|
|
| (29 intermediate revisions by 8 users not shown) |
| Line 2: |
Line 2: |
| | [[Category:Social work]] | | [[Category:Social work]] |
| | [[Category:Law]] | | [[Category:Law]] |
| | + | {{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Approved}}{{Paid}}{{copyedited}} |
| | | | |
| − | {{Claimed}} | + | '''Sexual abuse''' (also referred to as '''molestation''') is defined by the forcing of undesired [[human sexuality|sexual]] acts by one person to another, or sexual activity with someone defined as improper, such as a [[child]]. Different types of sexual abuse involve non-consensual, forced physical sexual behavior, such as [[rape]], [[sexual assault]], or [[sexual harassment]], psychological forms of abuse, such as verbal sexual behavior, or [[stalking]], or the use of a [[position of trust]] for sexual purposes. When involving a child, and the perpetrator is a member of their own [[family]], this constitutes [[incest]]. |
| | + | {{toc}} |
| | + | Sexual behavior is related to the very purpose of human existence: [[Love]], the production of new [[life]], and the continuation of [[lineage]]. With such significant social ramifications, most societies set limits, through social [[norm]]s and [[taboo]]s, [[moral]] and [[religion|religious]] guidelines, and [[law|legal]] constraints, to protect those who are not ready to participate in a sexual relationship. Sexual abuse violates the sanctity of the individual—physically, emotionally, and spiritually—threatening the core of the victim's being. |
| | | | |
| | + | ==Types== |
| | + | ===Spousal sexual abuse=== |
| | + | '''Spousal abuse''' is the term applied to the specific form of [[domestic violence]], where [[physical abuse|physical]] or sexual abuse is perpetrated by one spouse upon another. Frequently, this involves forced sex (spousal [[rape]]) upon a spouse without their consent. |
| | | | |
| | + | ===Sexual abuse of minors=== |
| | + | '''Child sexual abuse''' is an umbrella term describing criminal and civil offenses in which an [[adult]] engages in sexual activity with a [[minor]] or exploits a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification.<ref>''The Sexual Exploitation of Children,'' University of Pennsylvania Center for Youth Policy Studies, U.S. National Institute of Justice, August 2001.</ref> This term includes a variety of sexual offenses, including [[rape]], sexual molestation, or sexual exploitation. Rape occurs when an adult touches a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification; for example, rape, [[sodomy]], and sexual penetration with an object.<ref>''Child Abuse Reported to the Police,'' Juvenile Justice Bulletin, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, May 2001.</ref> Sexual molestation includes offenses in which an adult engages in non-penetrative activity with a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification; for example, exposing a minor to [[pornography]] or to the sexual acts of others.<ref>''Criminal Investigation of Child Sexual Abuse,'' U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, March 2001.</ref> Sexual exploitation involves an adult victimizing a minor for advancement, sexual gratification, or profit; for example, [[prostitution|prostituting]] a child,<ref>''Prostitution of Juveniles,'' U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, June 2004.</ref> and creating or trafficking in child pornography.<ref>''Child Sexual Exploitation: Improving Investigations and Protecting Victims,'' Massachusetts Child Exploitation Network, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, January 1995.</ref> |
| | | | |
| − | '''Sexual abuse''' (also referred to as '''molestation''') is defined by the forcing of undesired sexual acts by one person to another. The term [[incest]] is defined as sexual abuse between family members, and the slang term "bad touch" is used to describe such abuse.
| + | ==Legal aspects== |
| | + | In the majority of cultures and countries, sexual activity is legal and acceptable only if both parties give [[consent (criminal)|consent]]. The age of consent, that is, the age at which the [[law]] presumes a person has the physical, emotional, and sexual maturity to make an informed adult decision to enter into sexual activity, differs from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, from the low teen years in [[Italy]] and [[Spain]] to the mid to high teen years elsewhere, for example 16 in the [[United Kingdom]], 17 in [[Ireland]], 18 in [[India]]. (Some states also provide different ages of consent for [[homosexuality|homosexual]] boys as compared to heterosexual boys and girls.) |
| | | | |
| − | Different types of sexual abuse involve:
| + | Yet, separately the law may specify a different age where a teenager ceases to be a child and becomes an adult. As a result, where a difference exists, it may be perfectly legal to have sex with a child where the individual, though still deemed a child in law, is above the age of consent specified in local legislation. In most cases, the age of consent and statutory [[rape]] laws aim at protecting children and teenagers from [[exploitation]], particularly physical or psychological exploitation involving sexual behavior. |
| − | *Non-consensual, forced physical sexual behavior such as [[rape]] or [[sexual assault]]
| |
| − | *Psychological forms of abuse, such as verbal sexual behavior or [[stalking]].
| |
| − | *The use of a [[position of trust]] for sexual purposes.
| |
| | | | |
| − | Generally, sexual abuse tends to be inflicted against females. The most visible signs of sexual abuse are signs of injury to parts of the body. Pregnancy may also result.
| + | ===International law=== |
| | + | One hundred forty [[United Nations member states|nations]] are signatories to the [[United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child]]. This international [[treaty]] defines a set of protections which signatories agree to provide for the children of their respective countries.<ref>www.ohchr.org, [http://www.ohchr.org/english/countries/ratification/11.htm Signatories to the United Nations on the Convention of the Rights of the Child.] Retrieved September 22, 2007.</ref> |
| | + | Articles 34 and 35 require that signatories protect their nations’ children from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. This includes outlawing the coercion of a child to perform sexual activity, the [[prostitution]] of children, and the exploitation of children in creating [[pornography]]. Signatories also agree to prevent [[abduction]], sale, or [[human trafficking|trafficking]] of children.<ref>www.unhchr.ch, United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.</ref> |
| | | | |
| − | ==Rape== | + | ===Penalties for child sexual abuse=== |
| − | Nearly all civilized societies consider it a serious crime to force someone to engage in sexual behavior or to engage in sexual behavior with someone who does not consent. This is called sexual assault, and if sexual penetration occurs it is called [[rape]], the most serious kind of sexual assault.
| + | Penalties for child sexual abuse vary with the specific offenses for which the perpetrator has been convicted. Criminal penalties may include imprisonment, fines, registration as a sex offender, and restrictions on probation and parole. Civil penalties may include liability for damages, injunctions, involuntary commitment, and, for perpetrators related to their victims, loss of custody or parental rights. |
| | | | |
| − | [[Sexual abuse#Child sexual abuse|Child sexual abuse]], which can be classified as [[incest]] when the abuser is a close relative, is the most serious form of rape. It has traumatic effects on the child that can cause a lifetime of psychological and emotional pain. Yet particularly when the abuser is a parent or close relative, the crime is rarely reported.
| + | In the late twentieth century, many state legislatures increased [[prison]] terms and other penalties for child sex offenders.<ref>Ruby Andrew, Child Sexual Abuse and the State, ''UC Davis Law Review,'' vol. 39, 2006.</ref> This trend toward more stringent sentences generally targets those perpetrators who are repeat offenders,<ref>''People v. Murphy,'' 19 P.3d 1129 (2001).</ref> who victimize multiple children,<ref>''People v. Hammer,'' 69 P.3d 436 (2003).</ref> or who stood in a position of trust with respect to their victims, such as a guardian, parent, pastor, or teacher.<ref>''Washington v. Grewe,'' 813 P.2d 1238 (1991).</ref> |
| − |
| |
| − | Precisely what constitutes effective consent to have sex varies from culture to culture and is frequently debated in courts of law. In particular, the law recognizes that children should be protected from the sexual activity appropriate to adults. Hence the law may set a minimum age at which a person can consent to have sex—the ''age of consent''—and criminalize sex with an underage child, even when he/she is a willing participant, as statutory rape. The aim of age of consent law is to protect and care for impressionable young people as they develop and [[maturity|mature]], since people often suffer emotional dysfunction as a result of childhood sexual activity.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Date rape==
| |
| − | The issue of consent arises when considering one of the most common forms of sexual abuse—date rape.<ref>[http://www.aaets.org/article13.htm Perspectives on Acquaintance Rape] by David G. Curtis. The American Academy of Experts in Traumatic Stress. Retrieved April 14, 2007.</ref> The recent attention given to this issue emerged as part of the growing willingness to acknowledge and address domestic violence and the rights of women in general. Date rape, sometimes called acquaintance rape, began to rise to the public consciousness in the early 1980's, spurred by the research done by psychologist Mary Koss and her colleagues<ref>Koss, Mary P. "Hidden rape: Sexual aggression and victimization in the national sample of students in higher education," in Maureen A. Pirog-Good & Jan E. Stets, eds., ''Violence in Dating Relationships: Emerging Social Issues'' (New York: Praeger, 1989), pp. 145-168. ISBN 0275933539</ref> which was popularized in ''Ms.'' magazine in 1985. By debunking the belief that unwanted sexual advances and intercourse were not rape if they occurred with an acquaintance or while on a date, Koss compelled women to reexamine their own experiences. Many women were thus able to reframe what had happened to them as acquaintance rape and recognize that they were indeed victims of a crime.
| |
| − | | |
| − | These coercive encounters often go unreported. Often the male plies the female with alcohol to reduce her inhibitions and then coerces her to his bed. He may apply verbal pressure, sometimes even menacingly so. He may even employ a so-called date rape drug, either GHB (gamma hydroxybutyric acid), Rohypnol (flunitrazepam), or Ketamine (ketamine hydrochloride). They can be slipped into a drink to render the victim senseless or unable to resist; often the victim has no memory of what happened.
| |
| − | | |
| − | High-profile legal cases such as the Mike Tyson/Desiree Washington and William Kennedy Smith/Patricia Bowman trials have brought the issue of acquaintance rape into living rooms across America. Another trial which received national attention involved a group of teenage boys in New Jersey who sodomized and sexually assaulted a mildly retarded 17-year old female classmate. In each of these cases, the legal definition of consent was the central issue of the trial. Increased awareness of sexual coercion and acquaintance rape has thus been accompanied by important legal decisions and changes in legal definitions of rape.
| |
| − | | |
| − | Acquaintance rape remains a controversial topic because of lack of agreement upon the definition of consent. In an attempt to clarify this definition, in 1994, Antioch College in Ohio adopted what has become an infamous policy delineating consensual sexual behavior. The primary reason this policy has stirred such an uproar is that the definition of consent is based on continuous verbal communication during intimacy. The person initiating the contact must take responsibility for obtaining the other participant's verbal consent as the level of sexual intimacy increases. This must occur with each new level. The rules also state that "If you have had a particular level of sexual intimacy before with someone, you must still ask each and every time."<ref>Francis, L., ed., ''Date Rape: Feminism, Philosophy, and the Law'' (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996). ISBN 0271014296</ref> Predictably, legalistic policies like this were widely lampooned for reducing the spontaneity of sexual intimacy to what seemed like an artificial contractual agreement.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Sexual harassment==
| |
| − | [[Sexual harassment]] is also abusive sexuality. It occurs in a workplace or school environment where a person in a position of authority makes sexual advances on a subordinate. The coercive element is the implicit threat that the subordinate might be penalized for not complying with these advances. Sexual harassment can also occur when co-workers mock and deride a new employee with sexual language.
| |
| − | | |
| − | Another form of abuse is the use of sexual language to demean women. While this has been a traditional pastime among men in private settings, in recent years, [[Hip-hop]] artists and radio talk-show hosts called "shock jocks" have used coarse and demeaning language on the public airwaves, denigrating women as sex objects and denying them their inherent dignity.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Criminalized non-consensual and consensual sexual behavior==
| |
| − | Other forms of abusive sexuality that are prohibited in many places include indecent and harassing phone calls, and non-consensual exhibitionism (indecent exposure) and voyeurism.
| |
| − | | |
| − | Certain consensual sexual actions or activities which are permitted (or not criminalized) in some societies may be viewed as crimes (often of a serious nature) in other societies. The clearest example of this is [[homosexuality]]. Laws prohibiting same-gender sexuality are called [[sodomy law]]s. These have varied widely, from providing legal protection to homosexuals to the point of [[marriage]] in some countries, through to obtaining the [[death penalty]] in others. Other sexual behaviors that are illicit in various jurisdictions include [[polygamy]], [[adultery]], public nudity (streaking), fetishes such as transvestitism, and the manufacture and sale of [[pornography]].
| |
| − | | |
| − | [[Prostitution]] and pimping are usually regarded as illicit, but while soliciting and obtaining the services of a prostitute may be consensual, the situation of the women caught up in prostitution is often exploitative and coercive to the point of [[slavery]]. Indeed, [[human trafficking]] in sex slaves, involving millions of human beings, mainly children, is the major form of slavery today.
| |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| − | ==Spousal sexual abuse==
| |
| − | :''Main article: [[Spousal abuse]]''
| |
| − | '''Spousal abuse''' is the term applied to the specific form of [[domestic violence]], where [[physical abuse|physical]] or sexual abuse is perpetrated by one spouse upon another. Frequently this involves forced sex (spousal rape) upon a spouse without their consent.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Students and sexual harassment ==
| |
| − | Students may be the victims of unwanted sexual attention by teachers and professors, see [[Sexual harassment in education#Sexual harassment and abuse of students by teachers|Sexual harassment by teachers]].
| |
| − | | |
| − | Because students and faculty members have unequal power and authority, flirtatious and sexual behavior by a faculty member toward a student is often classified as a misuse of power, and may carry serious consequences such as the filing of charges of [[sexual harassment]] and/or termination of employment.
| |
| − | | |
| − | For a famous example of a teacher-student [[statutory rape]], see [[Mary Kay Letourneau]].
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Sexual abuse of minors==
| |
| − | :''Main article: [[Child sexual abuse]]
| |
| − | | |
| − | In the majority of cultures and countries, sex is legal and acceptable only if both parties give [[consent (criminal)|consent]].
| |
| − | | |
| − | The age of consent, that is, the age at which the law presumes a person has the physical, emotional and sexual maturity to make an informed adult decision to enter into sexual activity, differs from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, from a low teenage in [[Italy]] and [[Spain]] to a mid to high teens age elsewhere, for example 16 in the [[United Kingdom]], 17 in [[Ireland]], 18 in [[India]]. (Some states also provide different ages of consent for homosexual boys as against heterosexual boys and girls.) Yet separately the law may specify a different age where a teenager ceases to be a child and becomes an adult. As a result, where a difference exists, it may be perfectly legal to have sex with a child where the individual, though still deemed a child in law, is above the age of consent specified in local legislation. In most cases, the age of consent and statutory rape laws aim at protecting children and teenagers from [[exploitation]], particularly physical or psychological exploitation involving sexual behavior.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Further reading==
| |
| − | | |
| − | * Aba, C. (1992). ''Sexual Assaults on Students.'' London: Harper and Row.
| |
| − | * Billie Wright Dzeich and Linda Weiner, 1984 (2nd ed. 1990). ''The Lecherous Professor: Sexual Harassment on Campus.'' Boston: Beacon Press.
| |
| − | * Doris Van Stone, (1990). ''No Place to Cry: The Hurt and Healing of Sexual Abuse.'' Moody Publishers.
| |
| − | * [[Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson]]: ''The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory'' (1984) ISBN 0-374-10642-8, (2003 Ballantine Books, ISBN 0345452798)
| |
| − | | |
| − | == External links ==
| |
| − | * [http://www.rainn.org RAINN - The Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network]
| |
| − | * [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org The Awareness Center, Inc. - The Jewish Coalition Against Sexual Abuse/Assault]
| |
| − | * [http://www.jimhopper.com/male-ab/ Sexual Abuse of Males website]
| |
| − | *[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8231186990016682219&q=living+smart+%23206&hl=en Surviving Childhood Sexual Abuse]
| |
| − | * [http://www.liberatedfromabuse.com Liberated From Abuse—Sexual Abuse Education]
| |
| − | * [http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/57154/living_with_your_partners_ptsd.com/ Living With Your Partner's PTSD: When The Woman You Love is a Victim]
| |
| − | <!--[[en:Sexual abuse]]—> | |
| − | | |
| − | <!--[[en:Sexual abuse]]—>
| |
| − | | |
| − |
| |
| − | '''Child sexual abuse''' (CSA) is the [[sexual abuse]] of a [[minor (law)|minor]] or, according to the [[American Psychological Association]][http://www.apa.org/releases/sexabuse/], sexual activity between a minor and an older person in which the dominant position of the older person is used to coerce or exploit the younger. The assailants can be of either sex as can their targets. Child sexual abuse is illegal in all countries about which information is available. Although these laws differ in detail, all set an age - typically between the typical onset of [[puberty]] and the [[age of majority]] - under which all sexual contact with adults is deemed abusive. Above this age, sexual contact may be judged abuse depending on the use of violence or coercion or the type of relationship involved. [[Incest]] between parents and their children is one universally condemned type of child sexual abuse that is illegal at all ages. | |
| − | | |
| − | The term includes also the [[commercial sexual exploitation of children]], defined by the [[International Labour Organization]] in the text of the [[Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999]]. Child molestation is an informal synonym for child sexual abuse, most often used for sex between adults and young children. A perpetrator of child sexual abuse is known as a child sex offender if convicted, or informally as a child molester.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Effects of sexual abuse on children==
| |
| − | A wide range of psychological, emotional, physical, and social effects have been attributed to child sexual abuse, including [[anxiety]], [[clinical depression|depression]], [[fixation|obsession]], [[compulsion]], [[grief]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] symptoms such as [[flashback (psychological phenomenon)|flashback]]s, emotional numbing, [[pseudo-maturity symptoms]], and other more general dysfunctions such as sexual dysfunction, social dysfunction, dysfunction of relationships, poor education and employment records, eating disorders<ref>Robyn McGee. American Sexuality Magazine. [http://nsrc.sfsu.edu/MagArticle.cfm?Article=724 What's the link between sexual abuse and obesity?] Accessed on 4-23-07.</ref>, self-mutilation, and a range of physical symptoms common to some other forms of [[PTSD]], such as sensual numbness, and loss of appetite (see Smith et al., 1995). Additionally, young females who are victims of abuse may encounter additional trauma by [[pregnancy]] and birth complications. Young children (male or female) who are victims of abuse by their mothers or other adult females may incur double traumatization due to the widespread denial of female-perpetrated child sexual abuse by non-abusing parents, professional caregivers and the general public.<ref> Crawford, (1997) Forbidden Femininity: Child Sexual Abuse and Female Sexuality</ref> Some studies have shown that much of the negative effect associated with CSA is caused by the negative family environment that is often also present for children who are abused. ([[Rind et al.]] 1998) Those studies also suggested that the negative effects of CSA were smaller and that some groups of children were not negatively affected by being abused.
| |
| − | | |
| − | Wakefield and Underwager (1991) note the difference between CSA experiences of males and females, where more males than females report the experience as neutral or positive, saying that "It may be that women perceive such experiences as sexual violation, while men perceive them as sexual initiation." [[Rind et al.]](1998) showed that this difference was present in 59 college studies on the issue, showing that males who claimed that their abuse was consensual were not significantly less well adjusted than the norm. Draucker (1992) had previously argued that sexual abuse against both boys and girls had similar effects, and that "initiation" was part of the myth that males are always the initiators of sex and cannot be abused. Crawford (1997) asserts that our socially repressed view of female and maternal sexuality conceals both the reality of female sexual pathologies and the damage done by female sexual abuse to children. Denov (2004) notes that the topic of female sex offending is one that is barely "''beginning''" to be studied and is a phenomenon that causes surprise, shock and utter revulsion even among counseling professionals.
| |
| − | | |
| − | More recent studies indicate that sexual or physical abuse in children can lead to the overexcitation of an undeveloped [[limbic system]] [http://www.annafoundation.org/stwh.html]. This could explain the problems sexual abuse victims have with regulation of mood and other limbic functions, especially as exhibited in [[borderline personality disorder]]. Other studies also indicate that the psychological trauma caused by sexual abuse can lead to [[temporal lobe epilepsy]], damage to the [[cerebellar vermis]], along with reduced size of the [[corpus callosum]]. Children who had suffered only sexual abuse showed somewhat greater damage than children who had suffered only non-sexual physical abuse. However, the most dramatic effects were seen in those who had suffered both sexual and physical abuse. Male and female victims were similarly affected. [http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/36/5/36]
| |
| | | | |
| | ==Offenders== | | ==Offenders== |
| − | Offenders are more likely to be relatives or acquaintances of their victim than strangers.<ref>Fergusson, D. M., Lynskey, M. T., and Horwood L. J. (1996). "Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: I. Prevalence of sexual abuse and factors associated with sexual abuse." In the Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(10), 1355-64.</ref> Most reported offenders are male; the percentage of incidents of sexual abuse by female perpetrators is usually reported to be between 1% and 6%<ref>M. Baurmann, Sexualitdt, Gewalt und psychische Folgen. Eine- Langsschttutenterstichting bei Opfem sexueller Gewalt und sextieller Nortnverletziit~g anhand von angezeigten Sexualkontakten (Wiesbaden: Bundeskriminalamt, 1983); Committee on Sexual Offences: Sexual Offences against Children. Report of the Committee on Sexual Offences against Children and Youth (Ottawa: Minister of Supply and Services, Canada, 1984); M. DeYoung The Sexual Victimization of Children Oefferson (N.E.), London: McForland, 1982); D. Finkelhor and D. Russell, "Women as Perpetrators: Review of the Evidence," in D. Finkelhor (ed.), Child Sexual Abuse: New Theory and Research (New York: Free Press, 1984); G. Kercher and M. McShane, "Characterizing Child Sexual Abuse on the Basis of a MultiAgency Sample," in Victimology 9/1984, pp. 364-382; H. Niemann, Unzuch mit Kindern. Eine kritninolegische Untersuchung unter Venvendung Hambuger Cerichtsaktert aus den jahren 1965 und 1967 (G6ttingen: Schwartz, 1974). | + | Offenders are more likely to be relatives or acquaintances of their victim than strangers.<ref>D.M. Fergusson, M.T. Lynskey, and L.J. Horwood, "Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: Prevalence of sexual abuse and factors associated with sexual abuse," ''Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry'' 35(10): 1355-64.</ref> The percentage of incidents of sexual abuse by female perpetrators that come to the attention of the legal system is usually reported as between 1 percent and 4 percent.<ref>M.S. Denov, "The myth of innocence: sexual scripts and the recognition of child sexual abuse by female perpetrators," ''The Journal of Sex Research'' 40, 3 (2003): 303-314.</ref> Studies of sexual misconduct in U.S. [[school]]s female sex offenders have showed mixed results with rates between 4 percent to 43 percent of female offenders.<ref>C. Shakeshaft, ''Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature'' (U.S. Department of Education, 2004), p. 25.</ref> In U.S. schools, educators who offend range in age from "21 to 75 years old, with an average age of 28" with teachers, coaches, substitute teachers, bus drivers, and teacher's aids (in that order) totaling 69 percent of the offenders.<ref>Ibid.</ref> |
| − | 3. J. Marvasti, 9ncestuous Mothers," in Americanjournal of Forensic Psychiatry 7/1986, pp. 63-69; L.M. McCarthy, "Mother-Child Incest: Characteristics of the Offencler," in Child Wefflare 65/1986, pp. 4-47-458. </ref>, though this low figure may be distorted by under-reporting of sexual contact between women and minors.<ref>Knopf, M. (1993): Sexuelle Kontakte zwischen Frauen und Kindern - Überlegungen zu einem nicht zustandegekommenen Forschungsprojekt ("Sexual contacts between women and children: Thoughts on a research study that failed"), in: Zeitschrift für Sexualforschung ("Journal of Sexuology"), no. 6, 23-35.</ref> This under-reporting has been attributed to cultural denial of female-perpetrated child sex abuse.<ref>Denov, Myriam S. (2004) "Perspectives on Female Sex Offending: A Culture of Denial"</ref> Most men formerly involved in woman-boy sexual relations evaluate their experience as positive upon reflection.<ref>S.R. Condy, Parameters of Heterosexual Molestation of Boys (Dissertation, Frenso: California School of Professional Psychology, 1985); S.R. Condy, D.I. Ternpler, R. Brown, and L. Veaco, 'Tarameters of Sexual Contact of Boys with Women," in Archives of Sexual Behavior 16/1987, pp. 379-395. </ref>
| |
| | | | |
| | ===Typology=== | | ===Typology=== |
| − | Typologies for child sex offenders have been used since the [[1970]]s. Male Offenders are typically classified by their motivation, which is usually assessed by reviewing their offense's characteristics. [[Phallometric]] tests may also be used to determine the abuser's level of pedophilic interest.<ref>Terry, Karen J., and Tallon, Jennifer. "[http://www.usccb.org/nrb/johnjaystudy/litreview.pdf Child Sexual Abuse: A Review of the Literature.]"</ref> Groth et al. proposed a simple, dichotomous system in 1982 which classed offenders as either "regressed" or "fixated."<ref>Groth, A.N., Hobson, W.F. and Gary, T.S. (1982). "[http://mhawestchester.org/mhaeducation/incestmono7.asp The child molester: clinical observations.]" In ''Journal of Social Work and Child Sexual Abuse'', 1(1/2), 129-144.</ref>. Research on child sex abuse by females is beginning despite widespread denial about its very existence.<ref>Denov, Myriam S. (2004) "Perspectives on Female Sex Offending: A Culture of Denial"</ref> | + | Typologies for child sex offenders have been used since the 1970s. Male offenders are typically classified by their [[motivation]], which is usually assessed by reviewing their offense's characteristics. [[Phallometric]] tests may also be used to determine the abuser's level of [[Pedophilia|pedophilic]] interest.<ref>Karen J. Terry and Jennifer Tallon, [http://www.usccb.org/nrb/johnjaystudy/litreview.pdf Child Sexual Abuse: A Review of the Literature.] Retrieved September 22, 2007.</ref> Groth et al. proposed a simple, dichotomous system in 1982, which classed offenders as either "regressed" or "fixated."<ref>A.N. Groth, W.F. Hobson, and T.S. Gary, The child molester: Clinical observations, ''Journal of Social Work and Child Sexual Abuse'' 1(1/2), 129-144. </ref> There are generally two types of offenders: Regressed and fixated. |
| − | | |
| − | There are three categorizations of sex offenders against minors studied in the field of [[criminal psychology]]. The first two are major while the third is minor. | |
| − | | |
| − | ====Regressed offenders====
| |
| − | Regressed offenders are primarily attracted to their own age group but are passively aroused by minors (pseudo-[[pedophile]]s and pseudo-[[ephebophile]]s). | |
| | | | |
| | + | Regressed offenders are primarily attracted to their own age group but are passively aroused by minors. |
| | *The sexual attraction in minors is not manifested until adulthood. | | *The sexual attraction in minors is not manifested until adulthood. |
| | *Their sexual conduct until adulthood is aligned with that of their own age group. | | *Their sexual conduct until adulthood is aligned with that of their own age group. |
| Line 111: |
Line 41: |
| | | | |
| | Other scenarios may include: | | Other scenarios may include: |
| − | | + | *Not associating their attractions as pedosexual in nature due to cultural differences. |
| − | *Not associating their attractions as pedosexual or ephebosexual in nature due to cultural differences. | |
| | *[[Age of consent]] laws were raised in their jurisdiction but mainstream views toward sex with that age group remained the same, were acted upon, then they were charged with a crime. | | *[[Age of consent]] laws were raised in their jurisdiction but mainstream views toward sex with that age group remained the same, were acted upon, then they were charged with a crime. |
| | *The person's passive interest in children is manifested temporarily upon the consumption of alcohol and acted upon while inhibitions were low. | | *The person's passive interest in children is manifested temporarily upon the consumption of alcohol and acted upon while inhibitions were low. |
| | | | |
| − | Some view regressed offenders as people who are unable to maintain adult sexual relationships and so the offender substitutes an adult with a minor. This appears to be a flawed concept since it would suggest the offender was primarily pedosexual/ephebosexual and they would thus fit into the fixated category.
| + | Fixated offenders are most often adult pedophiles who are [[maladaptive]] to accepted social norms. The sexual acts are typically preconceived and are not alcohol or drug related. Maletzky (1993) found that, of his sample of 4,402 convicted pedophilic offenders, the vast majority were male with only 0.4 percent being female.<ref>B.M. Maletzky, "Factors associated with success and failure in the behavioral and cognitive treatment of sexual offenders," ''Annals of Sex Research'' 6: 241-258.</ref> |
| − | | |
| − | ====Fixated offenders====
| |
| − | Fixated offenders are most often adult pedophiles who are [[maladaptive]] to accepted social norms. They develop compatibility and self-esteem issues, stunting their social growth. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} | |
| − | | |
| − | "This offender ''identifies'' with children, in other words considers him or herself to be like a child and thus seeks sexual relationships with what the offender perceives to be ''other'' children".<sup>[http://www.csom.org/train/supervision/medium/01_02_04.html]</sup>
| |
| − | | |
| − | Such offenders often resort to collecting personal articles related to minors (clothing, children's books) as an outlet for their repressed desires. The sexual acts are typically preconceived and are not alcohol or drug related.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==="Children who molest"===
| |
| − | {{Unreferenced|section|date=October 2006}}
| |
| − | Some [[Psychotherapy|therapists]] noticed that many [[adult]] sex offenders already showed what they considered deviant sexual behavior during childhood. So they promoted early treatment of deviant minors as a preventive measure. However there is still little known about normal as opposed to deviant [[child sexuality]]. It is also unknown whether so called deviant minors have a higher risk of becoming adult sex offenders than anybody else.
| |
| − | | |
| − | The US started to focus on juvenile sex offenders or even children for therapy or detention in the early [[1990s]]. The label "juvenile sex offender" is controversial because it is not only used to describe acts of violence, but also consensual acts that violate statutory rape laws; critics of this trend view many such children as simply engaging in sexual experimentation. They also criticize the law for forcing arbitrary classification of such pairs of offenders into victim and perpetrator.
| |
| | | | |
| − | Therapies used on children have included controversial methods historically used in the "treatment" of homosexuals such as [[aversion therapy]], where minors are, for example, forced to smell ammonia while looking at nude pictures or to listen to audio tapes describing sexual situations. In order to measure sexual response, devices like [[penile plethysmograph]]s and [[vaginal photoplethysmograph]]s are sometimes used on these minors.
| + | ==Effects of sexual abuse== |
| | + | ===Developmental=== |
| | + | Research has shown that traumatic stress, including stress caused by sexual abuse, causes notable changes in [[brain]] functioning and development.<ref>Daniel Siegel, ''Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are'' (Guilford Press, 2001, ISBN 978-1572307407).</ref> |
| | | | |
| − | ===Variation in cultural practices, norms and research findings===
| + | Various studies have suggested that severe child sexual abuse may have a deleterious effect on brain development. Ito et al. (1998) found "reversed hemispheric asymmetry and greater left hemisphere coherence in abused subjects;"<ref>Y. Ito, et al., [http://neuro.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/10/3/298 Preliminary evidence for aberrant cortical development in abused children: a quantitative EEG study,] ''The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences,'' 10: 298–307. Retrieved September 22, 2007.</ref> Anderson et al. (2002) recorded abnormal [[Relaxation (NMR)|transverse relaxation]] time in the cerebellar vermis of adults sexually abused in childhood; Teicher et al. (1993) found that child sexual abuse was associated with a reduced [[corpus callosum]] area; various studies have found an association of reduced volume of the left hippocampus with child sexual abuse;<ref>Martin H. Teicher, [http://jillium.nfshost.com/scarsthatwontheal.pdf Scars That Won't Heal: The Neurobiology of Child Abuse], ''Scientific American magazine,'' 2003.</ref> and Ito et al. (1993) found increased electrophysiological abnormalities in sexually abused children. |
| − | Between [[cultural relativism|cultural relativists]] and cultural universalists there is no [[consensus]] whether and which among different past or present cultural practices in Western or non-Western societies can be defined as abusing either general universalistic human rights or special universalistic rights of minors. As a result, there is no generally accepted definition which of them can be listed as child sexual abuse.
| |
| | | | |
| − | In different cultures the practices sanctioned by cultural norms involve for example cutting and bleeding of the genitals, [[female genital cutting]], [[circumcision]] (of males), [[castration]], [[infibulation]], sexual relationships between adolescent boys and adult men sanctioned by the state and sanctified by religion in ancient [[Greece]]. In Japan, sexual relationship between adolescent boys and adult monks in feudal [[Japan]] were tolerated, if not encouraged. Again child prostitution is somewhat tolerated in abjectively poor societies as a way for children to support their families. Remedies against masturbation (once named 'self-abuse'), ritual fellation by youths (found in some Oceanic cultures [http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/GUS/NEWGUINEA.HTM] [http://www.glbtq.com/arts/pac_art.html] [http://www.globalgayz.com/papua-news.html]), etc.
| + | Navalta et al. (2006) found that the self-reported math [[Scholastic Aptitude Test]] scores of their sample of women with a history of repeated child sexual abuse were significantly lower than the self-reported math SAT scores of their non-abused sample. Because the abused subjects verbal SAT scores were high, they hypothesized that the low math SAT scores could "stem from a defect in hemispheric integration," which, they say, "could be a consequence of reduced corpus callosal area." They also found a strong association between short term [[memory]] impairments for all categories tested (verbal, visual, and global) and the duration of the abuse.<ref>Carryl P. Navalta, et al., "Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse on Neuropsychological and Cognitive Function in College Women," ''The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences,'' 18: 45-53.</ref> The authors hypothesized that the development of brain regions which [[myelin]]ate over decades (such as the corpus callosum and [[hippocampus]]) may be disturbed by stress, because stress hormones such as [[cortisol]] suppress the final mitosis of [[granule cells]] and thereby the production of the [[oligodendrocytes]] and [[Schwann cells]] that form the [[myelin sheath]]. |
| | | | |
| − | Green (2002) notes that sexual interactions between adults and children were commonplace and accepted in a variety of archaic cultures, including that of the [[Siwa Oasis|Siwans]], [[Arrernte]] aborigines, [[Native Hawaiians]], and [[Polynesians]].<ref>Green, Richard (2002). "Is pedophilia a mental disorder?", ''Archives of Sexual Behavior''. '''31''' (6). 467-471.</ref>
| + | ===Psychological=== |
| | + | Sufferers of sexual abuse can experience a wide range of psychological trauma. