '''Tumaco Tsunami''' hit the coast, it caused huge destruction in the city of [[Tumaco]], as well as in the small towns of El Charco, San Juan, Mosquera, and Salahonda on the Pacific coast of Colombia. The total number of victims of this tragedy was 259 dead, 798 wounded and 95 missing or presumed dead.
  
 
=== 1983 - Sea of Japan tsunami ===
 
=== 1983 - Sea of Japan tsunami ===
−
On [[May 6]], [[1983]] at 11:59:57 local time, a magnitude-7.7 earthquake occurred in the [[Sea of Japan]], about 100 km west of the coast of [[Noshiro, Akita|Noshiro]] in [[Akita Prefecture]], [[Japan]].  Out of the 107 fatalities, all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami which struck communities along the [[Sea of Japan]] coast, especially [[Aomori Prefecture|Aomori]] and [[Akita Prefecture]]s and the east coast of [[Noto Peninsula]]. Footage of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbour of [[Wajima]] on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV. The waves exceeded 10 metres in some areas. Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of [[South Korea]] (whether [[North Korea]] was affected is not known).  
+
On May 26, 1983 at 11:59:57 local time, a magnitude-7.7 earthquake occurred in the [[Sea of Japan]], about 100 km west of the coast of [[Noshiro, Akita|Noshiro]] in [[Akita Prefecture]], [[Japan]].  Out of the 107 fatalities, all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami, which struck communities along the coast, especially [[Aomori Prefecture|Aomori]] and Akita Prefectures and the east coast of [[Noto Peninsula]]. Footage of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbor of [[Wajima]] on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV. The waves exceeded 10 meters in some areas. Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of [[South Korea]] (whether [[North Korea]] was affected is not known).
−
 
 
−
=== 1993 - Okushiri tsunami ===
 
  
−
A devastating tsunami occurred off the coast of [[Hokkaidō]] in Japan as a result of a magnitude 7.8 earthquake, 80 miles offshore, on [[July 12]], [[1993]].  
+
=== 1993 - Okushiri, Hokkaido tsunami ===
−
Within minutes, the [[Japan Meteorological Agency]] issued a tsunami warning which was broadcast on [[NHK]] in English and Japanese (archived at [[YouTube]][http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eCgFjjDWJ3w]). However, this was too late for the small island of [[Okushiri, Hokkaido|Okushiri]] near the epicentre, which was struck with extremely big waves, some reaching 30 metres, within 2 to 5 minutes after the quake. The village of Aonae at the southern tip of the island, which is surrounded by the sea in three directions, was devastated over the course of the next hour by a total of 13 waves over 2 metres high coming from multiple directions, including waves which had bounced back off Hokkaidō, despite being surrounded by tsunami barriers. Out of the 250 people killed as a result of the quake, 197 of them were killed by the tsunami on Okushiri; the waves also caused deaths on the coast of Hokkaido. While many residents, remembering the 1983 tsunami (see above) ten years previous, survived by quickly evacuating on foot to higher ground, it is thought that many others underestimated how soon the waves would arrive (the 1983 tsunami took 17 minutes to hit Okushiri) and were killed as they attempted to evacuate by car along the village's narrow lanes.
+
A devastating ''tsunami wave'' occurred along the coasts of Hokkaidō in Japan as a result of a magnitude 7.8 earthquake, 80 miles offshore, on July 12, 1993.<br />
 +
Within minutes, the [[Japan Meteorological Agency]] issued a tsunami warning that was broadcast on [[NHK]] in English and Japanese. However, it was too late for [[Okushiri, Hokkaido|Okushiri]], a small island near the epicenter, which was struck with extremely big waves, some reaching 30 meters, within two to five minutes of the quake. Aonae, a village on a low-lying peninsula at the southern tip of the island, was devastated over the course of the following hour by 13 waves of over two meters’ height arriving from multiple directions, including waves that had bounced back off Hokkaidō—despite being surrounded by tsunami barriers. Of 250 people killed as a result of the quake, 197 were victims of the series of tsunamis that hit Okushiri; the waves also caused deaths on the coast of Hokkaidō. While many residents, remembering the 1983 tsunami (see above), survived by quickly evacuating on foot to higher ground, it is thought that many others underestimated how soon the waves would arrive (the 1983 tsunami took 17 [[minute]]s to hit Okushiri) and were killed as they attempted to evacuate by car along the village’s narrow lanes. The highest wave of the tsunami was a staggering 31 meters (102 feet) high.
  
 
=== 1998 - Papua New Guinea ===
 
=== 1998 - Papua New Guinea ===
−
On [[17 July]], [[1998]], a [[Papua New Guinea]] tsunami killed approximately 2200 people [http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/PNG.html]. A 7.1 magnitude earthquake 24&nbsp;km offshore was followed within 11 minutes by a tsunami about 12 m tall. While the magnitude of the quake was not large enough to create these waves directly, it is believed the earthquake generated an undersea landslide, which in turn caused the tsunami. The villages of Arop and Warapu were destroyed.
 
  
 +
On July 17, 1998, a [[Papua New Guinea]] tsunami killed approximately 2200 people <ref>[http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/PNG.html Descriptive Model of the July 17, 1998 Papua New Guinea Tsunami]. USGS. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>. A 7.1 magnitude earthquake 24 km offshore was followed within 11 minutes by a tsunami about 12 m tall. While the magnitude of the quake was not large enough to create these waves directly, it is believed the earthquake generated an undersea landslide, which in turn caused the tsunami. The villages of Arop and Warapu were destroyed.
  
 
=== 2004 - Indian Ocean tsunami ===
 
=== 2004 - Indian Ocean tsunami ===
−
The [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]], which had a [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] of 9.3, triggered a series of lethal tsunamis on [[December 26]], [[2004]] that killed approximately 230,000 people (including 168,000 in Indonesia alone), making it the deadliest tsunami as well as one of the [[List of natural disasters by death toll|worst natural disasters]] in recorded history. It also had one of the largest earthquakes. The tsunami killed people over an area ranging from the immediate vicinity of the [[earthquake|quake]] in [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]] and the north-western coast of [[Malaysia]] to thousands of kilometres away in [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Maldives]], and even as far as [[Somalia]], [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]] in eastern [[Africa]].  
+
[[Image:2004-tsunami.jpg|right|thumb|305px|The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake; Tsunami strikes [[Ao Nang]], Thailand.]]
 +
 
 +
The [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]], which had a [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] of 9.0 to 9.3,<ref>[http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/spotlight/tsunami/tsunami.html Dec 26, 2004 Magnitude 9.0 Earthquake & Tsunami in the Indian Ocean.] ''NOAA''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref> triggered a series of lethal tsunami on December 26, 2004, that killed approximately 300,000 people (including 168,000 in Indonesia alone), making it the deadliest tsunami as well as one of the [[List of natural disasters by death toll|deadliest natural disasters]] in recorded history. It also had the second-largest earthquake in recorded history. The initial surge was measured at a height of approximately 33 meters (108 feet), making it the largest earthquake-generated tsunami in recorded history. The tsunami killed people over an area ranging from the immediate vicinity of the [[epicenter|quake]] in [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], and the north-western coast of [[Malaysia]], to thousands of kilometres away in [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Maldives]], and even as far away as [[Somalia]], [[Kenya]], and [[Tanzania]] in eastern [[Africa]]. This is an example of a [[teletsunami]] which can travel vast distances across the open ocean, in this case, it is an inter-continental tsunami. Tsunami waves 2.6 meters tall were reported even in places such as [[Mexico]], nearly 13,000 km away from the epicenter. The energies for these waves travel along fault lines and becoming concentrated therefore traveling further.
  
−
Unlike in the [[Pacific Ocean]], there was no organized alert service covering the [[Indian Ocean]]. This was in part due to the absence of major tsunami events since 1883 (the [[Krakatoa]] eruption, which killed 36,000 people). In light of the 2004 [[Indian Ocean]] tsunami, [[UNESCO]] and other world bodies have called for a global [[tsunami warning system|tsunami monitoring system]].
+
Unlike in the [[Pacific Ocean]], there was no organized alert service covering the [[Indian Ocean]]. This was in part due to the absence of major tsunami events since 1883 (the [[Krakatoa]] eruption, which killed 36,000 people). In light of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, [[UNESCO]] and other world bodies have called for an international [[tsunami warning system|tsunami monitoring system]].
  
 
=== 2006 - South of Java Island tsunami ===
 
=== 2006 - South of Java Island tsunami ===
−
A 7.7 [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] earthquake shocked the Indian Ocean seabed on [[July 17]],[[2006]], 200&nbsp;km south of [[Pangandaran]], a beautiful beach famous to surfers for its perfect waves. This earthquake triggered tsunami whose heights varied from 2&nbsp;metres at [[Cilacap]] to 6&nbsp;metres at [[Cimerak]] beach, where it swept away and flattened buildings as far as 400&nbsp;metres away from the coastline. More than 600 people were reported killed, with around 150 others still missing. See [[July 2006 Java earthquake]].
+
 
 +
A 7.7 [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] earthquake rocked the Indian Ocean seabed on July 17,2006, 200&nbsp;km south of [[Pangandaran]], a beautiful beach famous to surfers for its perfect waves. This earthquake triggered tsunami whose heights varied from 2 meters at [[Cilacap]] to 6 meters at [[Cimerak]] beach, where it swept away and flattened buildings as far as 400 meters away from the coastline. More than 800 people were reported missing or dead.
  
 
=== 2006 - Kuril Islands tsunami ===
 
=== 2006 - Kuril Islands tsunami ===
−
On [[November 15]] 2006, an 8.1-magnitude quake struck an area claimed by both [[Russia]] and Japan, but the waves near Japan did not swell higher than 23 inches. There were no immediate reports of casualties or damage. Six hours later, tsunami waves up to nearly 5-foot high caused by the quake crashed into [[Crescent City, California]] and [[Santa Cruz, California]] causing considerable damage. See [[2006 Kuril Islands tsunami]].
 
  
−
=== 2006 - Crescent City, Ca tsunami ===
+
On November 15, 2006, an 8.1 magnitude quake struck an area claimed by both [[Russia]] and Japan, but the waves near Japan did not swell higher than 23 inches. There were no immediate reports of casualties or damage. Six hours later, tsunami waves up to nearly 5 feet high caused by the quake crashed into [[Crescent City, California]] and [[Santa Cruz, California]] causing considerable damage.  
−
On [[Novemer 15]] 2006 according to the [[USGS]] an 8.3-magnitude earthquake struck off coast of the Kuril'sk, Kuril Islands about 1,000 miles NE of Japan.  The quake triggered a tsunami that struck the [[Pacific Northwest]]. There were no fatalities. The resulting tsunami did cause approx. $700,000 in damage to [[Crescent City]], [[California]]'s harbor.  The quake sent a wave surge of 5-6 feet.  The tsunami struck 5 hours after warnings had been lifted and an initial wave of 3-5 feet struck earlier in the morning.  Surges also struck [[Santa Cruz, California]].  [[2006 Kuril Island tsunami]].
 
  
−
=== Other tsunamis in South Asia ===
+
=== 2007 - Solomon Islands tsunami ===
−
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
+
 
−
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
+
On April 2, 2007, a powerful magnitude 8.1 (initially 7.6) earthquake hit the East Pacific region about 25 miles (40 km) northwest of the [[Solomon Islands]] at 7:39 <small>A.M.</small>, resulting in a tsunami that was up to 17 feet (5 meters) tall. The wave, which struck the coast of Solomon Islands (mainly Gizo), triggered region-wide tsunami warnings and watches extending from Japan to New Zealand to Hawaii and the eastern seaboard of Australia. So far, at least 39 people are confirmed dead with the toll expected to rise. Dozens more have been injured with entire towns inundated by the sweeping water which traveled 300 meters inland in some places. Simbo, Choiseul and Ranunga islands were also affected. A state of national emergency was declared for the Solomon Islands. On the island of Choiseul, a wall of water reported to be 30 feet high swept almost 400 meters inland destroying everything in its path. Officials estimate that the tsunami displaced more than 5000 residents all over the archipelago.
−
! colspan=7 style="border-right:0px;";| Tsunamis in South Asia <br> (Source: Amateur Seismic Centre, India)[http://asc-india.org/menu/waves.htm]
+
 
−
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
+
=== 2007 - Niigata earthquake ===
−
| '''Date'''
+
 
−
| '''Location'''
+
On July 16, 2007, a strong earthquake struck northwestern Japan, causing a [[fire]] and minor [[radioactivity|radioactive water]] leak at one of the world's most powerful [[nuclear power]] plants. At least seven people were killed and hundreds injured. Japan's Meteorological Agency measured the quake at 6.8 on the richter scale and sending aftershocks of 6.6. The [[U.S. Geological Survey]], which monitors quakes around the world, said the initial quake registered 6.7. A tsunami watch was issued along the [[Sea of Japan]]. The predicted height of the tsunami was estimated to be 50 cm (20 inches).<ref>[http://in.today.reuters.com/news/newsArticle.aspx?type=worldNews&storyID=2007-07-16T073108Z_01_NOOTR_RTRMDNC_0_India-284910-3.xml Strong quake jolts Japan, tsunami alert issued]. ''Reuters''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref> That earthquake sparked only a few small tsunamis, growing to be no more than about 20 cm (8 inches) tall.<ref>Mitch Marconi, 2007. [http://www.postchronicle.com/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive=24&num=92346 Second Japan Earthquake In Sea Of Japan 6.8 Magnitude, Tsunami Fear.] ''The Post Chronicle''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>  However, the 1964 quake and tsunami north of the current one destroyed the port of the city of [[Niigata]].
 +
 
 +
=== Other tsunami in South Asia ===
 +
 
 +
{| class="wikitable"
 +
|-  
 +
! colspan=7 style="border-right:0px;";| Tsunami in South Asia <br/> (Source: Amateur Seismic Centre, India)<ref>[http://asc-india.org/] Tsunamis & Seiches. ''ASC India.org''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>
 +
|-  
 +
! '''Date'''
 +
! '''Location'''
 
|-
 
|-
 
| 1524 || Near [[Dabhol]], [[Maharashtra]]
 
| 1524 || Near [[Dabhol]], [[Maharashtra]]
 
|-
 
|-
−
|style="white-space: nowrap"|[[02 April]] [[1762]] || Arakan Coast, [[Myanmar]]
+
|style="white-space: nowrap"|02 April 1762 || Arakan Coast, [[Myanmar]]
 
|-
 
|-
−
|style="white-space: nowrap"|[[16 June]] [[1819]] || Rann of Kachchh, [[Gujarat]], [[India]]
+
|style="white-space: nowrap"|16 June 1819 || Rann of Kachchh, [[Gujarat]], [[India]]
 
|-
 
|-
−
| style="white-space: nowrap"|[[31 October]] [[1847]] || Great [[Nicobar]] Island, India
+
| style="white-space: nowrap"|31 October 1847 || [[Great Nicobar]] Island, India
 
|-
 
|-
−
|style="white-space: nowrap"|[[31 December]] [[1881]] || [[Car Nicobar]] Island, India
+
|style="white-space: nowrap"|31 December 1881 || [[Car Nicobar]] Island, India
 
|-
 
|-
−
|style="white-space: nowrap"|[[26 August]] [[1883]] || [[Krakatoa|Krakatoa volcanic eruption]]
+
|style="white-space: nowrap"|26 August 1883 || [[Krakatoa|Krakatoa volcanic eruption]]
 
|-
 
|-
−
|style="white-space: nowrap"|[[28 November]] [[1945]] || Mekran coast, Balochistan
+
|style="white-space: nowrap"|28 November 1945 || Mekran coast, Balochistan
−
|-
 
−
|style="white-space: nowrap"|[[26 December]] [[2004]] || Banda Aceh, Indonesia; Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India);  Sri Lanka; Thailand; Malaysia; Maldives; Somalia; Kenya; Tanzania
 
 
|}
 
|}
  
−
=== North American and Caribbean tsunamis ===
+
=== North American and Caribbean tsunami ===
−
* [[1690]] - [[Nevis]]
+
* 1690 - [[Nevis]]
−
* [[14 November]] [[1840]] - Great Swell on the [[Delaware River]]
+
* 14 November 1840 - Great Swell on the [[Delaware River]]
−
* [[18 November]] [[1867]] - [[Virgin Islands]]
+
* 18 November 1867 - [[Virgin Islands]]
−
* [[17 November]] [[1872]] - [[Maine]]
+
* 17 November 1872 - [[Maine]]
−
* [[11 October]] [[1918]] - [[Puerto Rico]]
+
* 11 October 1918 - [[Puerto Rico]]
−
* [[18 November]] [[1929]] - [[Newfoundland]]
+
* 18 November 1929 - [[Newfoundland]]
−
* [[9 January]] [[1926]] - [[Maine]]
+
* 9 January 1926 - [[Maine]]
−
* [[4 August]] [[1946]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
+
* 4 August 1946 - [[Dominican Republic]]
−
* [[18 August]] [[1946]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
+
* 18 August 1946 - [[Dominican Republic]]
−
* [[15 November]] [[2006]] - [[Crescent City]], [[California|CA]]
+
* 27 March 1964 - [[Crescent City]], [[California|CA]]
 +
* 15 November 2006 - [[Crescent City]], [[California|CA]]
  
