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| − | '''Psychology''' is an [[academic]] and [[applied science|applied]] discipline involving the [[science|scientific study]] of [[Mental function|mental processes]] and [[behavior]]. Psychology also refers to the application of such [[knowledge]] to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' [[everyday life|daily lives]] and the treatment of [[mental illness]].
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| − | Psychology differs from the other [[social science|social sciences]] — [[anthropology]], [[economics]], [[political science]], and [[sociology]] — in seeking to explain the mental processes and behavior of individuals. Psychology differs from [[biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior on a systemic level, as opposed to studying the biological or neural processes themselves. In contrast, the subfield of [[neuropsychology]] studies the actual neural processes and how they relate to the mental effects they subjectively produce. [[Biological psychology]] is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states.
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| − | The word ''psychology'' comes from the [[ancient Greek language|ancient Greek]] {{polytonic|ψυχή}} ''[[psyche]]'' ("soul," "mind") and {{polytonic|-λογία}} ''[[-logy|-ology]]'' ("study").
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| − | ==History==
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| − | {{main|History of psychology}}
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| − | ===Early development===
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| − | [[Image:Rudolf-Goclenius-1.jpg|thumb|126px|right|Rudolf Goclenius]]
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| − | The first use of the term "psychology" is often attributed to the [[German people|German]] [[scholastic]] [[philosopher]] Rudolf Goeckel (Latinized [[Rudolph Goclenius]]), published in [[1590]].<ref>"Yucologia hoc est de hominis perfectione, anima, ortu", published in [[Marburg]] in [[1590]], was written by the [[German people|German]] [[scholastic]] [[philosopher]] Rudolf Goeckel (1547-1628), who often goes by the Latinized [[Rudolph Goclenius]].</ref> More than six decades earlier, however, the Croatian humanist [[Marko Marulić]] used the term in the title of a work which was subsequently lost.<ref>[[Marko Marulić]] (1450-1524) used the term "psychology" in the title of his Latin treatise "Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae." Although the treatise itself has not been preserved, its title appears in a list of Marulic's works compiled by his younger contemporary, [[Franjo Bozicevic-Natalis]] in his "Vita Marci Maruli Spalatensis" (Krstić, 1964).</ref> This, of course, may not have been the very first usage, but it is the earliest documented use at present.
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| − | The term did not fall into popular usage until the German idealist philosopher, [[Christian Wolff]] (1679-1754) used it in his ''Psychologia empirica and Psychologia rationalis'' (1732-1734). This distinction between empirical and rational psychology was picked up in [[Diderot]]'s ''Encyclodedie'' and was popularized in France by [[Maine de Biran]].
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| − | The root of the word psychology ([[psyche]]) is very roughly equivalent to "[[soul]]" in Greek, and psychology came to be considered a study of the soul (in a religious sense of this term) much later, in Christian times. Psychology as a medical discipline can be seen in [[Thomas Willis]]' reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of [[human brain|brain function]], as part of his [[1672]] [[anatomical]] treatise "De Anima Brutorum" ("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes"). Until about the end of the [[19th century]], psychology was regarded as a branch of [[philosophy]].
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| − | ===Early modern era===
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| − | In [[1879]], [[Wilhelm Wundt]] (1832-1920), known as "the father of psychology", founded a laboratory for the study of psychology at [[Leipzig University]] in [[Germany]]. The American philosopher [[William James]] published his seminal book, ''[[Principles of Psychology]]'', in 1890, laying the foundations for many of the questions that [[psychologist]]s would focus on for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] (1850–1909), a pioneer in the experimental study of [[memory]] at the [[University of Berlin]]; and the [[Russia]]n [[physiology|physiologist]] [[Ivan Pavlov]] (1849-1936), who investigated the [[learning]] process now referred to as [[classical conditioning]].
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| − | [[Image:Rodin The Thinker Laeken cemetery.jpg|thumb|left|[[Auguste Rodin]]'s ''The Thinker'', bronze cast by Alexis Rudier, [[Laeken]] Cemetery, [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]].]]
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| − | Meanwhile, during the [[1890s]], the [[Austria|Austrian]] physician [[Sigmund Freud]], who was trained as a [[neurology|neurologist]] and had no formal training in experimental psychology, had developed a method of [[psychotherapy]] known as [[psychoanalysis]]. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods and [[introspection]], and was focused in particular on resolving mental distress and [[psychopathology]]. Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as [[Human sexuality|sexuality]] and [[psychological repression|repression]] as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered [[taboo]] subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Although Freud's theories are only of limited interest in modern academic psychology departments, his application of psychology to clinical work has been very influential.
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| − | Partly in reaction to the subjective and introspective nature of Freudian psychology, and its focus on the recollection of childhood experiences, during the early decades of the [[20th century]] [[behaviorism]] gained popularity as a guiding psychological theory. Championed by psychologists such as [[John B. Watson]] and [[Edward Thorndike]] (and later, [[B.F. Skinner]]), behaviorism was grounded in studies of animal behavior. Behaviorists argued that psychology should be a science of ''behavior'', '''not''' the mind, and rejected the idea that internal mental states such as [[belief]]s, [[desire]]s, or goals could be studied scientifically. In his paper "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913), Watson argued that psychology "is a ''purely [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objective]]'' [emphasis added] experimental branch of [[natural science]]," that "introspection forms no essential part of its methods", and that "the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute."
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| − | Behaviorism reigned as the dominant model in psychology through the first half of the 20th century, largely due to the creation of [[conditioning]] theories as scientific models of human behavior, and their successful application in the workplace and in fields such as [[advertising]].
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| − | ===Modern era===
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| − | However, it became increasingly clear that although behaviorism had made some important discoveries, it was deficient as a guiding theory of human behavior. [[Noam Chomsky]]'s review of Skinner's book ''[[Verbal Behavior]]'' (that aimed to explain [[language acquisition]] in a behaviorist framework) is considered one of the major factors in the ending of behaviorism's reign. Chomsky demonstrated that language could not purely be learned from conditioning, as people could produce sentences unique in structure and meaning that couldn't possibly be generated solely through experience of natural language, implying that there must be internal states of mind that behaviorism rejected as illusory. Similarly, work by [[Albert Bandura]] showed that children could [[social learning theory|learn by social observation]], without any change in overt behavior, and so must be accounted for by internal representations.
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| − | [[Humanistic psychology]] emerged in the 1950s and has continued as a reaction to [[positivism|positivist]] and scientific approaches to the mind. It stresses a [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] view of human experience and seeks to understand human beings and their behavior by conducting [[qualitative psychological research|qualitative research]]. The humanistic approach has its roots in [[existentialism|existentialist]] and [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] philosophy and many humanist psychologists completely reject a scientific approach, arguing that trying to turn human experience into measurements strips it of all meaning and relevance to lived existence.
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| − | Some of the founding theorists behind this school of thought were [[Abraham Maslow]] who formulated a [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|hierarchy of human needs]], [[Carl Rogers]] who created and developed [[Client-centered therapy|Client-centred therapy]], and [[Fritz Perls]] who helped create and develop [[Gestalt therapy]].
