Difference between revisions of "Theseus" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Minotaur.jpg|thumb|Theseus and the Minotaur on sixth century black-figure pottery.]]
  
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{{Greek myth}}
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'''Theseus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''{{polytonic|Θησεύς''}}) was a legendary king of [[Athens]] and son of [[Aethra]] and either Aegeus or [[Poseidon]], as his mother had laid with both in the same night. Much like [[Perseus]], [[Cadmus]], and [[Heracles]], Theseus was a founder-hero whose exploits represented the triumph of Athenian mores and values over archaic and barbarous belief. As Heracles represented the pinnacle of Dorian society, Theseus was an idol for the Ionians and was considered by Athenians to be their own great founder and reformer. In mythological accounts, he was credited with the ''synoikismos'' ("dwelling together")—the political unification of Attica under Athens, which was metaphorically represented in the tales of his mythic labors. This understanding is even attested to in the etymology of his name, which is derived from the same root as ''{{polytonic|θεσμός}}'' ("thesmos"), Greek for ''institution''. Because he was the unifying king, Theseus was credited with constructing and dwelling in a palace on the fortress of the [[Acropolis]], which may have been similar to the palace excavated in [[Mycenae]].  
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'''Theseus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''{{polytonic|Θησεύς''}}) was a [[legend]]ary king of [[Athens]], son of [[Aethra]], and fathered by [[Aegeus]] and [[Poseidon]], with whom Aethra lay in one night. Theseus was a founder-hero, like [[Perseus]], [[Cadmus]] or [[Heracles]], all of whom battled and overcame foes that were identified with an archaic religious and social order. As Heracles was the [[Dorian]] hero, Theseus was the [[Ionia]]n founding hero,  considered by Athenians as their own great reformer. His name comes from the same root as ''{{polytonic|θεσμός}}'' ("thesmos"), Greek for ''institution''. He was responsible for the ''[[synoikismos]]'' ("dwelling together")—the political unification of [[Attica, Greece|Attica]] under Athens, represented in his journey of labours. Because he was the unifying king, Theseus built and occupied a palace on the fortress of the [[Acropolis]] that may have been similar to the palace excavated in [[Mycenae]]. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] reports that after the synoikismos, Theseus established a cult of [[Aphrodite Pandemos]] ("Aphrodite of all the People") and [[Peitho]] on the southern slope of the Akropolis.
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{{toc}}
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In addition to his mythological importance, Theseus was also a relevant figure in Hellenic religious life. For instance, Pausanias reports that after the [[synoikismos]], Theseus established a cult of [[Aphrodite Pandemos]] ("Aphrodite of all the People") and [[Peitho]] on the southern slope of the Akropolis.
  
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In ''[[The Frogs]]'', [[Aristophanes]] credited him with inventing many everyday Athenian traditions.  If the theory of a Minoan [[hegemony]]<ref>Minoan cultural dominance is reflected in the ceramic history, but not necessarily political dominance </ref> is correct he may have been based on Athens' liberation from this political order rather than on an historical individual.
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==Mythological accounts==
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===Birth and youthful adventures of Theseus===
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[[Image:Laurent de la La Hyre 002.jpg|thumb|right|''Theseus and Aethra'', by Laurent de La Hyre.]]
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The story of Theseus properly begins with the account of his semi-miraculous conception. In it, his mother, Aethra, a princess of Troezen (a small city southwest of Athens), is romanced by Aegeus, one of the primordial kings of [[Athens|the Greek capital]]. After laying with her husband on their wedding night, the new queen felt compelled to walk down to the seashore, where she waded out to the nearby island of Sphairia, encountered [[Poseidon]] (god of the sea and of earthquakes), and had intercourse with him (either willingly or otherwise).  
  
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In [[Plutarch]]'s ''[[vita]]'' of Theseus, he makes use of varying accounts of the death of the Minotaur, Theseus' escape and the love of Ariadne for Theseus. Plutarch's sources, not all of whose texts have survived independently, included [[Pherecydes]] (mid-sixth century), Demon (ca 300), [[Philochorus]] and [[Cleidemus]] (both fourth century).<ref>Edmund P. Cueva, "Plutarch's Ariadne in Chariton's Chaereas and Callirhoe" ''American Journal of Philology'' '''117'''.3 (Fall 1996) pp. 473-484.</ref>  
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In the pre-scientific understanding of procreation, the mixture of [[semen]] that resulted from this two-part union gave Theseus a combination of divine as well as mortal characteristics in his nature; such double fatherhood, one father immortal, one mortal, was a familiar feature among many [[Greek hero]]es.<ref>''Descriprion of Greece'' x.6.1.</ref> When Aethra became [[pregnant]], Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, however, he buried his sandals and sword under a huge rock and told her that when their son grew up, he should demonstrate his heroic virtues by moving the stone and claiming his royal legacy.
  
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[[Image:Laurent de la La Hyre 002.jpg|thumb|right|''Theseus and Aethra'', by [[Laurent de La Hyre]]]]
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Upon returning to his own kingdom, Aegeus was joined by [[Medea]], who had fled [[Corinth]] after slaughtering the children she had borne [[Jason]]. Her beauty convinced the king to take her as a royal [[consort]].
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Aegeus, one of the primordial kings of [[Athens, Greece|Athens]], found a bride, [[Aethra]] who was the daughter of Troezen's king [[Pittheus]], at [[Troezen]], a small city southwest of Athens. On their wedding night, Aethra waded through the sea to the island [[Sphairia]] that rests close to the coast and lay there with [[Poseidon]] (god of the sea, and of earthquakes).  By the understanding of sex in antiquity, the mix of [[semen]] gave Theseus a combination of divine as well as mortal characteristics in his nature; such double fatherhood, one father immortal, one mortal, was a familiar feature of [[Greek hero]]es.<ref>Of a supposed Parnassos, founder of [[Delphi]], [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] observes, "Like the other heroes, as they are called, he had two fathers; one they say was the god Poseidon, the human father being Cleopompus." (''Descriprion of Greece'' x.6.1).</ref> When Aethra became [[pregnant]], Aegeus decided to return to Athens. But before leaving, he buried his [[Sandal (footwear)|sandals]] and [[sword]] under a huge rock and told her that when their son grew up, he should move the rock, if he were hero enough, and take the weapons for himself as evidence of his royal parentage. At Athens, Aegeus was joined by [[Medea]], who had fled [[Corinth]] after slaughtering the children she had borne [[Jason]], and had taken up a new consort in Aegeus. Priestess and consort together represented the old order at Athens.
 