−
'''Possible tsunamis'''
+
'''Possible tsunami'''
 
* 35 million years ago - [[Chesapeake Bay impact crater]], [[Chesapeake Bay]]
 
* 35 million years ago - [[Chesapeake Bay impact crater]], [[Chesapeake Bay]]
−
* [[9 June]] [[1913]] - Longport, [[New Jersey|NJ]]
+
* 9 June 1913 - Longport, [[New Jersey|NJ]]
−
* [[6 August]] [[1923]] - Rockaway Park, [[Queens]], [[New York|NY ]].
+
* 6 August 1923 - Rockaway Park, [[Queens]], [[New York|NY ]].
−
* [[8 August]] [[1924]] - [[Coney Island]], [[New York|NY ]].  
+
* 8 August 1924 - [[Coney Island]], [[New York|NY ]].  
−
* [[19 August]] [[1931]] - [[Atlantic City]], [[New Jersey|NJ]]
+
* 19 August 1931 - [[Atlantic City]], [[New Jersey|NJ]]
−
* [[21 September]] [[1938]] - Hurricane, [[New Jersey|NJ]] coast.
+
* 22 June 1932 - [[Cuyutlán]], [[Colima]], [[Mexico]]
−
* [[19 May]] [[1964]] - Northeast [[United States|USA]]
+
* 19 May 1964 - Northeast [[United States|USA]]
−
* [[4 July]] [[1992]] - [[Daytona Beach]], [[Florida|FL]]
+
* 4 July 1992 - [[Daytona Beach]], [[Florida|FL]]
  
 +
Source: [http://www.erh.noaa.gov/er/phi/reports/tsunami.htm NOAA National Weather Service Forecast Office],  [http://www.esmas.com/noticierostelevisa/investigaciones/420997.html]
  
−
Source: [http://www.erh.noaa.gov/er/phi/reports/tsunami.htm NOAA National Weather Service Forecast Office]
+
=== European tsunami ===
  
−
=== European tsunamis ===
+
* 6100 B.C.E. - [[Storegga Slide]], [[Norway]]
−
* [[6100 BC]] - [[Storegga Slide]], [[Norway]]
+
* October 16, 1979 - 23 people died when the coast of [[Nice]], [[France]], was hit by a tsunami. This may have had a man-made cause:  construction at the new Nice airport creating an undersea landslide.<ref>[http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(v5vg3l2tc4kfq2m223kj2l45)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,3,4;journal,18,26;linkingpublicationresults,1:102476,1 Marine Georesources & Geotechnology.] Taylor & Francis Group. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref> <ref>[http://www.azurseisme.com/Tsunamis.htm TSUNAMIS ET RAZ DE MAREE HISTORIQUES.] (French). Azurseisme. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>
−
* [[16 October]] [[1979]] - 23 people died when the coast of [[Nice]], [[France]], was hit by a tsunami. This may have had a manmade cause due to construction at the new Nice airport creating an undersea landslide. [http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/(v5vg3l2tc4kfq2m223kj2l45)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&backto=issue,3,4;journal,18,26;linkingpublicationresults,1:102476,1] [http://www.azurseisme.com/Tsunamis.htm] [http://www.lamouettelaurentine.com/st_laurent_du_var/port/tsunami.htm] [http://cdf.u-3mrs.fr/~lepichon/2006col_fichiers/livret.pdf]
 
  
−
=== Other historical tsunamis ===
+
=== Other historic tsunami ===
−
Other tsunamis that have occurred include the following:
+
 
−
* ''circa'' 1600B.C.E.: The Israelite [[The Exodus|crossing of the Red (or Reed) Sea]] has been linked by some researchers to a tsunami following the volcanic explosion of the Greek island of [[Santorini]].
+
Other tsunami that have occurred include the following:
−
* ''circa'' 500 BC: [[Poompuhar]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]], [[Maldives]]
+
* ca. 500 B.C.E.: [[Poompuhar]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[India]], [[Maldives]]
−
* ''circa'' 450 BC: The Greek historian [[Thucydides]] in his book ''History of the Peloponnesian Wars'', speculated about the causes of tsunamis. He argued that it could only be explained by a consequence of ocean earthquakes, and could see no other possible causes for the phenomenon.
+
* ca. 450 B.C.E.: The Greek historian [[Thucydides]] in his book ''History of the Peloponnesian Wars,'' speculated about the causes of tsunami. He argued that it could only be explained as a consequence of ocean earthquakes, and could see no other possible causes for the phenomenon.
−
* 1541: one struck the earliest European settlement in Brazil, [[São Vicente, São Paulo|São Vicente]]. There is no record of deaths or injuries, but the town was almost completely destroyed.
+
* 1541: a tsunami struck the earliest European settlement in Brazil, [[São Vicente, São Paulo|São Vicente]]. There is no record of deaths or injuries, but the town was almost completely destroyed.
−
* [[January 20]], [[1606]] /1607: along the coast of the [[Bristol Channel]] thousands of people were drowned, houses and villages swept away, farmland was inundated and flocks were destroyed by a flood that might have been a tsunami. The cause of the flood remains disputed, it is quite possible that it was caused by a combination of [[meteorology|meteorological extremes]] and [[tide|tidal peaks]].([http://www.severnsolutions.co.uk/twblog/archive/2005/01/06/greatflood1606 ''discussion'']).
+
* January 20, 1606/1607: along the coast of the [[Bristol Channel]] thousands of people were drowned, houses and villages swept away, farmland was inundated and flocks were destroyed by a flood that might have been a tsunami. While it is quite possible that it was caused by a combination of [[meteorology|meteorological extremes]] and [[tide|tidal peaks]], recent evidence points more strongly towards a tsunami.<ref>[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2007-04/uocp-wbc043007.php Was Bristol Channel hit by a tsunami?] information from Edward A. Bryant and Simon K. Haslett, "Catastrophic Wave Erosion, Bristol Channel, United Kingson: Impact of Tsunami?" ''The Journal of Geology'' 115: 253-269. ''Eurekalert''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.</ref>
−
* [[July 9]], [[1958]]: A huge [[landslip]] caused a tsunami in the [[fjord]] shaped [[Lituya Bay]], [[Alaska]], [[United States|USA]]. It traveled at over 150&nbsp;km/h. It was the worlds tallest recorded tsunami at 524 m (1719 ft).
 
  
 
== See also ==
 
== See also ==
−
* [[Higher Ground Project]]
+
 
−
** [[List of earthquakes]]
+
* [[Earthquake]]
−
* [[Meteotsunami]]
+
* [[Ocean]]
−
* [[Megatsunami]]
+
* [[Tide]]
−
** [[Freak wave]]
+
* [[Volcano]]
−
** [[Sneaker wave]]
+
 
−
** [[Tidal bore]]
+
== Notes ==
−
* [[Tsunami Society]]
+
<references/>
−
** [[List of natural disasters by death toll#Tsunamis]]
 
−
** [[Earthquake]]
 
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
−
* Iwan, W.D., ''editor'', 2006, Summary report of the Great Sumatra Earthquakes and Indian Ocean tsunamis of [[26 December]] 2004 and [[28 March]] 2005:  Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, EERI Publication #2006-06, 11 chapters,  100 page summary, plus CD-ROM with complete text and supplementary photographs, EERI Report 2006-06.  [www.eeri.org]  ISBN 1-932884-19-X 
 
−
* Dudley, Walter C. & Lee, Min (1988: 1st edition) ''Tsunami!'' ISBN 0-8248-1125-9  [http://www.tsunami.org/references.htm#Books link]
 
−
* Kenneally, Christine ([[December 30]] 2004). "Surviving the Tsunami". ''Slate''. [http://www.slate.com/id/2111608/ link]
 
−
* Macey, Richard ([[January 1]] 2005). "The Big Bang that Triggered A Tragedy", ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'', p 11 - quoting Dr Mark Leonard, seismologist at Geoscience Australia.
 