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| − | The rise of computer technology also promoted the metaphor of mental function as [[information processing]]. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]] as the dominant model of the mind.
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| − | Links between [[brain]] and [[nervous system]] function were also becoming common, partly due to the experimental work of people like [[Charles Sherrington]] and [[Donald Olding Hebb|Donald Hebb]], and partly due to studies of people with [[brain injury]] (see [[cognitive neuropsychology]]). With the development of technologies for accurately measuring brain function, [[neuropsychology]] and [[cognitive neuroscience]] have become some of the most active areas in contemporary psychology. With the increasing involvement of other disciplines (such as [[philosophy]], [[computer science]] and [[neuroscience]]) in the quest to understand the mind, the umbrella discipline of [[cognitive science]] has been created as a means of focusing such efforts in a constructive way.
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| − | ==Principles==
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| − | ===Mind and brain===
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| − | {{portalpar|Mind and Brain}}
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| − | Psychology describes and attempts to explain consciousness, behavior and social interaction. Empirical psychology is primarily devoted to describing human experience and behavior as it actually occurs. In the past 20 years or so psychology has begun to examine the relationship between consciousness and the [[brain]] or [[nervous system]]. It is still not clear in what ways these interact: does consciousness determine brain states or do brain states determine consciousness - or are both going on in various ways? Perhaps to understand this you need to know the definition of "consciousness" and "brain state" - or is consciousness some sort of complicated 'illusion' which bears no direct relationship to neural processes? An understanding of brain function is increasingly being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[neuropsychology]], and [[cognitive neuroscience]].
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| − | ===Schools of thought===
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| − | Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some [[psychologist]]s may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories.
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| − | {{See also|List of psychological schools}}
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| − | ==Scope of psychology==
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| − | Psychology is an extremely broad field, encompassing many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology, divided into fields of research psychology and fields of applied psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the [[list of psychological topics]] and [[list of psychology disciplines]].
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| − | ====Fields of research psychology====
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| − | {{main|Qualitative psychological research|Quantitative psychological research}}
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| − | Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in [[academic]] settings, and contains numerous areas. It contains the areas of [[abnormal psychology]], [[biological psychology]], [[cognitive psychology]], [[comparative psychology]], [[developmental psychology]], [[personality psychology]], [[social psychology (psychology)|social psychology]] and others. Research psychology is contrasted with [[applied psychology]].
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| − | =====Abnormal psychology=====
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| − | {{main|Abnormal psychology}}
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| − | [[Abnormal psychology]] is the study of [[Abnormality (behavior)|abnormal behavior]] in order to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Abnormal psychology studies the nature of [[psychopathology]] and its causes, and this knowledge is applied in [[clinical psychology]] to treating patients with psychological disorders.
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| − | =====Biological psychology=====
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| − | [[Image:Hypothalamus.jpg|thumb|150px|left||Image of the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the [[hypothalamus]].]]
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| − | {{main|Biological psychology|Evolutionary psychology|Neuropsychology|Physiological psychology}}
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| − | [[Biological psychology]] is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states. Because all behavior is controlled by the [[central nervous system]], it is sensible to study how the [[brain]] functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in [[behavioral neuroscience]], [[cognitive neuroscience]], and [[neuropsychology]]. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the [[brain]] relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of [[brain injury]] in an attempt to work out normal psychological function.
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| − | The approach of [[cognitive neuroscience]] to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use [[neuroimaging]] tools, such as [[fMRI]], to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.
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| − | <br style="clear:all;">
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| − | =====Cognitive psychology=====
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| − | [[Image:MultiLayerNeuralNetwork_english.png|thumb|150px|Neural network with two layers]]
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| − | {{main|Cognitive psychology}}
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| − | The nature of [[thought]] is another core interest in psychology. [[Cognitive psychology]] studies [[cognition]], the [[mental function|mental processes]] underlying behavior. It uses [[information processing]] as a framework for understanding the mind. [[Perception]], [[learning]], [[problem solving]], [[memory]], [[attention]], [[language]] and [[emotion]] are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]], whose adherents argue for an [[information processing]] model of mental function, informed by [[positivism]] and [[experimental psychology]].
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| − | [[Cognitive science]] is very closely related to cognitive psychology, but differs in some of the research methods used, and has a slightly greater emphasis on explaining mental phenomena in terms of both behavior and neural processing.
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| − | Both areas can use [[computer simulation|computational models]] to simulate phenomena of interest. Because mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive psychologists a way to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the "hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer.
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| − | =====Comparative psychology=====
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| − | {{main|Comparative psychology}}
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| − | [[Comparative psychology]] refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of [[animal]]s other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior, such as [[ethology]]. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans, the behavior and mental processes of [[animal]]s is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g., [[animal cognition]] and ethology), or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., [[affective neuroscience]] and [[social neuroscience]]).
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| − | =====Developmental psychology=====
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| − | [[Image:Baby thinking Sofia SERRES.jpg|thumb|150px|left|How do infants experience the world?]]
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| − | {{main|Developmental psychology}}
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| − | Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, [[developmental psychology]] seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or [[moral development]]. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study [[aging]] and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). [[Urie Bronfenbrenner]]'s theory of development in context (''The Ecology of Human Development'' - ISBN 0-674-22456-6) is influential in this field, as are those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well as many others. Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research.
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| − | =====Personality psychology=====
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| − | {{main|Personality psychology}}
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| − | [[Personality psychology]] studies enduring psychological patterns of [[behavior]], [[thought]] and [[emotion]], commonly called an individual's [[personality]]. Theories of personality vary between different psychological schools. [[Trait theory|Trait theories]] attempts to break personality down into a number of traits, by use of [[factor analysis]]. The number of traits have varied between theories. One of the first, and smallest, models was that of [[Hans Eysenck]], which had three dimensions: [[extraversion]]—[[introversion]], [[neuroticism]]—[[emotion|emotional stability]], and [[psychoticism]]. [[Raymond Cattell]] proposed a theory of [[16 Personality Factors|16 personality factors]]. The theory that has most empirical evidence behind it today may be the "[[Big Five personality traits|Big Five]]" theory, proposed by [[Lewis Goldberg]] and others.
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| − | A different, but well known, approach to personality is that of [[Sigmund Freud]], whose ''structural theory of personality'' divided personality into the [[ego, superego, and id]]. Freud's theory of personality has been criticized by many, including many mainstream psychologists.
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| − | =====Psychometric psychology=====
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| − | {{Main|Psychometrics}}
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| − | [[Psychometrics]] is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and technique of [[psychological]] [[measurement]], which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and [[personality]] traits. The field is primarily concerned with the study of differences between individuals. It involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the construction of instruments and procedures for measurement; and (ii) the development and refinement of theoretical approaches to measurement.