  
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Thus Theseus was raised in the land of his mother. When Theseus grew up and became a brave young man, he moved the rock and recovered his father's arms . His mother then told him the truth about his father's identity and that he must take the weapons back to the king and claim his birthright. To get to Athens, Theseus could choose to go by sea (which was the safe way) or by land, following a dangerous path around the [[Saronic Gulf]], where he would encounter a string of six entrances to the [[Greek Underworld|Underworld]], each guarded by a [[chthonic]] enemy in the shapes of thieves and bandits. Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go by the land route, and defeated a great many bandits along the way.
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Meanwhile, Theseus was raised in the land of his mother. When the young hero reached young adulthood, he was easily able to displace the rock and recover his father's arms. Seeing him return with these symbolic items, his mother then told him the truth about his father's identity and suggested that he must take the weapons back to the king and claim his birthright. To get to Athens, Theseus could choose to go by sea (which was the safe route) or by land, following a dangerous path around the Saronic Gulf, where he would encounter a string of six entrances to the Underworld, each guarded by chthonic enemies in the forms of thieves and bandits. Young, brave, and ambitious, Theseus decided to follow the land route, and defeated a great many bandits along the way.
  
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At the first site, which was [[Epidaurus]], sacred to [[Apollo]] and the healer [[Aesculapius]], Theseus turned the tables on the chthonic bandit, the "clubber"  [[Periphetes]], who beat his opponents into the Earth, and took from him the stout staff that often identifies Theseus in vase-paintings.
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[[Image:Theseus Minotaur BM Vase E84 n4.jpg|thumb|left|Theseus and the Crommyonian Sow, with Phaea, on an Attic red-figured kylix, c. 440-430 B.C.E.]]
  
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At the [[Isthmian]] entrance to the [[Netherworld]] was a robber named [[Siris (mythology)|Siris]].  He would capture travellers, tie them between two [[pine]] trees which were bent down to the ground, and then let the trees go, tearing his victims apart. Theseus killed him by his own method. He then raped Siris's daughter, [[Perigune]], fathering the child [[Melanippus]].
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* At the first site, which was [[Epidaurus]], sacred to [[Apollo]] and the healer [[Aesculapius]], Theseus turned the tables on the chthonic bandit, [[Periphetes]] (the "clubber"), by stealing his weapon and using it against him. This stout staff eventually became an emblem of the hero, such that it often identifies him in vase-paintings.
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[[Image:Theseus Minotaur BM Vase E84 n4.jpg|thumb|left|Theseus and the Crommyonian Sow, with Phaea, on an Attic red-figured [[kylix]], ca. 440-430 B.C.E.]]
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* At the Isthmian entrance to the Netherworld, he encountered a robber named [[Siris]]&mdash;a grim malefactor who enjoyed capturing travelers, tying them between two pine trees that were bent down to the ground, and then letting the trees go, tearing his victims apart. After besting the monstrous villain in combat, Theseus dispatched him by his own method. He then raped Siris' daughter, [[Perigune]], fathering the child [[Melanippus]].
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In another deed north of [[Isthmus]], at a place called [[Crommyon]], he killed an enormous pig, the Crommyonian sow, bred by an old crone named Phaea. Some versions name the sow herself as Phaea.
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* In another deed north of [[Isthmus]], at a place called Crommyon, he killed an enormous pig, the Crommyonian [[sow]], bred by an old crone named Phaea. Some versions name the sow herself as Phaea.  
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* Near Megara, Theseus came across an elderly robber named Sciron, who preyed upon travelers that pitied him for his advanced age. Specifically, he waited near a particularly narrow pathway on the cliff and asked passersby to wash his feet. When they knelt down to accommodate him, the villain kicked them off the cliff behind them, where they were eaten by a [[sea monster]] (or, in some versions, a giant [[turtle]]). In his typically retaliatory manner, Theseus pushed him off the cliff.
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* Later, the hero confronted [[Cercyon]], king of [[Eleusis]], who challenged travelers to a wrestling match and, when he had beaten them, killed them. As can be anticipated, Theseus proceeded to defeat Cercyon, after which point he slaughtered him. (In interpretations of the story that follow the formulas of Frazer's ''[[The Golden Bough]]'', Cercyon was a "year-King," who was required to do annual battle for his life, for the good of his kingdom, and was succeeded by the victor. Theseus overturned this archaic religious rite by refusing to be sacrificed.)
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* The last bandit that the young hero-king encountered was [[Procrustes]], who dwelt in the plains of Eleusis. A seemingly harmless hotelier, this final brigand offered weary travelers the chance to rest in his bed. Unfortunately for those who accepted his hospitality, he then forced them to fit the beds precisely, either by stretching them or by cutting off their feet. Once again, Theseus turned the tables on Procrustes, although it is not said whether he cut Procrustes to size or stretched him to fit.<ref>Powell, 324-327.</ref>
  
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Near [[Megara]] an elderly robber named [[Sciron]] forced travellers along the narrow cliff-face pathway to wash his feet.  While they knelt, he kicked them off the cliff behind them, where they were eaten by a sea monster (or, in some versions, a giant [[turtle]]).  Theseus pushed him off the cliff.
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Each of these sites was a very sacred place already of great antiquity when the deeds of Theseus were first attested in painted ceramics, which predate the literary texts.<ref>Gantz, 249-255.</ref>
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Another of these enemies was [[Cercyon]], King at the holy site of [[Eleusis]], who challenged passers-by to a wrestling match and, when he had beaten them, killed them. Theseus beat Cercyon at wrestling and then killed him instead. In interpretations of the story that follow the formulas of Frazer's ''[[The Golden Bough]]'', Cercyon was a "year-King", who was required to do annual battle for his life, for the good of his kingdom, and was succeeded by the victor. Theseus overturned this archaic religious rite by refusing to be sacrificed.
 
  
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The last bandit was [[Procrustes]], who had a bed which he offered to passers-by in the plain of Eleusis. He then ''made'' them fit into it, either by stretching them or by cutting off their feet. Theseus turned the tables on Procrustes, although it is not said whether he cut Procrustes to size or stretched him to fit.
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=== Medea and the Marathonian Bull ===
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When Theseus arrived at Athens, he did not reveal his true identity immediately. [[Aegeus]] gave him hospitality but was suspicious of the young, powerful stranger's intentions. Aegeus' wife Medea recognized Theseus immediately as Aegeus' son and worried that Theseus would be chosen as heir to Aegeus' kingdom instead of her son, [[Medus]]. She tried to arrange to have Theseus killed by asking him to capture the Marathonian Bull, an emblem of Cretan power.
  
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Each of these sites was a very sacred place already of great antiquity when the deeds of Theseus were first attested in painted ceramics, which predate the literary texts.
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On the way to [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]], Theseus took shelter from a storm in the hut of an ancient woman named [[Hecale]]. She swore to make a sacrifice to [[Zeus]] if Theseus was successful in capturing the bull. Theseus did capture the bull, but when he returned to Hecale's hut, she was dead. In her honor. Theseus gave her name to one of the demes of Attica, making its inhabitants in a sense her adopted children.
  
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== Medea and the Marathonian Bull ==
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When Theseus returned victorious to Athens, where he sacrificed the Bull, Medea tried to poison him. At the last second, Aegeus recognized the sandals, shield, and sword, and knocked the poisoned wine cup from Theseus's hand. Thus, father and son were reunited.<ref>B. B. Shefton, "Medea at Marathon," ''American Journal of Archaeology'' 60:2 (April 1956), 159-163.</ref>
  
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When Theseus arrived at Athens, he did not reveal his true identity immediately. [[Aegeus]] gave him hospitality but was suspicious of the young, powerful stranger's intentions. Aegeus's wife Medea recognized Theseus immediately as Aegeus' son and worried that Theseus would be chosen as heir to Aegeus' kingdom instead of her son [[Medus]]. She tried to arrange to have Theseus killed by asking him to capture the [[Cretan Bull|Marathonian Bull]], an emblem of Cretan power.
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===Minotaur===
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Unfortunately, the political situation in the prince's new domain was suboptimal. The Athenians, after a disastrous war with King Minos of Crete, had been forced to agree to a grim series of tributes: Every nine years, seven Athenian boys and seven Athenian girls were to be sent to Crete to be devoured by the [[Minotaur]] (a foul human/bovine hybrid that dwelt in the king's labyrinth).
  
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On the way to [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]], Theseus took shelter from a storm in the hut of an ancient woman named [[Hecale]]. She swore to make a sacrifice to [[Zeus]] if Theseus was successful in capturing the bull.  Theseus did capture the bull, but when he returned to Hecale's hut, she was dead.  In her honor Theseus gave her name to one of the [[deme]]s of Attica, making its inhabitants in a sense her adopted children.
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On one of these fell occasions, Theseus volunteered to take the place of one of the youths in order to slay the monster. Their boat set off to Crete sporting a black sail, with Theseus promising his father that, if successful, he would replace it with a white sail before he returned. Once in Crete, Theseus made a very favorable impression on King Minos' daughter [[Ariadne]], who instantly fell in love with the handsome youth. Her intense feelings compelled her to offer the hero a precious family heirloom: A magical ball of string that would lead him out of the maze after his encounter with the beast.  
  
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When Theseus returned victorious to Athens, where he sacrificed the Bull, Medea tried to poison him. At the last second, Aegeus recognized the sandals, shield, and sword, and knocked the poisoned wine cup from Theseus's hand. Thus father and son were reunited.
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After a titanic battle, Theseus successful dispatched the foul creature and managed to escape the island with all of the children (and Ariadne) in tow. However, the young hero's fickle heart caused him to lose interest in the princess, and he abandoned Ariadne on the island of Naxos. Originally optimistic that her prince would return, Ariadne eventually realized that Theseus had only used her and she cursed him, causing him to forget to change the black sail to white.
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[[Image:Minotaur.jpg|thumb|Theseus and the Minotaur on 6th-century [[black-figure pottery]]]]
 
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==Minotaur==
 
  
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King Minos of Crete had waged war with the Athenians and was successful. He then demanded that, at nine-year intervals, seven Athenian boys and seven Athenian girls were to be sent to Crete to be devoured by the [[Minotaur]], who was half man half beast and who lived in the Labyrinth.
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When Theseus and the youths returned to the city, there was much rejoicing, save by the heartsick king. Indeed, the worried monarch had been seated on a watchtower waiting for any sign of Theseus' return and, seeing the black sail, became convinced of his precious son's death and committed suicide by throwing himself into the sea (thereafter named the [[Aegean sea|Aegean]]).<ref>Powell, 357-360.</ref>
  
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On the third occasion, Theseus volunteered to slay the monster. He took the place of one of the youths and set off with a black sail, promising to his father, [[Aegeus]], that if successful he would return with a white sail.  King Minos' daughter [[Ariadne]], out of love for Theseus, gave him a sword and a ball of string to find his way back through the maze.
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====Ship of Theseus====
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As an aside, some accounts describe the ship of Theseus being kept in service for many years after his return to Athens. However, as wood wore out or rotted, it was replaced until it was unclear how much of the original ship actually remained. Philosophical questions about the nature of identity in circumstances like this are sometimes referred to as a ''Ship of Theseus'' ''[[Paradox]]''.
  
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Theseus was successful and managed to escape with all of the children and Ariadne. On the return journey Theseus abandoned Ariadne on the island of [[Naxos Island|Naxos]]. The next day Ariadne realized that Theseus had only used her and she cursed him to forget to change the black sail to white.  
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=== Pirithous ===
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Theseus' best friend was [[Pirithous]], prince of the [[Lapiths]], a powerful and headstrong youth that he first encountered in a hostile physical confrontation. The circumstances of their initial meeting transpired as follows.  
  
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Seeing the black sail, Aegeus committed suicide by throwing himself into the sea (hence named [[Aegean sea|Aegean]]). Theseus and the other Athenian youths returned safely.
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In his travels, Pirithous had heard various tales of the Athenian hero's physical prowess but remained unconvinced. Desiring proof, he decided to purposefully provoke Theseus by rustling his herd of cattle. When the hero noticed that his prized animals were gone, he set out in pursuit.  
  
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==Ship of Theseus==
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When Theseus finally caught up to the villainous thief, he challenged him to battle, and the two fell into a frenzy of attacks, parries, feints, and counter-feints. After several minutes of indecisive combat, the two were so impressed with each other they took an oath of mutual friendship. In order to cement this union, they decided to hunt for the Calydonian Boar.
  
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According to some accounts, the ship Theseus took on his return to Athens was kept in service for many years.  However, as wood wore out or rotted it was replaced until it was unclear how much of the original ship actually remained. Philosophical questions about the nature of [[identity and change|identity]] in circumstances like this are sometimes referred to as a [[Ship of Theseus|Ship of Theseus Paradox]]
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In ''Iliad'' I, Nestor numbers Pirithous and Theseus "of heroic fame" among an earlier generation of heroes of his youth, "the strongest men that Earth has bred, the strongest men against the strongest enemies, a savage mountain-dwelling tribe whom they utterly destroyed." No trace of such an oral tradition, which Homer's listeners would have recognized in Nestor's allusion, survived in literary epic.<ref>Gantz, 278-280.</ref>
  
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== Pirithous ==
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[[Image:Theseus Helene Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2309 n2.jpg|thumb|right|Theseus carries off the willing Helen, on an [[Attica|Attic]] red-figure [[amphora]], ca. 510 B.C.E.]]  
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Theseus's best friend was [[Pirithous]], prince of the [[Lapiths]]. Pirithous had heard stories of Theseus's courage and strength in battle but wanted proof,   so he rustled Theseus's herd of cattle and drove it from [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]], and Theseus set out in pursuit.  Pirithous took up his arms and the pair met to do battle, but were so impressed with each other they took an oath of friendship and joined the hunt for the [[Calydonian Boar]]. In ''Iliad'' I, Nestor numbers Pirithous and Theseus "of heroic fame" among an earlier generation of heroes of his youth, "the strongest men that Earth has bred, the strongest men against the strongest enemies, a savage mountain-dwelling tribe whom they utterly destroyed." No trace of such an oral tradition, which Homer's listeners would have recognized in Nestor's allusion, survived in literary epic. Later, Pirithous was preparing to marry Hippodamia. The [[centaur]]s were guests at the wedding feast, but got drunk and tried to abduct the women, including Hippodamia. The Lapiths won the ensuing battle.
 
  
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[[Image:Theseus Helene Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2309 n2.jpg|thumb|left|Theseus carries off the willing Helen, on an [[Attica|Attic]] red-figure [[amphora]], ca. 510 B.C.E.]]
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==== Theseus and Pirithous: The abduction of Helen and encounter with Hades ====
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=== Theseus and Pirithous: the abduction of Helen and encounter with Hades ===
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Since Theseus, already a great abductor of women, and his bosom companion, Pirithous, were both sons of Olympians (Poseidon and Zeus, respectively), they pledged that they would both marry daughters of Zeus.<ref>Kerenyi, 237.</ref> Theseus, in an old tradition, chose [[Helen of Troy]], and together they kidnapped her, intending to keep her until she was old enough to marry. More dangerously, Pirithous chose [[Persephone]] (the bride of [[Hades]]). They left Helen with Theseus's mother, [[Aethra]] at Aphidna, whence she was rescued by the Dioscuri.
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Theseus, a great abductor of women, and his bosom companion, Pirithous, since they were sons of Zeus and Poseidon, pledged themselves to marry daughters of Zeus.<ref>Scholia on ''Iliad'' iii.144 and a fragment (#227) of [[Pindar]], according to Kerenyi 1951:237, note 588.</ref> Theseus, in an old tradition,<ref>Reported in [[Athenagoras]], ''Apologeta'', 557a, according to Kerenyi 1959:234 and note.</ref> chose [[Helen]], and together they kidnapped her, intending to keep her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose [[Persephone]]. They left Helen with Theseus's mother, [[Aethra]] at [[Aphidna]], whence she was rescued by the [[Dioscuri]].
 
  
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On Perithous' behalf they travelled to the underworld, domain of [[Persephone]] and her husband, [[Hades]]. Hades pretended to offer them hospitality and laid out a feast, but as soon as the two visitors sat down, snakes coiled around their feet and held them fast. In some versions, the stone itself grew and attached itself to their thighs.
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On Perithous' behalf, the pair traveled to the underworld. Hades pretended to offer them hospitality and laid out a feast, but as soon as the two visitors sat down, snakes coiled around their feet and held them fast. In some versions, the stone itself grew and attached itself to their thighs.
  
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When [[Heracles]] came into Hades for his [[The Twelve Labours|twelfth task]], he freed Theseus but the earth shook when he attempted to liberate [[Pirithous]], and Pirithous had to remain in Hades for eternity. When Theseus returned to Athens, he found that the [[Dioscuri]] had taken Helen and [[Aethra]] back to [[Sparta]]. When Heracles had pulled Theseus from the chair where he was trapped, some of his thigh stuck to it; this explains the supposedly lean thighs of Athenians.
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When [[Heracles]] came into Hades for his [[The Twelve Labours|twelfth task]], he freed Theseus but the earth shook when he attempted to liberate [[Pirithous]], and Pirithous had to remain in Hades for eternity. When Theseus returned to Athens, he found that the [[Dioscuri]] had taken Helen and Aethra back to [[Sparta]]. When Heracles had pulled Theseus from the chair where he was trapped, some of his thigh stuck to it; this explains the supposedly lean thighs of Athenians.<ref>Gantz, 291-295.</ref>
  
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== Phaedra and Hippolytus ==
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=== Phaedra and Hippolytus ===
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Phaedra, Theseus's first wife, bore Theseus two sons, Demophon and Acamas. While these two were still in their infancy, Phaedra fell in love with Hippolytus, Theseus's son by Antiope. According to some versions of the story, Hippolytus had scorned [[Aphrodite]] to become a devotee of [[Artemis]], so Aphrodite made Phaedra fall in love with him as punishment. He rejected her out of chastity. Alternatively, in Euripides' version, ''Hippolytus,'' Phaedra's nurse told Hippolytus of her mistress's love and he swore he would not reveal the nurse as his source of information. To ensure that she would die with dignity, Phaedra wrote to Theseus on a tablet claiming that Hippolytus had raped her before hanging herself. Theseus believed her and used one of the three wishes he had received from [[Poseidon]] against his own son. The curse caused Hippolytus's horses to be frightened by a sea monster (usually a bull), which caused the youth to be dragged to his death. Artemis would later tell Theseus the truth, promising to avenge her loyal follower on another follower of Aphrodite. In a third version, after Phaedra told Theseus that Hippolytus had raped her, Theseus killed his son himself, and Phaedra committed suicide out of guilt, for she had not intended for Hippolytus to die. In yet another version, Phaedra simply told Theseus Hippolytus had raped her and did not kill herself, and [[Dionysus]] sent a wild bull which terrified Hippolytus's horses.
  
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[[Phaedra (mythology)|Phaedra]], Theseus's first wife, bore Theseus two sons, [[Demophon]] and [[Acamas]]. While these two were still in their infancy, Phaedra fell in love with [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus]], Theseus's son by [[Antiope]](Shakespeare confused the two names of these Amazons; the Queen Hippolyta and her sister Antiope, saying Hippolyta was the one who married him when in fact it was Antiope).{{dubious}}  According to some versions of the story, Hippolytus had scorned [[Aphrodite]] to become a devotee of [[Artemis]], so Aphrodite made Phaedra fall in love with him as punishment. He rejected her out of chastity.  Alternatively, in Euripides' version, ''[[Hippolytus (play)|Hippolytus]]'', Phaedra's nurse told Hippolytus of her mistress's love and he swore he would not reveal the nurse as his source of information.  To ensure that she would die with dignity, Phaedra wrote to Theseus on a tablet claiming that Hippolytus had raped her before hanging herself.  Theseus believed her and used one of the three wishes he had received from [[Poseidon]] against his son. The curse caused Hippolytus's horses to be frightened by a sea monster (usually a bull) and drag their rider to his death.  Artemis would later tell Theseus the truth, promising to avenge her loyal follower on another follower of Aphrodite.  In a third version, after Phaedra told Theseus that Hippolytus had raped her, Theseus killed his son himself, and Phaedra committed suicide out of guilt, for she had not intended for Hippolytus to die.  In yet another version, Phaedra simply told Theseus Hippolytus had raped her and did not kill herself, and [[Dionysus]] sent a wild bull which terrified Hippolytus's horses.
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A cult grew up around Hippolytus, associated with the cult of [[Aphrodite]]. Girls who were about to be married offered locks of their hair to him. The cult believed that [[Asclepius]] had resurrected Hippolytus and that he lived in a sacred forest near Aricia in Latium.
  
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A cult grew up around Hippolytus, associated with the cult of [[Aphrodite]].  Girls who were about to be married offered locks of their hair to him. The cult believed that [[Asclepius]] had resurrected Hippolytus and that he lived in a sacred forest near [[Aricia]] in [[Latium]].
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===Death===
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Though many earlier sources lack an account of the hero's demise, later versions describe a gradual decline in his power and influence. In the end, he is thought to died during a diplomatic mission to the kingdom of Skyros, where the reigning monarch unexpectedly pushed him from a cliff during a seemingly peaceful walk. In the various surviving sources, different motives are assigned to the king's murderous act, though it is often cited as a visceral response to the hero's larger-than-life reputation or as an attempt to curry favor with other powerful monarchs in the area.<ref>Gantz, 297-298.</ref>
  
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== Other stories and his death ==
+
==Theseus in classical poetry and drama==
 +
In ''The Frogs,'' [[Aristophanes]] credited him with inventing many everyday Athenian traditions. If the theory of a Minoan [[hegemony]] (Minoan cultural dominance is reflected in the ceramic history, but not necessarily political dominance) is correct, he may have been based on Athens' liberation from this political order rather than on a historical individual.
  
−
According to some sources, Theseus also was one of the [[Argonauts]], although [[Apollonius of Rhodes]] states in the ''[[Argonautica]]'' that Theseus was still in the underworld at this time. With Phaedra, Theseus fathered [[Acamas]], who was one of those who hid in the [[Trojan Horse]] during the [[Trojan War]]. Theseus welcomed the wandering [[Oedipus]] and helped [[Adrastus]] to bury the [[Seven Against Thebes]].  [[Lycomedes]] of the island of [[Skyros]] threw Theseus off a cliff after he had lost popularity in Athens. In [[475 B.C.E.]], in response to an oracle, [[Cimon]] of Athens, having conquered Skyros for the Athenians, identified as the remains of Theseus "a coffin of a great corpse with a bronze spear-head by its side and a sword." (Plutarch, ''Life of Cimon'', quoted Burkert [[1985]], p. 206)
+
In [[Plutarch]]'s ''vita'' of Theseus, he makes use of varying accounts of the death of the Minotaur, Theseus' escape, and the love of Ariadne for Theseus. Plutarch's sources, not all of whose texts have survived independently, included Pherecydes (mid-sixth century), Demon (c. 300), Philochorus and Cleidemus (both fourth century).<ref>Edmund P. Cueva, "Plutarch's Ariadne in Chariton's Chaereas and Callirhoe," ''American Journal of Philology'' 117:3 (Fall 1996), 473-484.</ref>
  
−
== Books ==
+
==Theseus in Hellenistic religion==
 +
Though the topic has prompted some debate,<ref>C.H. Weller, "May a Hero Have a Temple?" ''Classical Philology'' 12:1 (January 1917), 96-97.</ref> it appears that the cult of Theseus played an important role in Hellenistic religiosity. While the ancient Greeks did distinguish between heroes and gods (with the former category referring to deceased humans), this did not enjoin them from constructing shrines and temples to these former worthies. Theseus, as the founding hero of the Athenian deme, received particular attention, with an impressive ''heroa'' (hero temple) dedicated to him and containing his purported remains.<ref>Mikalson, 40.</ref>
  
−
[[Mary Renault]]'s ''[[The King Must Die]]'' (1958) is a dramatic retelling of the Theseus legend through the return from Crete to Athens.  While fictional, it is generally faithful to the spirit and flavor of the best-known variations of the original story. The sequel is ''[[The Bull from the Sea]]'' (1962), about the hero's later career.
+
In addition to these architectural commemorations, Theseus was also an important figure in Athenian popular religion, as he was honored with public sacrifices "on the eight day of every month" (in ceremonies shared with his divine sire [[Poseidon]]) and celebrated in an extensive annual festival (the ''Thesia'').<ref>Mikalson, 40-41.</ref> These ceremonies, many of which far predated the mythic accounts of the hero, were nonetheless reinterpreted to commemorate him, with etiological explanations for various archaic practices being derived from aspects of Theseus' life story.<ref>Parke, 77-80.</ref> Parke suggests that the hero's posthumous influence can possibly be tied to "a popular belief that Theseus when alive had been a friend of the people and had established a democratic government in his combined state of Athens."<ref>Parke, 81-82.</ref>
−
Theseus is also a prominent character as the Duke of Athens in [[William Shakespeare]]'s plays, ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' and ''[[The Two Noble Kinsmen]]''. Shakespeare draws on [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''Knight's Tale'' and [[Giovanni Boccaccio]]'s ''Teseida'', whence the use of the anachronistic term "Duke": when Boccaccio and Chaucer were writing in the fourteenth century, there was an actual [[Duke of Athens]]. [[Hippolyta]] also appears in both plays.
 
−
 
 
−
John Dempsey's "Ariadne's Brother: A Novel on the Fall of Bronze Age Crete" (Athens, Greece: Kalendis 1996, 679pp., ISBN 960-219-062-0) tells the Minoan Cretan version of these events based on both archaeology and myth.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Steven Pressfield]]'s "[[Last of the Amazons]]" is a fictional account of Theseus meeting and subsequent marriage to Antiope and the ensuing war.  Theseus also appears as a major character in [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s [[The Knight's Tale]]
 
−
 
 
−
[[Jorge Luis Borges]] also presents an interesting variation of the myth, from the Asterion's point-of-view, in a short story, "La Casa de Asterion" ("[[The House of Asterion]]"), which depends for its full effect on the reader's not knowing the identity of the narrator.
 