−
* Lambourne, Helen ([[March 27]] 2005). "Tsunami: Anatomy of a disaster". ''[[BBC News]]''. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4381395.stm link]
 
−
* abelard.org. ''tsunamis: tsunamis travel fast but not at infinite speed''. Website, retrieved [[March 29]] 2005. [http://www.abelard.org/briefings/tsunami.php link]
 
  
−
<references/>
+
* Dudley, Walter C. & Min Lee. 1988. ''Tsunami!'' Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824811259.
 +
* Iwan, W.D., ed. 2006. ''Summary report of the Great Sumatra Earthquakes and Indian Ocean tsunamis of 26 December 2004 and 28 March 2005: Earthquake Engineering Research Institute''.  Oakland, CA: EERI. ISBN 193288419X 
 +
* Kenneally, Christine. 2004). [http://www.slate.com/id/2111608/ Surviving the Tsunami.] ''Slate.com''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
 +
* Macey, Richard. 2005. "The Big Bang that Triggered A Tragedy," ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'', 11 - quoting Dr Mark Leonard, seismologist at Geoscience Australia.
 +
* Lambourne, Helen. 2005. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4381395.stm Tsunami: Anatomy of a disaster.] ''BBC News''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
 +
* [http://www.abelard.org/briefings/tsunami.php Tsunamis: Tsunamis travel fast but not at infinite speed]. ''abelard.org''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
 +
*[http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/spotlight/tsunami/tsunami.html The NOAA's page on the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]. ''NOAA''. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
−
{{commonscat|Tsunami}}
+
All links retrieved May 2, 2023.
−
 
 
−
=== Articles and websites ===
 
−
* [http://www.heartlandoutdoorsman.com/phpBB2/viewtopic.php?t=16620 Tsunami News (updated often)]
 
−
* [http://tsunami.name Tsunami database with detailed statistics]
 
−
* [http://www.geo-world.org/tsunami Tsunami education and outreach site]
 
−
* [http://www.whoi.edu/institutes/coi/viewTopic.do?o=read&amp;id=281 Tsunami Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute], [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]]
 
−
* [http://www.pbs.org/nova/tsunami/ NOVA: Wave That Shook The World] &mdash; Site and special report shot within days of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
 
−
* [http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/ NOAA Tsunami] &mdash; General description of tsunamis and the United States agency NOAA's role in [http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/research_modeling.html Tsunami hazard assessment], [http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/prepare.html preparedness],  [http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/education.html education], [http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/warnings_forecasts.html forecasts & warnings], [http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/responding.html response] and [http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/research_modeling.html research].
 
−
* [http://ifmaxp1.ifm.uni-hamburg.de/tsunami.shtml Can HF Radar detect Tsunamis?] &mdash; University of Hamburg HF-Radar.
 
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* [http://www.highergroundproject.org.uk The Higher Ground Project] &mdash; Stories of children who survived the tsunami.
 
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* [http://www.geohazards.no/ The International Centre for Geohazards (ICG)]
 
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* [http://www.prh.noaa.gov/itic/library/about_tsu/faqs.html ITIC tsunami FAQ]
 
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* [http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/ NOAA Center for Tsunami Research] (incorporates the PMEL Tsunami Research Program) (United States)
 
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* [http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1187/ USGS: Surviving a tsunami] (United States)
 
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* [http://ioc.unesco.org/itsu/ ITSU] &mdash; Coordination Group for the Pacific Tsunami Warning System.
 
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* [http://www.tsunami.org/ Pacific Tsunami Museum]
 
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* [http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/ Tsunamis and Earthquakes]
 
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* [http://tsunami.gov/ Tsunami Centers] &mdash; United States National Weather Service.
 
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* [http://www.sthjournal.org/ ''Science of Tsunami Hazards'' journal]
 
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* [http://www.geohazards.no/ The International Centre for Geohazards (ICG)]
 
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* [http://www.envirtech.org/envirtech_tsunameter.htm Envirtech Tsunami Warning System] &mdash; Based on seabed seismics and sea level gauges.
 
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* [http://geology.com/articles/tsunami-geology.shtml What Causes a Tsunami?]
 
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* [http://sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=000CDB86-32E0-13A8-B2E083414B7F0000 Scientific American Magazine (January 2006 Issue) Tsunami: Wave of Change] What we can learn from the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004.
 
  
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=== Images and video ===
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* [http://www.pbs.org/nova/tsunami/ NOVA: Wave That Shook The World] &mdash; Site and special report shot within days of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.  
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'''See also: [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake#Images and video|Images and video, 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]'''
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* [http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/ NOAA Tsunami] &mdash; General description of tsunamis.
−
* [http://www.archive.org/details/opensource_movies] 5 Amateur Camcorder Video Streams of the [[December 26]] 2004 tsunami that hit Sri Lanka, Thailand and Indonesia (search on tsunamis).
+
* [http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/ NOAA Center for Tsunami Research] (incorporates the PMEL Tsunami Research Program) (United States).
−
* [http://www.afterthetsunami.org/''' "After the Tsunami"'''] Danish writer and photographer Thorsten Overgaard's documentary after the SE Asia tsunami [[December 26]] 2004.
+
* [http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1187/ USGS: Surviving a tsunami] (United States).  
−
* [http://www.digitalglobe.com/tsunami_gallery.html 2004 Asian Tsunami Satellite Images (Before and After)]
+
* [http://www.tsunami.org/ Pacific Tsunami Museum].  
−
* [http://www.crisp.nus.edu.sg/tsunami/tsunami.html Satellite Images of Tsunami Affected Areas] High resolution satellite images showing the effects of the 2004 tsunami on the affected areas in Indonesia, Thailand and Nicobar island of India.
+
* [http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/ Tsunamis and Earthquakes].
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* [http://www.geophys.washington.edu/tsunami/general/physics/runup.html Computer-generated animation of a tsunami]
+
* [http://geology.com/articles/tsunami-geology.shtml What Causes a Tsunami?].
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* [http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/animate.html Computer model animations of actual and simulated tsunami events] from the NOAA Center for Tsunami Research
+
* [http://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/animate.html Animations of actual and simulated tsunami events] from the NOAA Center for Tsunami Research.
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* [http://www.geophys.washington.edu/tsunami/general/physics/characteristics.html Animation of 1960  tsunami originating outside coast of Chile]
+
* [http://www.geophys.washington.edu/tsunami/general/physics/characteristics.html How do tsunamis differ from other water waves?].  
−
* [http://www.riveroflife.be/tsunami/index.html The Survivors - A moving travelogue full of stunning images along the tsunami ravaged South-Western Coast of India] '''[Unavailable]'''
 
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* [http://www.forskning.no/Artikler/2006/juni/1149444923.73 Origin of a Tsunami - animation showing how the shifting of continental plates in the Indian Ocean created the catastrophe of December 26th 2004.]
 
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* [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-75-1561/science_technology/earthquakes_and_tsunamis/ CBC Digital Archives – Canada's Earthquakes and Tsunamis]
 
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* [http://citizenxpress.com/blog/view/244/  2nd Anniversary Of Tsunami: Many Questions Remain Unanswered ]
 
  
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=== Fiction ===
 
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* [[Michael Crichton]]'s ''[[State of Fear]]'' (2004) explored [[unintended consequence]]s of human intervention with natural forces. [http://www.michaelcrichton.net/fear/index.html]
 
  
 
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[[Category:Physical sciences]]
 
[[Category:Earth sciences]]
 
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[[Category:Oceanography]]
  
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Latest revision as of 18:38, 2 May 2023


The tsunami that struck Malé in the Maldives on December 26, 2004.


A tsunami (IPA: /(t)sʊˈnɑːmi/) is a series of waves created when a body of water, such as an ocean, is rapidly displaced. Earthquakes, mass movements above or below water, volcanic eruptions and other underwater explosions, landslides, large meteorite impacts, and nuclear weapons testing at sea all have the potential to generate a tsunami. A tsunami can have a range of effects, from unnoticeable to devastating.

A tsunami has a much smaller amplitude (wave height) offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of kilometers long). Consequently, they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a passing "hump" in the ocean.

Volcanic eruptions inject tons of wash in the oceanic soil, generating devastating waves
Submarine earthquakes dislocate the oceanic crust, pushing water upwards.

Tsunami have been historically referred to as tidal waves because, as they approach land, they take on the characteristics of a violent, onrushing tide, rather than the sort of cresting waves formed by wind action on the ocean. Given that they are not actually related to tides, the term is considered misleading and its usage is discouraged by oceanographers.[1]

Etymology

The term tsunami comes from the Japanese words (津波、つなみ) meaning harbor ("tsu," 津) and wave ("nami," 波). [a. Jap. tsunami, tunami, f. tsu harbor + nami waves. - Oxford English Dictionary]. For the plural, one can either follow ordinary English practice and add an s, or use an invariable plural as in Japanese. The term was created by fishermen who returned to port to find the area surrounding their harbor devastated, although they had not been aware of any wave in the open water. Tsunami are common throughout Japanese history; approximately 195 events in Japan have been recorded.

Causes

Generation of a tsunami

A tsunami can be generated when the plate boundaries abruptly deform and vertically displace the overlying water. Such large vertical movements of the Earth’s crust can occur at plate boundaries. Subduction earthquakes are particularly effective in generating tsunami. Also, one tsunami in the 1940s in Hilo, Hawaii, was actually caused by an earthquake on one of the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. That earthquake was 7.8 on the Richter Scale.

Tsunami are formed as the displaced water mass moves under the influence of gravity and radiates across the ocean like ripples on a pond.

In the 1950s, it was discovered that larger tsunami than previously believed possible could be caused by landslides, explosive volcanic action, and impact events when they contact water. These phenomena rapidly displace large volumes of water, as energy from falling debris or expansion is transferred to the water into which the debris falls. Tsunami caused by these mechanisms, unlike the ocean-wide tsunami caused by some earthquakes, generally dissipate quickly and rarely affect coastlines distant from the source due to the small area of sea affected. These events can give rise to much larger local shock waves (solitons), such as the landslide at the head of Lituya Bay which produced a water wave estimated at 50 – 150 m and reached 524 m up local mountains. However, an extremely large landslide could generate a “megatsunami” that might have ocean-wide impacts.

The geological record tells us that there have been massive tsunami in Earth's past.

Signs of an approaching tsunami

There is often no advance warning of an approaching tsunami. However, since earthquakes are often a cause of tsunami, an earthquake felt near a body of water may be considered an indication that a tsunami will shortly follow.

When the first part of a tsunami to reach land is a trough rather than a crest of the wave, the water along the shoreline may recede dramatically, exposing areas that are normally always submerged. This can serve as an advance warning of the approaching crest of the tsunami, although the warning arrives only a very short time before the crest, which typically arrives seconds to minutes later.[2] In the 2004 tsunami that occurred in the Indian Ocean, the sea receding was not reported on the African coast or any other western coasts it hit, when the tsunami approached from the east.

Tsunami occur most frequently in the Pacific Ocean, but are a global phenomenon; they are possible wherever large bodies of water are found, including inland lakes, where they can be caused by landslides. Very small tsunami, non-destructive and undetectable without specialized equipment, occur frequently as a result of minor earthquakes and other events.

Warnings and prevention

A tsunami can also be known to come when the water leaves an ocean or large body of water, and then the water in it causes a large series of waves to approach land.

Tsunami wall at Tsu, Japan

Tsunami cannot be prevented or precisely predicted, but there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and there are many systems being developed and in use to reduce the damage from tsunami.

In instances where the leading edge of the tsunami wave is its trough, the sea will recede from the coast half of the wave's period before the wave's arrival. If the slope is shallow, this recession can exceed many hundreds of meters. People unaware of the danger may remain at the shore due to curiosity, or for collecting shellfish from the exposed seabed.

Regions with a high risk of tsunami may use tsunami warning systems to detect tsunami and warn the general population before the wave reaches land. In some communities on the west coast of the United States, which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunami, warning signs advise people where to run in the event of an incoming tsunami. Computer models can roughly predict tsunami arrival and impact based on information about the event that triggered it and the shape of the seafloor (bathymetry) and coastal land (topography).[3]

One of the early warnings comes from nearby animals. Many animals sense danger and flee to higher ground before the water arrives. The Lisbon quake is the first documented case of such a phenomenon in Europe. The phenomenon was also noted in Sri Lanka in the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.[4] Some scientists speculate that animals may have an ability to sense subsonic Rayleigh waves from an earthquake minutes or hours before a tsunami strikes shore[5]). More likely, though, is that the certain large animals (e.g., elephants) heard the sounds of the tsunami as it approached the coast. The elephants' reactions were to go in the direction opposite of the noise, and thus go inland. Humans, on the other hand, head down to the shore to investigate.

While it is not possible to prevent tsunami, in some particularly tsunami-prone countries some measures have been taken to reduce the damage caused on shore. Japan has implemented an extensive programme of building tsunami walls of up to 4.5 m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated coastal areas. Other localities have built floodgates and channels to redirect the water from incoming tsunami. However, their effectiveness has been questioned, as tsunami are often higher than the barriers. For instance, the tsunami which struck the island of Hokkaidō on July 12, 1993 created waves as much as 30 m (100 ft) tall - as high as a ten-story building. The port town of Aonae was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed structures in the area. The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the height of the tsunami, but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life.

The effects of a tsunami can be mitigated by natural factors such as tree cover on the shoreline. Some locations in the path of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami escaped almost unscathed as a result of the tsunami’s energy being sapped by a belt of trees such as coconut palms and mangroves. In one striking example, the village of Naluvedapathy in India's Tamil Nadu region suffered minimal damage and few deaths as the wave broke up on a forest of 80,244 trees planted along the shoreline in 2002 in a bid to enter the Guinness Book of Records.[6] Environmentalists have suggested tree planting along stretches of seacoast which are prone to tsunami risks. While it would take some years for the trees to grow to a useful size, such plantations could offer a much cheaper and longer-lasting means of tsunami mitigation than the costly and environmentally destructive method of erecting artificial barriers.

Historic Tsunami

Tsunami occur most frequently in the Pacific Ocean, but are a global phenomenon; they are possible wherever large bodies of water are found, including inland lakes, where they can be caused by landslides. Very small tsunami, non-destructive and undetectable without specialized equipment, occur frequently as a result of minor earthquakes and other events.

Japan is the nation with the most recorded tsunami in the world. The earliest recorded disaster was the tsunami associated with the 684 C.E. Hakuho Earthquake. The number of tsunami in Japan totals 195 over a 1,313 year period, averaging one event every 6.7 years, the highest rate of occurrence in the world. These waves have hit with such violent fury that entire towns have been destroyed.

The destruction of much of Alexandria on August 21, 365 C.E. is presently attributed to a tsunami. In the witness account collected soon afterward by Ammianus Marcellinus (in his "Roman history," book 26) all the typical features of a tsunami can be recognized: “The sea was driven back, and its waters flowed away to such an extent that the deep sea bed was laid bare, and many kinds of sea creatures could be seen. (…) Many ships were therefore stranded as if on dry land, and many people wandered freely (…) gathering fish and similar creatures (…) huge masses of water flowed back when least expected, and now overwhelmed and killed many thousands of people (…) Some great ships were hurled by the fury of the waves on to roof tops (as happened at Alexandria) and others were thrown up to two miles from the shore”[7].

In 1607, Bristol Channel floods resulted in the drowning of an estimated 2000 or more people, with houses and villages swept away, farmland inundated and livestock destroyed, wrecking the local economy along the coasts of the Bristol Channel, UK. Some churches have plaques up to 8ft above sea level to show how high the waters rose.

The cause of the flood is not yet proven, but a research paper published in the journal Archaeology in the Severn Estuary in 2002 following investigations by Professor Simon Haslett, from Bath Spa University, and Australian geologist Ted Bryant, from the University of Wollongong, proposed that the flooding was caused by a tsunami.

The British Geological Survey has suggested an earthquake on a known unstable fault off the coast of Ireland causing the vertical displacement of the sea floor as the possible cause.

684 Kii Channel Earthquake, Japan

The first recorded tsunami ever was in Japan on October 14, 684. It occurred off the shore of the Kii Peninsula. It has been estimated to be a magnitude 8.3. It was followed by a huge tsunami, but no estimates on how many deaths.

1096/1099 Quakes, Japan

Suruga Bay and Izu Peninsula experienced great tsunamis in 1096, followed by Shikoku and Kii Peninsula great tsunami of 1099. The magnitudes of both are estimated to have been in the 8 range.

1700 - Vancouver Island, Canada

January 26, 1700 - The Cascadia Earthquake, one of the largest earthquakes on record (estimated MW 9 magnitude), ruptured the Cascadia subduction zone (CSZ) offshore from Vancouver Island to northern California, and caused massive tsunami across the Pacific Northwest logged in Japan and oral traditions of the Native Americans. Brian F. Atwater, Musumi-Rokkaku Satoko, Satake Kenji, Tsuji Yoshinobu, Ueda Kazue, and David K. Yamaguch prepared a "scientific detective story" investigating this tsunami entitled The Orphan Tsunami of 1700—Japanese Clues to a Parent Earthquake in North America.[8]

1703 Kanto Quake, Japan

In Nov 23, 1703, an offshore earthquake produced a massive tsunami, hitting the southern shores of Kanagawa prefecture. Mount Fuji erupted, spewing heavy ash over Edo (now Tokyo). It was estimated to be magnitude 8.1, and 5,200 people died from the combined quake and tsunami, later more died from the ashfall crushing roofs.

1755 - Lisbon, Portugal

Tens of thousands of Portuguese who survived the Great Lisbon Earthquake on November 1 were killed by a tsunami which followed a half hour later. Many townspeople fled to the waterfront, believing the area safe from fires and from falling debris from aftershocks. Before the great wall of water hit the harbor, waters retreated, revealing lost cargo and forgotten shipwrecks. These people did not know that a Tsunami is a succession of waves, rather than just a single one.

The earthquake, tsunami, and many forest fires killed between 60,000 and 100,000 of Lisbon's pre-quake population of 275,000. Historical records of explorations by Vasco da Gama and other early navigators were lost, and countless buildings were destroyed (including most examples of Portugal's Manueline architecture). Europeans of the eighteenth century struggled to understand the disaster within religious and rational belief systems. Philosophers of the Enlightenment, notably Voltaire, wrote about the event. The philosophical concept of the sublime, as described by philosopher Immanuel Kant in the Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime, took inspiration in part from attempts to comprehend the enormity of the Lisbon quake and tsunami.

The tsunami took just over four hours to travel over 1000 miles to Cornwall in the United Kingdom. An account by Arnold Boscowitz (a century later) claimed "great loss of life."

1771 - Yaeyama Islands, Okinawa, Japan

An undersea earthquake of estimated magnitude 7.4 occurred near Yaeyama Islands in Okinawa, Japan on April 4, 1771 at about 8 A.M. The earthquake is not believed to have directly resulted in any deaths, but a resulting tsunami is thought to have killed about 12,000 people, (9313 on the Yaeyama Islands and 2548 on Miyako Islands according to one source. Estimates of the highest seawater runup on Ishigaki Island, range between 30 meters and 85.4 meters. The tsunami put an abrupt stop to population growth on the islands, and was followed by malaria epidemics and crop failures which decreased the population further. It was to be another 148 years before population returned to its pre-tsunami level.

1792 - Tsunami in Kyūshū, Japan

Tsunamis were the main cause of death for Japan's worst-ever volcanic disaster, due to an eruption of Mount Unzen in Nagasaki Prefecture, Kyūshū, Japan. It began towards the end of 1791 as a series of earthquakes on the western flank of Mount Unzen which gradually moved towards Fugen-daké, one of Mount Unzen's peaks. In February 1792, Fugen-daké started to erupt, triggering a lava flow which continued for two months. Meanwhile, the earthquakes continued, shifting nearer to the city of Shimabara. On the night of May 21, two large earthquakes were followed by a collapse of the eastern flank of Mount Unzen's Mayuyama dome, causing an avalanche which swept through Shimabara and into Ariake Bay, triggering a tsunami. It is not known to this day whether the collapse occurred as a result of an eruption of the dome or as a result of the earthquakes. The tsunami struck Higo Province on the other side of Ariake Bay before bouncing back and hitting Shimabara again. Out of an estimated total of 15,000 fatalities, around 5,000 is thought to have been killed by the landslide, around 5000 by the tsunami across the bay in Higo Province, and a further 5000 by the tsunami returning to strike Shimabara.

1854 Ansei Nankai Quakes in South Coast of Japan

The Great Ansei Nankai quake, was actually set of three quakes, two magnitude 8.4 quakes and a 7.4 quake all in three days. The first on Nov. 4, 1854 near what is today Aichi Prefecture and Shizuoka Prefecture with tsunami, followed by another 8.4 the next day in Wakayama Prefecture, which created a 10-meter high tsunami that hit the south coast of Japan. The third was a 7.4 quake on Nov. 7, 1854 in Ehime Prefecture and Oita Prefecture. The result was 80,000-100,000 deaths.[9]

The following year, the 1854 Edo Ansei Quake hit (Tokyo region), killing 4,500 to 10,000 people. Popular stories of the time blamed the quakes and tsunamis on giant catfish thrashing about.

1868 - Hawaiian Islands local tsunami generated by earthquake

On April 2, 1868, a local earthquake with a magnitude estimated between 7.25 and 7.75 rocked the southeast coast of the Big Island of Hawai’i. It triggered a landslide on the slopes of the Mauna Loa volcano, five miles north of Pahala, killing 31 people. A tsunami then claimed 46 additional lives. The villages of Punaluu, Ninole, Kawaa, Honuapo, and Keauhou Landing were severely damaged. According to one account, the tsunami "rolled in over the tops of the coconut trees, probably 60 feet high …. inland a distance of a quarter of a mile in some places, taking out to sea when it returned, houses, men, women, and almost everything movable." This was reported in the 1988 edition of Walter C. Dudley's book Tsunami! (ISBN 0824811259).

1883 - Krakatoa explosive eruption

The island volcano of Krakatoa in Indonesia exploded with devastating fury on August 26-27, 1883, blowing its underground magma chamber partly empty so that much overlying land and seabed collapsed into it. A series of large tsunami waves was generated from the collapse, some reaching a height of over 40 meters above sea level. Tsunami waves were observed throughout the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the American West Coast, South America, and even as far away as the English Channel. On the facing coasts of Java and Sumatra the sea flood went many miles inland and caused such vast loss of life that one area was never resettled but went back to the jungle and is now the Ujung Kulon nature reserve.

1896 - Sanriku coast, Japan

On 15 June, 1896, at around 19:32 local time, a magnitude 8.5 undersea earthquake off the Sanriku coast of northeastern Honshū, Japan, triggered tsunami waves which struck the coast about half an hour later. Although the earthquake itself is not thought to have resulted in any fatalities, the waves, the highest recorded measurement of which reaching 38.2 meters, killed approximately 20,000 people. In 2005 the same general area was hit by the 2005 Sanriku Japan Earthquake, but with no tsunami.

1917 - Halifax Explosion and tsunami

The Halifax Explosion occurred on Thursday, December 6, 1917 at 9:04:35 A.M. local time in Halifax, Nova Scotia in Canada, when the French munitions ship Mont-Blanc, bound for World War I France, collided with the Norwegian ship Imo, chartered to carry Belgian relief supplies. In the aftermath of the collision, Mont-Blanc caught fire and exploded. The explosion caused a tsunami, and a pressure wave of air.

1923 - The Great Kanto Earthquake, Japan

The Great Kanto Earthquake, which occurred in Eastern Japan on September 1, 1923, and devastated Tokyo, Yokohama and the surrounding areas, caused tsunami which struck the Shonan coast, Boso Peninsula, Izu Islands and the east coast of Izu Peninsula, within minutes in some cases. In Atami, waves reaching 12 meters were recorded. Examples of tsunami damage include about 100 people killed along Yui-ga-hama beach in Kamakura and an estimated 50 people on the Enoshima causeway. However, tsunami only accounted for a small proportion of the final death toll of over 100,000, most of whom were killed in fire.

1929 - Newfoundland tsunami

On November 18, 1929, an earthquake of magnitude 7.2 occurred beneath the Laurentian Slope on the Grand Banks. The quake was felt throughout the Atlantic Provinces of Canada and as far west as Ottawa and as far south as Claymont, Delaware. The resulting tsunami measured over 7 meters in height and took about 2½ hours to reach the Burin Peninsula on the south coast of Newfoundland, where 29 people lost their lives in various communities. It also snapped telegraph lines laid under the Atlantic.