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| − | Much of the early theoretical and applied work in psychometrics was undertaken in an attempt to measure [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]. The origin of psychometrics has connections to the related field of [[psychophysics]]. [[Charles Spearman]], a pioneer in psychometrics who developed approaches to the measurement of intelligence, studied under [[Wilhelm Wundt]] and was trained in psychophysics. The psychometrician [[L. L. Thurstone]] later developed and applied a theoretical approach to the measurement referred to as the [[law of comparative judgment]], an approach which has close connections to the psychophysical theory developed by [[Ernst Heinrich Weber]] and [[Gustav Fechner]]. In addition, Spearman and Thurstone both made important contributions to the theory and application of [[factor analysis]], a statistical method that has been used extensively in psychometrics.
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| − | More recently, psychometric theory has been applied in the measurement of [[personality]], attitudes and beliefs, academic achievement, and in health-related fields. Measurement of these unobservable phenomena is difficult, and much of the research and accumulated art in this discipline has been developed in an attempt to properly define and quantify such phenomena. Critics, including practitioners in the [[physical sciences]] and social activists, have argued that such definition and quantification is impossibly difficult, and that such measurements are often misused. Proponents of psychometric techniques can reply, though, that their critics often misuse data by not applying psychometric criteria, and also that various quantitative phenomena in the physical sciences, such as heat and forces, cannot be observed directly but must be inferred from their manifestations.
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| − | Figures who made significant contributions to psychometrics include [[Karl Pearson]], [[L. L. Thurstone]], [[Georg Rasch]] and [[Arthur Jensen]].
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| − | =====Social psychology=====
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| − | [[Image:Shibuya tokyo.jpg|thumb|150px|right||A crowd of people in [[Shibuya, Tokyo]].]]
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| − | {{main|Social psychology (psychology)}}
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| − | [[social psychology (psychology)|Social psychology]] is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., [[Conformity (psychology)|conformity]] or [[persuasion]]), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of [[attitude (psychology)|attitudes]] or [[stereotype]]s about other people. [[Social cognition]] is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior.
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| − | A related area is [[community psychology]], which examines psychological and mental health issues on the level of the community rather than using the individual as the unit of measurement. "[[Sense of community]]" has become its conceptual center (Sarason, 1986; Chavis & Pretty, 1999).
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| − | ====Fields of applied psychology====
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| − | {{main|Applied psychology}}
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| − | [[Applied psychology]] encompasses both psychological research that is designed to help individuals overcome practical problems and the application of this research in applied settings. Much of applied psychology research is utilized in other fields, such as [[business management]], [[product design]], [[ergonomics]], [[nutrition]], and [[clinical medicine]]. [[Applied psychology]] includes the areas of [[clinical psychology]], [[industrial and organizational psychology]], [[human factors]], [[forensic psychology]], [[health psychology]], [[school psychology]] and others.
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| − | =====Clinical psychology=====
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| − | {{main|Clinical psychology}}
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| − | [[Clinical psychology]] is the application of [[abnormal psychology]] research to the understanding, treatment, and assessment of [[psychopathology]], including behavioral and mental health issues. It has traditionally been associated with [[psychological treatment]] and [[psychotherapy]], although modern clinical psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic approaches. Typically, although working with many of the same clients as [[psychiatry|psychiatrists]], clinical psychologists do not prescribe psychiatric drugs. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with [[brain injury]]. This area is known as [[clinical neuropsychology]].
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| − | In recent years and particularly in the [[United States]], a major split has been developing between academic research psychologists in universities and some branches of clinical psychology. Many research psychologists believe that many contemporary clinicians use therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. From the other side, these clinicians believe that the research psychologists are ignoring their experience in dealing with actual patients. The disagreement resulted in the formation of the [[Association for Psychological Science]] by the research psychologists as a new body distinct from the [[American Psychological Association]].
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| − | The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside various therapy models. A popular model is the Cognitive-Behaviorial therapy (CBT) framework. CBT is an umbrella term that refers to a number of therapies which focus on changing cognitions and/or behaviors, rather than changing behavior exclusively, or discovering the unconscious causes of psychopathology (as in the psychodynamic school). The two most famous CBT therapies are Aaron T. Beck's [[cognitive therapy]] and Albert Ellis's [[rational emotive behavior therapy]] (with cognitive therapy being, by far, the most extensively studied therapy in contemporary clinical psychology).
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| − | =====Counseling psychology=====
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| − | {{main|Counseling psychology}}
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| − | [[Counseling psychology]] as a psychological specialty facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. Counseling psychology differs from clinical psychology in that it is focused more on normal developmental issues and everyday [[Stress (medicine)|stress]] as opposed to severe mental disorders. Counseling psychologists are employed in a variety of settings, including universities, private practice, businesses, and community mental health centers.
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| − | The emerging field of [[relationship counseling]], which seeks to describe typical human relationship successes and failures in rather concrete form, has the very specific appeal of avoiding psychology's rather universal assignation of pathology on all persons who seek assistance. Current health insurance reimbursement for psychological services commonly involves the assignment of mental disease nomenclature, a feature that potential consumers might find offensive, and other practitioners might find iatrogenic.
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| − | Relationship counseling, also referred to as [[relationship education]], includes psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers. It is based on decades of university based research, specifically through the observation and analysis of both successful and unsuccessful marriages and family units. Important names in this field are [[John Gottman]], [[Diane Sollee]], [[Howard Markman]], [[Scott Stanley]], [[Bill Doherty]] and [[Michelle Weiner-Davis]].
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| − | =====Educational psychology=====
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| − | {{main|Educational psychology}}
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| − | [[Educational psychology]] is the study of how humans learn in [[education|educational]] settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology (psychology)|social psychology]] of [[school]]s as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as [[Lev Vygotsky]], [[Jean Piaget]] and [[Jerome Bruner]] has been influential in creating [[teaching]] methods and educational practices.
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| − | =====Psychology and Law=====
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| − | {{main|Legal psychology}}
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| − | {{main|Forensic psychology}}
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| − | Together, [[Forensic psychology]] and [[Legal psychology|Legal Psychology]] compose the area known as Psychology and Law.
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| − | Most typically, forensic psychology is practiced by [[clinical psychologist]]s, and involves a clinical analysis of a particular individual and an assessment of some specific psycho-legal question. Typically, referrals to forensic practices constitute assessments for individuals that have ostensibly suffered neurologic insult(s). These patients have sought legal recourse, and the job of the forensic psychologist is to demonstrate that there is or is not (depending on their employment by either the prosecution or defense) a cause-and-effect relation between the accident and the subsequent (again, ostensible) neurologic change.
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| − | Legal psychology is a research-oriented field populated with researchers from several different areas within psychology (although [[Social psychology (psychology)|Social]] Psychologists are typical).
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| − | =====Health psychology=====
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| − | {{main|Health psychology}}
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| − | [[Health psychology]] is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, [[health psychology]] is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on [[quality of life]] or in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.
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| − | =====Human factors psychology=====
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| − | {{main|Human factors}}
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| − | [[Human factors|Human factors psychology]] is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. The goal of research in human factors psychology is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior.