−
 
 
−
''[[The Cretan Chronicles]]'' are an alternative, interactive version of the legend of Theseus and the Minotaur. The reader controls Theseus's brother Altheus, who learns from [[Hermes]] Theseus was killed by the Minotaur and takes up his brother's quest to slay the beast.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Gene Wolfe]]'s ''The Book of the New Sun'' contains a retelling of the story of Theseus and the Minotaur, about a student who makes a son from dreams and sends him off to fight an ogre who, unlike the minotaur, has a head like a castle and a body like a ship.  In order to save a young maiden, the young man of dreams defeats the ogre by blinding him with burning tar and then returns to the island where the student lives. Sadly the student sees the sails, blackened by the burning tar, and, thinking his created son is dead, throws himself from his bed, for "no man lives long when his dreams are not here."
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
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== References ==
 
== References ==
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* Apollodorus. ''Gods & Heroes of the Greeks.'' Translated by Michael Simpson. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977. ISBN 0870232053
−
{{Commonscat|Theseus}}
+
* Burkert, Walter. ''Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical''. Translated by John Raffan. Oxford: Blackwell, 1985. ISBN 0631112413
−
* [[Plutarch]], ''Theseus'' [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/theseus.html online version]
+
* Dillon, Matthew. ''Pilgrims and Pilgrimage in Ancient Greece''. London: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0415127750
−
* [[Apollodorus]]
+
* Farnell, Lewis Richard. ''The Cults of the Greek States''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907.
−
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], ''Greek Religion'' 1985
+
* Gantz, Timothy. ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. ISBN 080184410X
−
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]], ''The Heroes of the Greeks'' 1959
+
* Graves, Robert. ''The Greek Myths.'' London: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0140171991
−
*Ruck, Carl A.P. and Danny Staples, ''The World of Classical Myth,'' ch. IX "Theseus: making the new Athens'' 1994, pp. 203-222.
+
* Harrison, Jane Ellen. ''Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908.
 +
* Kerenyi, Karl. ''The Gods of the Greeks''. London: Thames and Hudson, 1951. ISBN 0500270481
 +
* Mikalson, Jon D. ''Ancient Greek Religion''. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005. ISBN 0631232222
 +
* Parke, H.W. ''Festivals of the Athenians''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977. ISBN 0801410541
 +
* Powell, Barry B. ''Classical Myth''. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998. ISBN 0137167148
 +
* Plutarch. ''Theseus''. Translated by John Dryden. Accessed online at the [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/theseus.html Internet Classics Archive]. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
 +
* Rose, H.J. ''A Handbook of Greek Mythology''. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1959. ISBN 0525470417
 +
* Ruck, Carl A.P. and Danny Staples. "Theseus: Making the New Athens." In ''The World of Classical Myth: Gods and Goddesses, Heroines and Heroes''. Carolina Academic Press: 1994. ISBN 0890895759
  
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Latest revision as of 16:19, 25 November 2015

Theseus and the Minotaur on sixth century black-figure pottery.

Theseus (Greek Θησεύς) was a legendary king of Athens and son of Aethra and either Aegeus or Poseidon, as his mother had laid with both in the same night. Much like Perseus, Cadmus, and Heracles, Theseus was a founder-hero whose exploits represented the triumph of Athenian mores and values over archaic and barbarous belief. As Heracles represented the pinnacle of Dorian society, Theseus was an idol for the Ionians and was considered by Athenians to be their own great founder and reformer. In mythological accounts, he was credited with the synoikismos ("dwelling together")—the political unification of Attica under Athens, which was metaphorically represented in the tales of his mythic labors. This understanding is even attested to in the etymology of his name, which is derived from the same root as θεσμός ("thesmos"), Greek for institution. Because he was the unifying king, Theseus was credited with constructing and dwelling in a palace on the fortress of the Acropolis, which may have been similar to the palace excavated in Mycenae.

In addition to his mythological importance, Theseus was also a relevant figure in Hellenic religious life. For instance, Pausanias reports that after the synoikismos, Theseus established a cult of Aphrodite Pandemos ("Aphrodite of all the People") and Peitho on the southern slope of the Akropolis.

Mythological accounts

Birth and youthful adventures of Theseus

Theseus and Aethra, by Laurent de La Hyre.

The story of Theseus properly begins with the account of his semi-miraculous conception. In it, his mother, Aethra, a princess of Troezen (a small city southwest of Athens), is romanced by Aegeus, one of the primordial kings of the Greek capital. After laying with her husband on their wedding night, the new queen felt compelled to walk down to the seashore, where she waded out to the nearby island of Sphairia, encountered Poseidon (god of the sea and of earthquakes), and had intercourse with him (either willingly or otherwise).

In the pre-scientific understanding of procreation, the mixture of semen that resulted from this two-part union gave Theseus a combination of divine as well as mortal characteristics in his nature; such double fatherhood, one father immortal, one mortal, was a familiar feature among many Greek heroes.[1] When Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, however, he buried his sandals and sword under a huge rock and told her that when their son grew up, he should demonstrate his heroic virtues by moving the stone and claiming his royal legacy.

Upon returning to his own kingdom, Aegeus was joined by Medea, who had fled Corinth after slaughtering the children she had borne Jason. Her beauty convinced the king to take her as a royal consort.

Meanwhile, Theseus was raised in the land of his mother. When the young hero reached young adulthood, he was easily able to displace the rock and recover his father's arms. Seeing him return with these symbolic items, his mother then told him the truth about his father's identity and suggested that he must take the weapons back to the king and claim his birthright. To get to Athens, Theseus could choose to go by sea (which was the safe route) or by land, following a dangerous path around the Saronic Gulf, where he would encounter a string of six entrances to the Underworld, each guarded by chthonic enemies in the forms of thieves and bandits. Young, brave, and ambitious, Theseus decided to follow the land route, and defeated a great many bandits along the way.

Theseus and the Crommyonian Sow, with Phaea, on an Attic red-figured kylix, c. 440-430 B.C.E.
  • At the first site, which was Epidaurus, sacred to Apollo and the healer Aesculapius, Theseus turned the tables on the chthonic bandit, Periphetes (the "clubber"), by stealing his weapon and using it against him. This stout staff eventually became an emblem of the hero, such that it often identifies him in vase-paintings.
  • At the Isthmian entrance to the Netherworld, he encountered a robber named Siris—a grim malefactor who enjoyed capturing travelers, tying them between two pine trees that were bent down to the ground, and then letting the trees go, tearing his victims apart. After besting the monstrous villain in combat, Theseus dispatched him by his own method. He then raped Siris' daughter, Perigune, fathering the child Melanippus.
  • In another deed north of Isthmus, at a place called Crommyon, he killed an enormous pig, the Crommyonian sow, bred by an old crone named Phaea. Some versions name the sow herself as Phaea.
  • Near Megara, Theseus came across an elderly robber named Sciron, who preyed upon travelers that pitied him for his advanced age. Specifically, he waited near a particularly narrow pathway on the cliff and asked passersby to wash his feet. When they knelt down to accommodate him, the villain kicked them off the cliff behind them, where they were eaten by a sea monster (or, in some versions, a giant turtle). In his typically retaliatory manner, Theseus pushed him off the cliff.
  • Later, the hero confronted Cercyon, king of Eleusis, who challenged travelers to a wrestling match and, when he had beaten them, killed them. As can be anticipated, Theseus proceeded to defeat Cercyon, after which point he slaughtered him. (In interpretations of the story that follow the formulas of Frazer's The Golden Bough, Cercyon was a "year-King," who was required to do annual battle for his life, for the good of his kingdom, and was succeeded by the victor. Theseus overturned this archaic religious rite by refusing to be sacrificed.)
  • The last bandit that the young hero-king encountered was Procrustes, who dwelt in the plains of Eleusis. A seemingly harmless hotelier, this final brigand offered weary travelers the chance to rest in his bed. Unfortunately for those who accepted his hospitality, he then forced them to fit the beds precisely, either by stretching them or by cutting off their feet. Once again, Theseus turned the tables on Procrustes, although it is not said whether he cut Procrustes to size or stretched him to fit.[2]

Each of these sites was a very sacred place already of great antiquity when the deeds of Theseus were first attested in painted ceramics, which predate the literary texts.[3]

Medea and the Marathonian Bull

When Theseus arrived at Athens, he did not reveal his true identity immediately. Aegeus gave him hospitality but was suspicious of the young, powerful stranger's intentions. Aegeus' wife Medea recognized Theseus immediately as Aegeus' son and worried that Theseus would be chosen as heir to Aegeus' kingdom instead of her son, Medus. She tried to arrange to have Theseus killed by asking him to capture the Marathonian Bull, an emblem of Cretan power.

On the way to Marathon, Theseus took shelter from a storm in the hut of an ancient woman named Hecale. She swore to make a sacrifice to Zeus if Theseus was successful in capturing the bull. Theseus did capture the bull, but when he returned to Hecale's hut, she was dead. In her honor. Theseus gave her name to one of the demes of Attica, making its inhabitants in a sense her adopted children.

When Theseus returned victorious to Athens, where he sacrificed the Bull, Medea tried to poison him. At the last second, Aegeus recognized the sandals, shield, and sword, and knocked the poisoned wine cup from Theseus's hand. Thus, father and son were reunited.[4]

Minotaur

Unfortunately, the political situation in the prince's new domain was suboptimal. The Athenians, after a disastrous war with King Minos of Crete, had been forced to agree to a grim series of tributes: Every nine years, seven Athenian boys and seven Athenian girls were to be sent to Crete to be devoured by the Minotaur (a foul human/bovine hybrid that dwelt in the king's labyrinth).

On one of these fell occasions, Theseus volunteered to take the place of one of the youths in order to slay the monster. Their boat set off to Crete sporting a black sail, with Theseus promising his father that, if successful, he would replace it with a white sail before he returned. Once in Crete, Theseus made a very favorable impression on King Minos' daughter Ariadne, who instantly fell in love with the handsome youth. Her intense feelings compelled her to offer the hero a precious family heirloom: A magical ball of string that would lead him out of the maze after his encounter with the beast.

After a titanic battle, Theseus successful dispatched the foul creature and managed to escape the island with all of the children (and Ariadne) in tow. However, the young hero's fickle heart caused him to lose interest in the princess, and he abandoned Ariadne on the island of Naxos. Originally optimistic that her prince would return, Ariadne eventually realized that Theseus had only used her and she cursed him, causing him to forget to change the black sail to white.

When Theseus and the youths returned to the city, there was much rejoicing, save by the heartsick king. Indeed, the worried monarch had been seated on a watchtower waiting for any sign of Theseus' return and, seeing the black sail, became convinced of his precious son's death and committed suicide by throwing himself into the sea (thereafter named the Aegean).[5]

Ship of Theseus

As an aside, some accounts describe the ship of Theseus being kept in service for many years after his return to Athens. However, as wood wore out or rotted, it was replaced until it was unclear how much of the original ship actually remained. Philosophical questions about the nature of identity in circumstances like this are sometimes referred to as a Ship of Theseus Paradox.

Pirithous

Theseus' best friend was Pirithous, prince of the Lapiths, a powerful and headstrong youth that he first encountered in a hostile physical confrontation. The circumstances of their initial meeting transpired as follows.

In his travels, Pirithous had heard various tales of the Athenian hero's physical prowess but remained unconvinced. Desiring proof, he decided to purposefully provoke Theseus by rustling his herd of cattle. When the hero noticed that his prized animals were gone, he set out in pursuit.

When Theseus finally caught up to the villainous thief, he challenged him to battle, and the two fell into a frenzy of attacks, parries, feints, and counter-feints. After several minutes of indecisive combat, the two were so impressed with each other they took an oath of mutual friendship. In order to cement this union, they decided to hunt for the Calydonian Boar.

In Iliad I, Nestor numbers Pirithous and Theseus "of heroic fame" among an earlier generation of heroes of his youth, "the strongest men that Earth has bred, the strongest men against the strongest enemies, a savage mountain-dwelling tribe whom they utterly destroyed." No trace of such an oral tradition, which Homer's listeners would have recognized in Nestor's allusion, survived in literary epic.[6]

Theseus carries off the willing Helen, on an Attic red-figure amphora, ca. 510 B.C.E.

Theseus and Pirithous: The abduction of Helen and encounter with Hades

Since Theseus, already a great abductor of women, and his bosom companion, Pirithous, were both sons of Olympians (Poseidon and Zeus, respectively), they pledged that they would both marry daughters of Zeus.[7] Theseus, in an old tradition, chose Helen of Troy, and together they kidnapped her, intending to keep her until she was old enough to marry. More dangerously, Pirithous chose Persephone (the bride of Hades). They left Helen with Theseus's mother, Aethra at Aphidna, whence she was rescued by the Dioscuri.

On Perithous' behalf, the pair traveled to the underworld. Hades pretended to offer them hospitality and laid out a feast, but as soon as the two visitors sat down, snakes coiled around their feet and held them fast. In some versions, the stone itself grew and attached itself to their thighs.