1933 - Sanriku coast, Japan

On March 3, 1933, the Sanriku coast of northeastern Honshū, Japan which had already suffered a devastating tsunami in 1896 (see above) was again stuck by tsunami waves as a result of an offshore magnitude 8.1 earthquake. The quake destroyed about 5,000 homes and killed 3,068 people, the vast majority as a result of tsunami waves. Especially hard hit was the coastal village of Taro (now part of Miyako city) in Iwate Prefecture, which lost 42 percent of its total population and 98% of its buildings. Taro is now protected by an enormous tsunami wall, currently 10 meters in height and over 2 kilometers long. The original wall, constructed in 1958, saved Taro from yet another destruction from the 1960 Chilean tsunami (see below).

1944 - Tonankai Earthquake, Japan

A magnitude 8.0 earthquake on 7 December, 1944, about 20 km off the Shima Peninsula in Japan, which struck the Pacific coast of central Japan, mainly Mie, Aichi, and Shizuoka Prefectures. News of the event was downplayed by the authorities in order to protect wartime morale, and as a result the full extent of the damage is not known, but the quake is estimated to have killed 1223 people, the tsunami being the leading cause of the fatalities.

1946 - Nankai Earthquake, Japan

The Nankai earthquake, a periodic earthquake of around magnitude 8.0 which occurs off the southern coast of Kii Peninsula and Shikoku, Japan every 100 to 150 years, last struck on 21 December, 1946. The resulting tsunami hit the Pacific coast of western Japan. Particularly hard hit were the coastal towns of Kushimoto and Kainan on the Kii Peninsula. The quake led to more than 1400 deaths, tsunami being the leading cause .

1946 - Pacific tsunami

Residents run from an approaching tsunami in Hilo, Hawai’i

The April 1 Aleutian Island earthquake tsunami that killed 159 people on Hawai’i and five in Alaska (the lighthouse keepers at the Scotch Cap Light in the Aleutians) resulted in the creation of a tsunami warning system known as the Pacific Tsunami Warning System (specifically the PTWC), established in 1949 for Pacific Ocean area countries. The tsunami is known as the April Fools Day Tsunami in Hawai’i due to people thinking the warnings were an April Fools prank.

1958 - Lituya Bay megatsunami

On July 9, 1958, an earthquake with a magnitude of 8.3 on the Richter scale rocked a small inlet in Alaska called Lituya Bay. It then caused part of a mountain at the back of the bay to collapse, causing a monstrous tsunami (an iminami) to fly headlong through the bay. At a mountain at the mouth of the bay, the run was measured to be 524 m (about 1742 ft) making it the largest wave in recorded history. It swept up three boats; one managed to ride the wave, but the other two were swept into the Pacific Ocean, where they were completely destroyed and four people aboard them were killed.

1960 - Chilean tsunami

The magnitude 9.5 Great Chilean Earthquake of May 22, 1960 is the strongest earthquake ever recorded. Its epicenter, off the coast of South Central Chile, generated one of the most destructive tsunami of the 20th Century.

It spread across the entire Pacific Ocean, with waves measuring up to 25 meters high. The first tsunami arrived at Hilo approximately 14.8 hrs after it originated off the coast of South Central Chile. The highest wave at Hilo Bay was measured at around 10.7 m (35 ft). 61 lives were lost allegedly due to people's failure to heed warning sirens.

Almost 22 hours after the quake, the waves hit the ill-fated Sanriku coast of Japan, reaching up to 3 m above high tide, and killed 142 people. Up to 6,000 people died in total worldwide due to the earthquake and tsunami.[10]

The Vajont Dam as seen from Longarone today, showing approximately the top 60-70 metres of concrete. The 200-250 metre wall of water (megatsunami) that over-topped the dam would have obscured virtually all of the sky in this picture.

1963 - Vajont Dam Megatsunami

The Vajont Dam was completed in 1961 under Monte Toc, 100 km north of Venice, Italy. At 262 metres, it was one of the highest dams in the world. On October 9, 1963 an enormous landslide of about 260 million cubic metres of forest, earth, and rock, fell into the reservoir at up to 110 km per hour (68 mph). The resulting displacement of water caused 50 million cubic metres of water to overtop the dam in a 250-metre high wave. The flooding destroyed the villages of Longarone, Pirago, Rivalta, Villanova and Faè, killing 1,450 people. Almost 2,000 people (some sources report 1,909) perished in total.

1964 - Niigata Earthquake

The 1964 Niigata earthquake in Japan killed 28 people, and liquefacted whole apartment buildings. A subsequent tsunami destroyed the port of Niigata city.

1964 - Good Friday tsunami

After the magnitude 8.6 "Good Friday Earthquake" tsunami struck Alaska, British Columbia, California, and coastal Pacific Northwest towns, killing 121 people. The waves caused by the Tsunami were up to 23 m tall, and killed 11 people as far away as Crescent City, California.This happened on March 27, 1964

1976 - Moro Gulf tsunami

On August 16, 1976 at 12:11 A.M., a devastating earthquake of 7.9 hit the island of Mindanao, Philippines. It created a tsunami that devastated more than 700 km of coastline bordering Moro Gulf in the North Celebes Sea. An estimated number of victims for this tragedy left 5,000 dead, 2,200 missing or presumed dead, more than 9,500 injured and a total of 93,500 people were left homeless. It devastated the cities of Cotabato, Pagadian, and Zamboanga, and the and provinces of Basilan, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, Maguindanao, Sultan Kudarat, Sulu, and Zamboanga del Sur.

1979 - Tumaco tsunami

A magnitude 7.9 earthquake occurred on December 12, 1979 at 7:59:4.3 UTC along the Pacific coast of Colombia and Ecuador. The earthquake and the resulting tsunami caused the destruction of at least six fishing villages and the death of hundreds of people in the Colombian province of Nariño. The earthquake was felt in Bogotá, Cali, Popayán, Buenaventura, and several other cities and towns in Colombia and in Guayaquil, Esmeraldas, Quito, and other parts of Ecuador. When the Tumaco Tsunami hit the coast, it caused huge destruction in the city of Tumaco, as well as in the small towns of El Charco, San Juan, Mosquera, and Salahonda on the Pacific coast of Colombia. The total number of victims of this tragedy was 259 dead, 798 wounded and 95 missing or presumed dead.

1983 - Sea of Japan tsunami

On May 26, 1983 at 11:59:57 local time, a magnitude-7.7 earthquake occurred in the Sea of Japan, about 100 km west of the coast of Noshiro in Akita Prefecture, Japan. Out of the 107 fatalities, all but four were killed by the resulting tsunami, which struck communities along the coast, especially Aomori and Akita Prefectures and the east coast of Noto Peninsula. Footage of the tsunami hitting the fishing harbor of Wajima on Noto Peninsula was broadcast on TV. The waves exceeded 10 meters in some areas. Three of the fatalities were along the east coast of South Korea (whether North Korea was affected is not known).

1993 - Okushiri, Hokkaido tsunami

A devastating tsunami wave occurred along the coasts of Hokkaidō in Japan as a result of a magnitude 7.8 earthquake, 80 miles offshore, on July 12, 1993.
Within minutes, the Japan Meteorological Agency issued a tsunami warning that was broadcast on NHK in English and Japanese. However, it was too late for Okushiri, a small island near the epicenter, which was struck with extremely big waves, some reaching 30 meters, within two to five minutes of the quake. Aonae, a village on a low-lying peninsula at the southern tip of the island, was devastated over the course of the following hour by 13 waves of over two meters’ height arriving from multiple directions, including waves that had bounced back off Hokkaidō—despite being surrounded by tsunami barriers. Of 250 people killed as a result of the quake, 197 were victims of the series of tsunamis that hit Okushiri; the waves also caused deaths on the coast of Hokkaidō. While many residents, remembering the 1983 tsunami (see above), survived by quickly evacuating on foot to higher ground, it is thought that many others underestimated how soon the waves would arrive (the 1983 tsunami took 17 minutes to hit Okushiri) and were killed as they attempted to evacuate by car along the village’s narrow lanes. The highest wave of the tsunami was a staggering 31 meters (102 feet) high.

1998 - Papua New Guinea

On July 17, 1998, a Papua New Guinea tsunami killed approximately 2200 people [11]. A 7.1 magnitude earthquake 24 km offshore was followed within 11 minutes by a tsunami about 12 m tall. While the magnitude of the quake was not large enough to create these waves directly, it is believed the earthquake generated an undersea landslide, which in turn caused the tsunami. The villages of Arop and Warapu were destroyed.

2004 - Indian Ocean tsunami

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake; Tsunami strikes Ao Nang, Thailand.

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which had a magnitude of 9.0 to 9.3,[12] triggered a series of lethal tsunami on December 26, 2004, that killed approximately 300,000 people (including 168,000 in Indonesia alone), making it the deadliest tsunami as well as one of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. It also had the second-largest earthquake in recorded history. The initial surge was measured at a height of approximately 33 meters (108 feet), making it the largest earthquake-generated tsunami in recorded history. The tsunami killed people over an area ranging from the immediate vicinity of the quake in Indonesia, Thailand, and the north-western coast of Malaysia, to thousands of kilometres away in Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and even as far away as Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania in eastern Africa. This is an example of a teletsunami which can travel vast distances across the open ocean, in this case, it is an inter-continental tsunami. Tsunami waves 2.6 meters tall were reported even in places such as Mexico, nearly 13,000 km away from the epicenter. The energies for these waves travel along fault lines and becoming concentrated therefore traveling further.

Unlike in the Pacific Ocean, there was no organized alert service covering the Indian Ocean. This was in part due to the absence of major tsunami events since 1883 (the Krakatoa eruption, which killed 36,000 people). In light of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, UNESCO and other world bodies have called for an international tsunami monitoring system.

2006 - South of Java Island tsunami

A 7.7 magnitude earthquake rocked the Indian Ocean seabed on July 17,2006, 200 km south of Pangandaran, a beautiful beach famous to surfers for its perfect waves. This earthquake triggered tsunami whose heights varied from 2 meters at Cilacap to 6 meters at Cimerak beach, where it swept away and flattened buildings as far as 400 meters away from the coastline. More than 800 people were reported missing or dead.

2006 - Kuril Islands tsunami

On November 15, 2006, an 8.1 magnitude quake struck an area claimed by both Russia and Japan, but the waves near Japan did not swell higher than 23 inches. There were no immediate reports of casualties or damage. Six hours later, tsunami waves up to nearly 5 feet high caused by the quake crashed into Crescent City, California and Santa Cruz, California causing considerable damage.

2007 - Solomon Islands tsunami

On April 2, 2007, a powerful magnitude 8.1 (initially 7.6) earthquake hit the East Pacific region about 25 miles (40 km) northwest of the Solomon Islands at 7:39 A.M., resulting in a tsunami that was up to 17 feet (5 meters) tall. The wave, which struck the coast of Solomon Islands (mainly Gizo), triggered region-wide tsunami warnings and watches extending from Japan to New Zealand to Hawaii and the eastern seaboard of Australia. So far, at least 39 people are confirmed dead with the toll expected to rise. Dozens more have been injured with entire towns inundated by the sweeping water which traveled 300 meters inland in some places. Simbo, Choiseul and Ranunga islands were also affected. A state of national emergency was declared for the Solomon Islands. On the island of Choiseul, a wall of water reported to be 30 feet high swept almost 400 meters inland destroying everything in its path. Officials estimate that the tsunami displaced more than 5000 residents all over the archipelago.

2007 - Niigata earthquake

On July 16, 2007, a strong earthquake struck northwestern Japan, causing a fire and minor radioactive water leak at one of the world's most powerful nuclear power plants. At least seven people were killed and hundreds injured. Japan's Meteorological Agency measured the quake at 6.8 on the richter scale and sending aftershocks of 6.6. The U.S. Geological Survey, which monitors quakes around the world, said the initial quake registered 6.7. A tsunami watch was issued along the Sea of Japan. The predicted height of the tsunami was estimated to be 50 cm (20 inches).[13] That earthquake sparked only a few small tsunamis, growing to be no more than about 20 cm (8 inches) tall.[14] However, the 1964 quake and tsunami north of the current one destroyed the port of the city of Niigata.

Other tsunami in South Asia

Tsunami in South Asia
(Source: Amateur Seismic Centre, India)[15]
Date Location
1524 Near Dabhol, Maharashtra
02 April 1762 Arakan Coast, Myanmar
16 June 1819 Rann of Kachchh, Gujarat, India
31 October 1847 Great Nicobar Island, India
31 December 1881 Car Nicobar Island, India
26 August 1883 Krakatoa volcanic eruption
28 November 1945 Mekran coast, Balochistan

North American and Caribbean tsunami

  • 1690 - Nevis
  • 14 November 1840 - Great Swell on the Delaware River
  • 18 November 1867 - Virgin Islands
  • 17 November 1872 - Maine
  • 11 October 1918 - Puerto Rico
  • 18 November 1929 - Newfoundland
  • 9 January 1926 - Maine
  • 4 August 1946 - Dominican Republic
  • 18 August 1946 - Dominican Republic
  • 27 March 1964 - Crescent City, CA
  • 15 November 2006 - Crescent City, CA

Possible tsunami

  • 35 million years ago - Chesapeake Bay impact crater, Chesapeake Bay
  • 9 June 1913 - Longport, NJ
  • 6 August 1923 - Rockaway Park, Queens, NY .
  • 8 August 1924 - Coney Island, NY .
  • 19 August 1931 - Atlantic City, NJ
  • 22 June 1932 - Cuyutlán, Colima, Mexico
  • 19 May 1964 - Northeast USA
  • 4 July 1992 - Daytona Beach, FL

Source: NOAA National Weather Service Forecast Office, [2]

European tsunami

  • 6100 B.C.E. - Storegga Slide, Norway
  • October 16, 1979 - 23 people died when the coast of Nice, France, was hit by a tsunami. This may have had a man-made cause: construction at the new Nice airport creating an undersea landslide.[16] [17]

Other historic tsunami

Other tsunami that have occurred include the following:

  • ca. 500 B.C.E.: Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu, India, Maldives
  • ca. 450 B.C.E.: The Greek historian Thucydides in his book History of the Peloponnesian Wars, speculated about the causes of tsunami. He argued that it could only be explained as a consequence of ocean earthquakes, and could see no other possible causes for the phenomenon.
  • 1541: a tsunami struck the earliest European settlement in Brazil, São Vicente. There is no record of deaths or injuries, but the town was almost completely destroyed.
  • January 20, 1606/1607: along the coast of the Bristol Channel thousands of people were drowned, houses and villages swept away, farmland was inundated and flocks were destroyed by a flood that might have been a tsunami. While it is quite possible that it was caused by a combination of meteorological extremes and tidal peaks, recent evidence points more strongly towards a tsunami.[18]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Can It Happen Here? USGS. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  2. ↑ The Aitape 1998 tsunami: Reconstructing the event from interviews and field mapping. NOAA. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  3. ↑ The Tsunami Story. NOAA. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  4. ↑ Tsunami: Anatomy of a disaster. BBC News. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  5. ↑ Christine Kenneally, 2004, Surviving the Tsunami. Slate. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  6. ↑ Tsunami villagers give thanks to trees. BBC News. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  7. ↑ Jean-Daniel Stanley and Thomas F. Jorstad. 2005. The 365 C.E. tsunami destruction of Alexandria, Egypt: erosion, deformation of strata and introduction of allochthonous material. GSA. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  8. ↑ U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1707. The Orphan Tsunami of 1700—Japanese Clues to a Parent Earthquake in North America. USGS. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  9. ↑ 安政南海地震. (Japanese). Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  10. ↑ Emergency & Disasters Data Base. CRED. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  11. ↑ Descriptive Model of the July 17, 1998 Papua New Guinea Tsunami. USGS. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  12. ↑ Dec 26, 2004 Magnitude 9.0 Earthquake & Tsunami in the Indian Ocean. NOAA. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  13. ↑ Strong quake jolts Japan, tsunami alert issued. Reuters. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  14. ↑ Mitch Marconi, 2007. Second Japan Earthquake In Sea Of Japan 6.8 Magnitude, Tsunami Fear. The Post Chronicle. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  15. ↑ [1] Tsunamis & Seiches. ASC India.org. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  16. ↑ Marine Georesources & Geotechnology. Taylor & Francis Group. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  17. ↑ TSUNAMIS ET RAZ DE MAREE HISTORIQUES. (French). Azurseisme. Retrieved August 18, 2007.
  18. ↑ Was Bristol Channel hit by a tsunami? information from Edward A. Bryant and Simon K. Haslett, "Catastrophic Wave Erosion, Bristol Channel, United Kingson: Impact of Tsunami?" The Journal of Geology 115: 253-269. Eurekalert. Retrieved August 18, 2007.

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