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| − | =====Industrial and organizational psychology=====
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| − | {{main|Industrial and organizational psychology}}
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| − | [[Industrial and organizational psychology]] (I/O) is among the newest fields in psychology. [[Industrial Psychology]] focuses on improving, evaluating, and predicting job performance while [[Organizational Psychology]] focuses on how organizations impact and interact with individuals. In 1910, through the works and experiments of [[Hugo Munsterberg]] and [[Walter Dill Scott]], [[Industrial Psychology]] became recognized as a legitimate part of the social science <ref name="IOPsych">Industrial and Organization Psychology, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.</ref>. Organizational Psychology was not officially added until the 1970s and since then, the field has flourished. The [http://www.siop.org/ Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology] has approximately 3400 professional members and 1900 student members. These two numbers combine to make up only about four percent of the members in the [[American Psychology Association]] but the number has been rising since 1939 when there were only one hundred professional I/O psychologists <ref name="IOPsych"/>.
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| − | I/O psychologists are employeed by academic institutions, consulting firms, internal human resources in industries, and governmental institutions. Various universities across the United States are beginning to strengthen their I/O Psychology programs due to the increase of interest and job demand in the field <ref name="IOPsych"/>.
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| − | Industrial organizational psychologists look at questions regarding things such as who to hire, how to define and measure successful job performance, how to prepare people to be more successful in their jobs, how to create and change jobs so that they are safer and make people happier, and how to structure the organization to allow people to achieve their potential.<ref name="IOPsych"/>
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| − | =====School psychology=====
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| − | {{main|School psychology}}
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| − | [[School psychology]] is the area of discipline that is dedicated to helping young people succeed academically, socially, and emotionally. School psychologists collaborate with educators, parents, and other professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning environments for all students that strengthen connections between home and school. They are trained to be experts in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research<ref>http://nasponline.org/about_sp/whatis.aspx</ref>. Currently, school psychology is the only field in which a professional can be called a "psychologist" without a doctoral degree, with the [[National Association of School Psychologists]] (NASP) recognizing the [[Specialist degree]] as the entry level. This is a matter of controversy, however, as the [[American Psychological Association|APA]] does not recognize anything below a doctorate as the entry level for a psychologist. Specialist-level school psychologists, who typically receive three years of graduate training, function almost exclusively within school systems, while those at the doctoral-level are found in a number of other settings as well, including universities, hospitals, clinics, and private practice.
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| − | ==Research methods==
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| − | [[Image:wundt.jpg|126px|thumb|right|Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was a German psychologist, generally acknowledged as a founder of [[experimental psychology]].]]
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| − | Research in psychology is conducted in broad accord with the standards of the [[scientific method]], encompassing both [[qualitative research|qualitative]] [[ethology|ethological]] and [[quantitative psychological research|quantitative statistical]] modalities to generate and evaluate [[scientific explanation|explanatory]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] with regard to psychological [[phenomenon|phenomena]]. Where research ethics and the state of development in a given research domain permits, investigation may be pursued by [[experiment]]al protocols. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. [[Qualitative psychological research]] utilizes a broad spectrum of observational methods, including [[action research]], [[ethography]], [[exploratory statistics]], [[structured interview|structured]] [[interview]]s, and [[participant observation]], to enable the gathering of rich information unattainable by classical experimentation. Research in [[humanistic psychology]] is more typically pursued by [[ethnography|ethnographic]], [[historical method|historical]], and [[historiography|historiographic]] methods.
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| − | The [[psychological testing|testing]] of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of contemporary psychology. [[Psychometrics|Psychometric]] and [[statistics|statistical]] methods predominate, including various well-known standardized tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation or experiment requires.
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| − | Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in [[applied psychology]] to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their career. Clinical psychology, among many of the various disciplines of psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as well as employ as they treat individuals with psychological issues or use psychology to help others.
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| − | When an area of interest requires specific training and specialist knowledge, especially in applied areas, psychological associations normally establish a governing body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government regulatory bodies as well.
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| − | ===Controlled experiments===
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| − | {{main|Experimental psychology}}
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| − | [[Image:Skinner.jpg|126px|thumb|right|[[B.F. Skinner]], pioneer of [[experimental psychology]] and [[behaviorism]]]]
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| − | Experimental psychological research is conducted in the [[laboratory]] under controlled conditions. This method of research attempts to rely solely on an application of the scientific method to understand behavior and mental processes. Examples of such measurements of behavior include [[reaction time]] and various [[Psychometrics|psychometric]] measurements. Experiments are conducted to test a particular [[hypothesis]].
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| − | As an example of a psychological experiment, one may want to test people's perception of different [[Pitch (music)|tones]]. Specifically, one could ask the following question: is it easier for people to discriminate one pair of tones from another depending upon their frequency? To answer this, one would want to disprove the hypothesis that all tones are equally discriminable, regardless of their frequency. (See [[hypothesis testing]] for an explanation of why one would disprove a hypothesis rather than attempt to prove one.) A task to test this hypothesis would have a participant seated in a room listening to a series of tones. If the participant would make one indication (by pressing a button, for example) if they thought the tones were two different sounds, and another indication if they thought they were the same sound. The proportion of correct responses would be the measurement used to describe whether or not all the tones were equally discriminable. The result of this particular experiment would probably indicate better discrimination of certain tones based on the human [[Absolute threshold of hearing|threshold of hearing]].
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| − | ===Longitudinal studies===
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| − | A [[longitudinal study]] is a research method which observes a particular population over time. For example, one might wish to study [[specific language impairment]] (SLI) by observing a group of individuals with the condition over a period of time. This method has the advantage of seeing how a condition can affect individuals over long time scales. However, such studies can suffer from attrition due to drop-out or death of subjects. In addition, since individual differences between members of the group are not controlled, it may be difficult to draw conclusions about the populations.
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| − | ===Neuropsychological methods===
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| − | [[Neuropsychology]] involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either [[brain injury]] or [[mental illness]].
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| − | [[Cognitive neuropsychology]] and [[cognitive neuropsychiatry]] study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional disassociation's') which can give clues as to whether abilities are comprised of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism.
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| − | In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy individuals. These include behavioral experiments, brain-scanning or [[functional neuroimaging]] - used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]], which can safely alter the function of small brain areas to investigate their importance in mental operations.
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| − | ===Computational modeling===
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| − | [[computer simulation|Computational modeling]] is a tool often used in [[cognitive psychology]] to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers are extremely fast, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualise hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human.
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| − | Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. [[Connectionism]] uses [[neural nets]] to simulate the brain. Another method is [[symbolic modeling]], which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include [[dynamic systems]] and [[stochastic process|stochastic]] modeling.
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| − | ==Criticism==
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| − | ===Controversy as a science===
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| − | Although modern psychology attempts to be a scientific endeavour, the field has a history of controversy. Some criticisms of psychology have been made on ethical and philosophical grounds. Some have argued that by subjecting the human mind to experimentation and statistical study, psychologists objectify persons. Because it treats human beings as things, as objects that can be examined by experiment, psychology is sometimes portrayed as dehumanizing, ignoring or downplaying what is most essential about being human. This criticism has come from within the field as well, particularly by existential and humanistic psychologists.
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| − | A common criticism of psychology concerns its fuzziness as a science. Philosopher [[Thomas Kuhn]] suggested in [[1962]] that psychology is in a pre-paradigmatic state, lacking the agreement on facts found in mature sciences such as [[chemistry]] and [[physics]]. Because some areas of psychology rely on "[[soft science|soft]]" research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics have claimed that psychology is not as scientific as psychologists assume. Methods such as [[introspection]] and psychoanalysis, used by some psychologists, are inherently [[subjective]]. Objectivity, validity, and rigour are key attributes in science, and some approaches to psychology have fallen short on these criteria. On the other hand, greater use of statistical controls and increasingly sophisticated research design, analysis, and statistical methods, as well as a decline (at least within academic psychology departments) in the use of less scientific methods, have lessened the impact of this criticism to some degree.
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| − | Debates continue, however, such as the questioned effectiveness of probability testing as a valid research tool. The concern is that this statistical method may promote trivial findings as meaningful, especially when large samples are used.<ref>Cohen, J. (1994). The Earth is round, p < .05. ''American Psychologist, 49'',.</ref> Psychologists have responded with an increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole reliance on the traditional ''p<.05'' decision rule.
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| − | ===Research-practitioner gap===
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| − | There is also concern from researchers about a perceived scientific gap between empirically based practices. Exponents of evidence-based approaches to psychological practice say that "over the past several decades, the fields of clinical psychology, psychiatry, and social work have borne witness to a widening and deeply troubling gap between science and practice" and "less and less of what researchers do finds its way into the consulting room, and less and less of what practitioners do derives from scientific evidence." Moreover there are many "unvalidated and sometimes harmful psychotherapeutic methods" that haven been widely adopted by the profession. However, "the fields of clinical psychology, psychiatry, and social work have recently placed increased emphasis on evidence-based mental health practices."[http://www.srmhp.org/0101/raison-detre.html]
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| − | ==See also==
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| − | * [[Psychologists]]
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| − | * [[List of basic psychology topics]]
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| − | * [[List of psychology topics]]
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| − | * [[List of publications in psychology]]
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| − | * [[List of psychologists]]
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| − | * [[List of psychology organizations]]
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| − | ===Related areas===
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| − | {{col-begin}}
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| − | {{col-break}}
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| − | * [[Anthropology]]
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| − | * [[Artificial consciousness]]
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| − | * [[Artificial intelligence]]
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| − | * [[Cognitive science]]
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| − | * [[Biology]]
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| − | * [[Economics]]
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| − | * [[Education]]
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| − | * [[Ethology]]
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| − | {{col-break}}
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| − | * [[Human sexuality]]
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| − | * [[Linguistics]]
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| − | * [[Marketing]]
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| − | * [[Medicine]]
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| − | * [[Neuroscience]]
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| − | * [[Psychiatry]]
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| − | * [[Philosophy of mind]]
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| − | * [[Philosophy of psychology]]
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| − | {{col-break}}
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| − | * [[Political science]]
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| − | * [[Psychology of art]]
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| − | * [[Relationship Education]]
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| − | * [[Social work]]
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| − | * [[Sociobiology]]
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| − | * [[Sociology]]
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| − | * [[Statistics]]
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| − | {{col-end}}
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| − | | |
| − | ===Related topics===
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| − | * [[Aristotle]], ''[[On the Soul]]''
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| − | * [[Tabula rasa]]
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| − | * [[Empiricism]]
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| − | * [[Rationalism]]
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| − | * [[Scientific method]]
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| − | * [[Evolution]]
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| − | * [[Moral value]]
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| − | * [[Systems theory]]
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| − | * [[Complex system]]s
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| − | * [[Game theory]]
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| − | * [[Discourse analysis]]
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| − | * [[Multilevel model]]
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| − | * [[Structural equation modeling]]
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| − | | |
| − | ==References==
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| − | <references />
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| − | *[[Aristotle]], Joe Sachs (translator). (350 B.C.E. / 2001) ''On Memory and Recollection'' (''De Memoria et Reminiscentia''). Santa Fe, NM : Green Lion Press. ISBN 1-888009-17-9
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| − | | |
| − | *[[Urie Bronfenbrenner|Bronfenbrenner, U.]] (1979). ''The Ecology of Human Development''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-22456-6
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| − | | |
| − | *Chavis, D.M., and Pretty, G. (1999). Sense of community: Advances in measurement and application. ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 27(6), 635-642.
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| − | | |
| − | *Chomsky, Noam. (1959). [http://cogprints.org/1148/index.html ''A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior'']. Language, 35, 26-58.
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| − | | |
| − | *Krstic, K. (1964). Marko Marulic — The Author of the Term "Psychology." ''Acta Instituti Psychologici Universitatis Zagrabiensis'', no. 36, pp. 7-13. Reprinted at http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Krstic/marulic.htm
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| − | *Sarason, S.B. (1986). Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center. ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 14, 405-407.
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| − | | |
| − | * Spector, Paul E. "Industrial Organization Psychology." 4th Ed. Australia: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
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| − | | |
| − | * [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/grad/rankings/phdhum/brief/psysp5_brief.php "America's Best Graduate Schools 2007: Psychology Specialties: Industrial/Organization Psychology."] U.S. News and World Report. 2005.
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| − | | |
| − | == External links ==
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| − | {{Sisterlinks|Psychology}}
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| − | {{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Psychology}}
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| − | ===Learning about Psychology===
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| − | * [http://allpsych.com/dictionary/ Dictionary of Psychology]
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| − | * [http://www.psychology.org/ Encyclopedia of Psychology]
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| − | * [http://www.learnpsychology.net/ Learn Psychology Glossary]
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| − | * [http://www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/ Simply Psychology]
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| − | | |
| − | ===History of Psychology===
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| − | * [http://www3.uakron.edu/ahap/ The Archives of the History of American Psychology]
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| − | * [http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec99/toc.html A Century of Psychology (APA)]
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| − | * [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca Classics in the History of Psychology]
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| − | | |
| − | ===Other===
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| − | | |
| − | * [http://www.psychwiki.com/ PsychWiki] - Wiki for psychology researchers (theory, findings, research methods, funding sources, and more)
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| − | * [http://therapists.psychologytoday.com/ Find a Therapist] - Psychology Today
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| − | * [http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/amoebaweb/ AmoebaWeb Psychology Directory]
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| − | * {{wikia|psychology|Psychology}}
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| − | * {{dmoz|Science/Social_Sciences/Psychology/|Psychology}}
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| − | {{Credit2|Suicide|102878238|Psychology|102924006|}}
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Psychology
| Suicide
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| History of suicide
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| List of suicides
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| Suicide rate
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| Views on suicide
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| Medical | Cultural
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| Legal | Philosophical
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| Religious | Right to die
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| Suicide crisis
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| Intervention | Prevention
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| Crisis hotline | Suicide watch
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| Types of suicide
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| Suicide methods | Copycat suicide
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| Cult suicide | Euthanasia
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| Familicide | Forced suicide
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| Internet suicide | Mass suicide
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| Murder-suicide | Ritual suicide
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| Suicide attack | Suicide pact
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| Suicide by cop | Teenage suicide
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| Extended suicide
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| Related phenomena
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| Parasuicide | Self-harm
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| Suicidal ideation | Suicide note
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Suicide (from Latin sui caedere, to kill oneself) is the act of willfully ending one's own life. Suicide can also refer to the individual who has committed or attempted the act.