When Heracles came into Hades for his twelfth task, he freed Theseus but the earth shook when he attempted to liberate Pirithous, and Pirithous had to remain in Hades for eternity. When Theseus returned to Athens, he found that the Dioscuri had taken Helen and Aethra back to Sparta. When Heracles had pulled Theseus from the chair where he was trapped, some of his thigh stuck to it; this explains the supposedly lean thighs of Athenians.[8]

Phaedra and Hippolytus

Phaedra, Theseus's first wife, bore Theseus two sons, Demophon and Acamas. While these two were still in their infancy, Phaedra fell in love with Hippolytus, Theseus's son by Antiope. According to some versions of the story, Hippolytus had scorned Aphrodite to become a devotee of Artemis, so Aphrodite made Phaedra fall in love with him as punishment. He rejected her out of chastity. Alternatively, in Euripides' version, Hippolytus, Phaedra's nurse told Hippolytus of her mistress's love and he swore he would not reveal the nurse as his source of information. To ensure that she would die with dignity, Phaedra wrote to Theseus on a tablet claiming that Hippolytus had raped her before hanging herself. Theseus believed her and used one of the three wishes he had received from Poseidon against his own son. The curse caused Hippolytus's horses to be frightened by a sea monster (usually a bull), which caused the youth to be dragged to his death. Artemis would later tell Theseus the truth, promising to avenge her loyal follower on another follower of Aphrodite. In a third version, after Phaedra told Theseus that Hippolytus had raped her, Theseus killed his son himself, and Phaedra committed suicide out of guilt, for she had not intended for Hippolytus to die. In yet another version, Phaedra simply told Theseus Hippolytus had raped her and did not kill herself, and Dionysus sent a wild bull which terrified Hippolytus's horses.

A cult grew up around Hippolytus, associated with the cult of Aphrodite. Girls who were about to be married offered locks of their hair to him. The cult believed that Asclepius had resurrected Hippolytus and that he lived in a sacred forest near Aricia in Latium.

Death

Though many earlier sources lack an account of the hero's demise, later versions describe a gradual decline in his power and influence. In the end, he is thought to died during a diplomatic mission to the kingdom of Skyros, where the reigning monarch unexpectedly pushed him from a cliff during a seemingly peaceful walk. In the various surviving sources, different motives are assigned to the king's murderous act, though it is often cited as a visceral response to the hero's larger-than-life reputation or as an attempt to curry favor with other powerful monarchs in the area.[9]

Theseus in classical poetry and drama

In The Frogs, Aristophanes credited him with inventing many everyday Athenian traditions. If the theory of a Minoan hegemony (Minoan cultural dominance is reflected in the ceramic history, but not necessarily political dominance) is correct, he may have been based on Athens' liberation from this political order rather than on a historical individual.

In Plutarch's vita of Theseus, he makes use of varying accounts of the death of the Minotaur, Theseus' escape, and the love of Ariadne for Theseus. Plutarch's sources, not all of whose texts have survived independently, included Pherecydes (mid-sixth century), Demon (c. 300), Philochorus and Cleidemus (both fourth century).[10]

Theseus in Hellenistic religion

Though the topic has prompted some debate,[11] it appears that the cult of Theseus played an important role in Hellenistic religiosity. While the ancient Greeks did distinguish between heroes and gods (with the former category referring to deceased humans), this did not enjoin them from constructing shrines and temples to these former worthies. Theseus, as the founding hero of the Athenian deme, received particular attention, with an impressive heroa (hero temple) dedicated to him and containing his purported remains.[12]

In addition to these architectural commemorations, Theseus was also an important figure in Athenian popular religion, as he was honored with public sacrifices "on the eight day of every month" (in ceremonies shared with his divine sire Poseidon) and celebrated in an extensive annual festival (the Thesia).[13] These ceremonies, many of which far predated the mythic accounts of the hero, were nonetheless reinterpreted to commemorate him, with etiological explanations for various archaic practices being derived from aspects of Theseus' life story.[14] Parke suggests that the hero's posthumous influence can possibly be tied to "a popular belief that Theseus when alive had been a friend of the people and had established a democratic government in his combined state of Athens."[15]

Notes

  1. ↑ Descriprion of Greece x.6.1.
  2. ↑ Powell, 324-327.
  3. ↑ Gantz, 249-255.
  4. ↑ B. B. Shefton, "Medea at Marathon," American Journal of Archaeology 60:2 (April 1956), 159-163.
  5. ↑ Powell, 357-360.
  6. ↑ Gantz, 278-280.
  7. ↑ Kerenyi, 237.
  8. ↑ Gantz, 291-295.
  9. ↑ Gantz, 297-298.
  10. ↑ Edmund P. Cueva, "Plutarch's Ariadne in Chariton's Chaereas and Callirhoe," American Journal of Philology 117:3 (Fall 1996), 473-484.
  11. ↑ C.H. Weller, "May a Hero Have a Temple?" Classical Philology 12:1 (January 1917), 96-97.
  12. ↑ Mikalson, 40.
  13. ↑ Mikalson, 40-41.
  14. ↑ Parke, 77-80.
  15. ↑ Parke, 81-82.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Apollodorus. Gods & Heroes of the Greeks. Translated by Michael Simpson. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977. ISBN 0870232053
  • Burkert, Walter. Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical. Translated by John Raffan. Oxford: Blackwell, 1985. ISBN 0631112413
  • Dillon, Matthew. Pilgrims and Pilgrimage in Ancient Greece. London: Routledge, 1997. ISBN 0415127750
  • Farnell, Lewis Richard. The Cults of the Greek States. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907.
  • Gantz, Timothy. Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. ISBN 080184410X
  • Graves, Robert. The Greek Myths. London: Penguin Books, 1993. ISBN 0140171991
  • Harrison, Jane Ellen. Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1908.
  • Kerenyi, Karl. The Gods of the Greeks. London: Thames and Hudson, 1951. ISBN 0500270481
  • Mikalson, Jon D. Ancient Greek Religion. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005. ISBN 0631232222
  • Parke, H.W. Festivals of the Athenians. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977. ISBN 0801410541
  • Powell, Barry B. Classical Myth. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998. ISBN 0137167148
  • Plutarch. Theseus. Translated by John Dryden. Accessed online at the Internet Classics Archive. Retrieved October 24, 2007.
  • Rose, H.J. A Handbook of Greek Mythology. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1959. ISBN 0525470417
  • Ruck, Carl A.P. and Danny Staples. "Theseus: Making the New Athens." In The World of Classical Myth: Gods and Goddesses, Heroines and Heroes. Carolina Academic Press: 1994. ISBN 0890895759

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