Terminology
Suicidal ideation
Suicidal ideation is thinking about taking one’s life. The thoughts may range from a vague and unformed state to detailed and planned.
Parasuicide
Many suicidal people participate in suicidal activities that do not result in death. These activities fall under the designation attempted suicide or parasuicide. Those with a history of such attempts are almost 23 times more likely to eventually end their own lives than those who don't participate in such activites.[1]
Suicidal gestures and attempts
Sometimes, a person will make actions resembling suicide attempts while not being fully committed, or in a deliberate attempt to have others notice. This is called a suicidal gesture (also known as a "cry for help"). Prototypical methods might be a non-lethal method of self-harm that leaves obvious signs of the attempt, or simply a lethal action at a time when the person considers it likely that he/she will be rescued or prevented from fully carrying it out.
On the other hand, a person who genuinely wishes to die may fail, due to lack of knowledge about what they are doing, unwillingness to try methods that may end in permanent damage if they fail or harm others, or an unanticipated rescue, among other reasons. This is referred to as a suicidal attempt.
Distinguishing between a suicidal attempt and a suicidal gesture may be difficult. Intent and motivation are not always fully discernible since so many people in a suicidal state are genuinely conflicted over whether they wish to end their lives. One approach, assuming that a sufficiently strong intent will ensure success, considers all near-suicides to be suicidal gestures. This however does not explain why so many people who fail at suicide end up with severe injuries, often permanent, which are most likely undesirable to those who are making a suicidal gesture. Another possibility is those wishing merely to make a suicidal gesture may end up accidentally killing themselves, perhaps by underestimating the lethality of the method chosen or by overestimating the possibility of external intervention by others. Suicide-like acts should generally be treated as seriously as possible because if there is an insufficiently strong reaction from loved ones from a suicidal gesture, this may motivate future, and ultimately more committed attempts.
In the technical literature the use of the terms parasuicide, or deliberate self-harm (DSH) are preferred – both of these terms avoid the question of the intent of the actions.
Self-harm
An important difference to note is that self-harm is not a suicide attempt. There is a non-causal correlation between self-harm and suicide; individuals who suffer from depression or other mental health issues are also more likely to choose suicide. Deliberate self-harm (DSH) is far more common than suicide, and the majority of DSH participants are females aged under 35. They are usually not physically ill and while psychological factors are highly significant, they are rarely clinically ill and severe depression is uncommon. Social issues are key as DSH is most common among those living in overcrowded conditions, in conflict with their families, with disrupted childhoods and history of drinking, criminal behavior, and violence. Individuals under these stresses become anxious and depressed and then, usually in reaction to a single particular crisis, they attempt to harm themselves. The motivation may be a desire for relief from emotional pain or to communicate feelings, although the motivation will often be complex and confused. DSH may also result from an inner conflict between the desire to end life and the desire to continue living.
Suicide note
A written message left by someone who attempts or commits suicide is known as a suicide note. The practice is fairly common, occurring in approximately one out of three suicides.[2] Motivations for leaving one range from seeking closure with loved ones to exacting revenge against others by blaming them for the decision.
Combination of homicide and suicide
Since crime just prior to suicide is often perceived as being without consequences, it is not uncommon for suicide to be linked with homicide. Motivations may range from guilt to evading punishment, insanity, and killing others as part of a suicide pact.
Assisted suicide
A suicidal individual who lacks the physical capacity to take their own life may enlist someone else to carry out the act on their behalf, frequently a family member or physician. This may or may not be considered a form of suicide according to different moral views of the practice, with opponents regarding it instead as akin to murder. Assisted suicide is a contentious moral and political issue in many countries.
Methods
In countries where firearms are readily available, many suicides involve the use of firearms. In fact, just over 55% of suicides committed in the United States in 2001 were by firearm[2]. Asphyxiation methods (including hanging) and toxification (poisoning and overdose) are fairly common as well. Each comprised about 20% of suicides in the US during the same time period. Other methods of suicide include blunt force trauma (jumping from a building or bridge, or stepping in front of a train, for example), exsanguination or bloodletting (slitting one's wrist or throat), self-immolation, electrocution, car collision and intentional starvation.
Reasons for suicide
Causes of suicide
No single factor has gained acceptance as a universal cause of suicide. However, depression is a common phenomenon amongst those who commit suicide. Other factors that may be related are as follows (Note that this is not meant as a comprehensive list, but rather as a summary of notable causes) :
- Pain (e.g. physical or emotional agony that is not correctable)
- Stress (e.g. Grief after a death)
- Crime (e.g. escaping judicial punishment and dehumanisation, boredom of incarceration)
- Mental illness and disability (e.g. depression, bipolar disorder, trauma, and schizophrenia)
- Catastrophic Injury (e.g. paralysis, disfigurement, loss of limb)
- Substance abuse
- Adverse environment (e.g. sexual abuse, poverty, homelessness, discrimination, bullying, fear of murder and/or torture)
- Financial loss (e.g. gambling addiction, loss of job/assets, stock market crash, debts)
- Unresolved sexual issues (e.g. sexual orientation[3], unrequited love, aftermath of a break up)
- To avoid shame or dishonour (e.g. Under the Bushido ideal, if a samurai failed to uphold his honour, he could regain it by performing seppuku.)
- Curiosity (e.g. The need to know what comes after life.)
- Boredom (e.g. The dissatisfaction with life has resulted in more calculated and planned suicides)
- Terrorism can also be a motive for suicide, especially when related to the following:
Suicide and mental illness
Epidemiology
According to official statistics, about a million people commit suicide annually, more than those murdered or killed in war. [4]. As of 2001 in the USA, suicides outnumber homicides by 3 to 2 and deaths from AIDS by 2 to 1 [5]
Gender and suicide: In the Western world, males die much more often than females by suicide, while females attempt suicide more often. Some medical professionals believe this is due to the fact that males are more likely to end their life through violent means (guns, knives, hanging, drowning, etc.), while women primarily overdose on medications or use other ineffective methods. Others ascribe the difference to inherent differences in male/female psychology, with men having more of an operational mindset and women being more aware of social nuance. [6] Greater social stigma against male depression and a lack of social networks of support and help with depression is often identified as a key reason for men's disproportionately higher level of suicides, since "suicide as a cry for help" is not seen as an equally viable option by men. Typically males die from suicide 3 to 4 times as often as females, and not unusually 5 or more times as often.
Excess male mortality from suicide is also evident from data from non-western countries. In 1979-81, 74 countries reported one or more cases of suicides. Two of these reported equal rates for the sexes: Seychelles and Kenya. Three countries reported female rates exceeding male rates: Papua-New Guinea, Macao, French Guiana. The remaining 69 countries had male suicide rates greater than female suicide rates. [7]
Barraclough found that the female rates of those aged 5-14 equaled or exceeded the male rates only in 14 countries, mainly in South America and Asia. [8]
National suicide rates sometimes tend to be stable. For example, the 1975 rates for Australia, Denmark, England, France, Norway, and Switzerland, were within 3.0 per 100,000 of population from the 1875 rates (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1983; Lester, Patterns, 1996, p. 21). The rates in 1910-14 and in 1960 differed less than 2.5 per 100,000 of population in Australia, Belgium, Denmark, England & Wales, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, Scotland, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, and The Netherlands (Lester, Patterns, 1996, p. 22).
There are considerable differences between national suicide rates. Findings from two studies showed a range from 0.0 to more than 40 suicides per 100,000 of population. [9]
National suicide rates, apparently universally, show an upward secular trend. This trend has been well documented for European countries. [10] The trend for national suicide rates to rise slowly over time might be an indirect result of the gradual reduction in deaths from other causes, i.e. falling death rates from causes other than suicide uncover a previously hidden predisposition towards suicide.
[11] [12]
Race and suicide. At least in the USA, Caucasians commit suicide more often than African Americans do. This is true for both genders. Non-Hispanic Caucasians are nearly 2.5 times more likely to kill themselves than are African Americans or Hispanics. [13]
Age and suicide At least in the USA, males over 70 commit suicide more often than younger males. There is no such trend for females. Older non-Hispanic Caucasian men are much more likely to kill themselves than older men or women of any other group, which contributes to the relatively high suicide rate among Caucasians. Caucasian men in their 20s, conversely, kill themselves only slightly more often than African American or Hispanic men in the same age group.
Season and suicide People commit suicide more often during spring and summer. The idea that suicide is more common during the winter holidays (including Christmas in the northern hemisphere) is a common misconception.[14]
Other reasons
Suicide as a form of defiance and protest
Heroic suicide, for the greater good of others, is often celebrated. For instance, Mahatma Gandhi went on a hunger strike to prevent fighting between Hindus and Muslims, and, although he was stopped before dying, it appeared he would have willingly succumbed to starvation. This attracted attention to Gandhi's cause, and generated a great deal of respect for him as a spiritual leader. In the 1960s, Buddhist monks, most notably Thích Quảng Đức, in South Vietnam drew Western attention to their protests against President Ngô Đình Diệm by burning themselves to death. Similar events were reported during the Cold War in eastern Europe, such as the death of Jan Palach following the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, or Romas Kalanta's self-immolation in the main street of Kaunas, Lithuania in 1972. More recently, (November 2006) an American anti-war activist, Malachi Ritscher committed suicide by self-immolation as a protest against the Iraq war. Critics may see such suicides as counter-productive, arguing that these people would probably achieve a comparable or greater result by spending the rest of their lives in active struggle. Suicide or attempted suicide as a means of effecting social or political change is related to martyrdom.
Military suicide
In the desperate final days of World War II, many Japanese pilots volunteered for kamikaze missions in an attempt to forestall defeat for the Empire. In Nazi Germany; Luftwaffe squadrons were formed to smash into American B-17s during daylight bombing missions, in order to delay the highly-probable Allied victory, although in this case, inspiration was primarily the Soviet and Polish taran ramming attacks, and death of the pilot was not a desired outcome. The degree to which such a pilot was engaging in a heroic, selfless action or whether they faced immense social pressure is a matter of historical debate. The Japanese also built one-man "human torpedo" suicide submarines.
However, suicide has been fairly common in warfare throughout history. Soldiers and civilians committed suicide to avoid capture and slavery (including the wave of German and Japanese suicides in the last days of World War II). Commanders committed suicide rather than accept defeat. Behaviour that could be seen as suicidal occurred often in battle. For instance, soldiers under cannon fire at the Battle of Waterloo took fatal hits rather than duck and place their comrades in harm's way[verification needed]. The Charge of the Light Brigade in the Crimean War, Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg in the American Civil War , and the charge of the French cavalry at the Battle of Sedan in the Franco-Prussian War were assaults that continued even after it was obvious to participants that the attacks were unlikely to succeed and would probably be fatal to most of the attackers. Japanese infantrymen usually fought to the last man, launched "banzai" suicide charges, and committed suicide during the Pacific island battles in World War II. In Saipan, Okinawa, civilians joined in the suicides. Suicidal attacks by pilots were common in the 20th century: the attack by U.S. torpedo planes at the Battle of Midway was very similar to a kamikaze attack. Also, it could be argued that it is an action of military suicide to fall on a grenade, the action of throwing oneself onto a grenade, hoping to shield one's platoon from the shrapnel and/or explosion but most certainly losing one's own life in the process.
This particular reference to suicide is also what leads to the everyday usage of the term when indicating a hopeless situation, often in business, such as "it would be suicide for us to go to market without a viable product."
Impact of suicide
It is estimated that an average of six people are suicide "survivors" for each suicide that occurs in the United States[15]. It is important to note that in the context of suicide, the word "survivors" refers to the family and friends of the person who has died by suicide; this figure therefore does not represent the total number of people who may be affected. For example, the suicide of a child may leave the school and their entire community left to make sense of the act.
As with any death, family and friends of a suicide victim feel grief associated with loss. These suicide survivors are often overwhelmed with psychological trauma as well, depending on many factors associated with the event. This trauma can leave survivors feeling guilty, angry, remorseful, helpless, and confused. It can be especially difficult for survivors because many of their questions as to why the victim felt the need to take his or her own life are left unanswered. Moreover, survivors often feel that they have failed or that they should have intervened in some way. Given these complex sets of emotions associated with a loved one's suicide, survivors usually find it difficult to discuss the death with others, causing them to feel isolated from their own network of family and friends and often making them reluctant to form new relationships as well. [16].
"Survivor groups" can offer counseling and help bring many of the issues associated with suicide out into the open. They can also help survivors reach out to their own friends and family who may be feeling similarly and thus begin the healing process. In addition, counseling services and therapy can provide invaluable support to the bereaved. Some such groups can be found online, providing a forum for discussion amongst survivors of suicide (see Support Groups for Survivors section below).
As well as providing counseling for the grief-stricken, survivor groups have also attempted to change the language used to describe suicide. Believing that the term "commit" attaches criminal implications to suicide, they have pushed for alternative terms that remove this meaning including "attempting" suicide, or "died by" suicide[citation needed].
Views of suicide
Medical
Modern medicine treats suicide as a mental health issue. Overwhelming suicidal thoughts are considered a medical emergency. Medical professionals advise that people who have expressed plans to kill themselves be encouraged to seek medical attention immediately. This is especially important if the means (weapons, drugs, or other methods) are available, or if the patient has crafted a detailed plan for executing the suicide. Special consideration is given to trained personnel to look for suicidal signs in patients. Depressive people are considered a high-risk group for suicidal behavior. Suicide hotlines are widely available for people seeking help. However, the negative and often too clinical reception that many suicidal people receive after relating their feelings to health professionals (threats of institutionalization, simply increasing dosages of medication, the stigmatization of suicide as a topic of discussion, etc), often causes them to keep their suicidal thoughts to themselves.
Cultural
In the Warring States Period and the Edo period of Japan, samurai who disgraced their honor chose to end their own lives by harakiri (hara = stomach, kiri = cut) or seppuku, a method in which the samurai takes a sword and slices into his abdomen, causing a fatal injury. The cut is usually performed diagonally from the top corner of the samurai's writing hand, and has long been considered an honorable form of death (even when done to punish dishonor). Though obviously such a wound would be fatal, seppuku was not always technically suicide, as the samurai's assistant (the kaishaku) would stand by to cut short any suffering by quickly administering decapitation—sometimes as soon as the first tiny incision into the abdomen was made.
Religious
Debate over suicide
Some see suicide as a legitimate matter of personal choice and a human right (colloquially known as the right to die movement), and maintain that no one should be forced to suffer against their will, particularly from conditions such as incurable disease, mental illness, and old age that have no possibility of improvement. Proponents of this view reject the belief that suicide is always irrational, arguing instead that it can be a valid, albeit drastic, last resort for those enduring major pain or trauma. This perspective is most popular in Continental Europe[3], where euthanasia and other such topics are commonly discussed in parliament, although it has a good deal of support in the United States as well.
A narrower segment of this group considers suicide a sacrosanct right for anyone (even a young and healthy person) who believes they have rationally and conscientiously come to the decision to end their own lives. Notable supporters of this school of thought include German pessimist philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer[4]. Adherents of this view often advocate the abrogation of statutes that restrict the liberties of people known to be suicidal, e.g. laws permitting their involuntary commitment to mental hospitals. Critics may argue that suicidal impulses are inherently products of mental illness and therefore not a valid exercise of rational self-interest, and that because of the gravity and irreversibility of the decision to take one's life it is more prudent for society to err on the side of caution and protect suicidal individuals from themselves.
Suicide as a crime
In some jurisdictions, an act or failed act of suicide is considered to be a crime. Some places consider failure to be attempted murder, with the victim being oneself, and will prosecute such offenders for attempted murder.[citation needed]
More commonly, a surviving party member who assisted in the suicide attempt will face criminal charges.
In Brazil, suicide is not a crime, but willfully instigating or assisting in its completion is. If the help is directed to a minor, the crime is viewed as a homicide.
In Italy and Canada, instigating another to commit suicide is also a criminal offence.
References
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- ↑ Shaffer, D.J. (September 1988). The Epidemiology of Teen Suicide: An Examination of Risk Factors. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 49 (supp.): 36–41. PMID 3047106.
- ↑ http://www.preventsuicidenow.com/suicide-statistics.html
- ↑ http://www.med.uio.no/ipsy/ssff/engelsk/menuprevention/Friis.htm
- ↑ Suicide prevention. WHO Sites: Mental Health. World Health Organization (February 16, 2006). Retrieved 2006-04-11.
- ↑ Teen Suicide Statistics. Adolescent Teenage Suicide Prevention. FamilyFirstAid.org (2001). Retrieved 2006-04-11.
- ↑ Cantor CH. Suicide in the Western World. In: Hawton K, van Heering K, eds. International handbook of suicide and attempted suicide. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2000: 9-28.
- ↑ Lester, Patterns, Table 3.3, pp. 31-33
- ↑ Barraclough,B M. Sex ratio of juvenile suicide. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 1987, 26, 434-435.
- ↑ La Vecchia, C., Lucchini, F., & Levi, F. (1994) Worldwide trends in suicide mortality, 1955-1989. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 90, 53-64.; Lester, Patterns, 1996, pp. 28-30.
- ↑ Lester, Patterns, 1996, p. 2.
- ↑ Baldessarini, R. J., & Jamison, K. R. (1999) Effects of medical interventions on suicidal behavior. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60 (Suppl. 2), 117-122.
- ↑ Khan, A., Warner, H. A., & Brown, W. A. (2000) Symptom reduction and suicide risk in patients treated with placebo in antidepressant clinical trials. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 311-317.
- ↑ [1]
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- ↑ "Questions About Suicide", Centre For Suicide Prevention, 2006.
- ↑ http://www.suicidology.org/displaycommon.cfm?an=6
- ↑ http://www.faqs.org/faqs/suicide/info/
Further reading
Documents and periodicals
- Frederick, C. J. Trends in Mental Health: Self-destructive Behavior Among Younger Age Groups. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. 1976. ED 132 782.
- Lipsitz, J. S., Making It the Hard Way: Adolescents in the 1980s. Testimony presented to the Crisis Intervention Task Force of the House Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families. 1983. ED 248 002.
- McBrien, R. J. "Are You Thinking of Killing Yourself? Confronting Suicidal Thoughts." SCHOOL COUNSELOR 31 (1983): 75–82.
- Ray, L. Y. "Adolescent Suicide." Personnel and Guidance Journal 62 (1983): 131–35.
- Rosenkrantz, A. L. "A Note on Adolescent Suicide: Incidence, Dynamics and Some Suggestions for Treatment." ADOLESCENCE 13 (l978): 209–14.
- Suicide Among School Age Youth. Albany, NY: The State Education Department of the University of the State of New York, 1984. ED 253 819.
- Suicide and Attempted Suicide in Young People. Report on a Conference. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1974. ED 162 204.
- Teenagers in Crisis: Issues and Programs. Hearing Before the Select Committee on Children, Youth, and Families. House of Representatives Ninety-eighth Congress, First Session. Washington, DC: Congress of the U. S., October, 1983. ED 248 445.
- Smith, R. M. Adolescent Suicide and Intervention in Perspective. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the National Council on Family Relations, Boston, MA, August, 1979. ED 184 017.
Nonfiction books
- Bongar, B. The Suicidal Patient: Clinical and Legal Standards of Care. Washington, D.C.: APA. 2002. ISBN 1-55798-761-0
- Jamison, Kay Redfield (2000). Night Falls Fast: Understanding Suicide. Vintage. ISBN 0-375-70147-8.
- Stone, Geo. Suicide and Attempted Suicide: Methods and Consequences. New York: Carroll & Graf, 2001. ISBN 0-7867-0940-5
- Humphry, Derek. Final Exit: The Practicalities of Self-Deliverance and Assisted Suicide for the Dying. Dell. 1997.
- Maguire, Maureen, Uncomfortably Numb. A Prison Requiem. Luath Press 2001. ISBN 1-84282-001-X (A factual documentation of suicide in prison)
External links
Support groups
Support groups for survivors
Suicide prevention
Other links
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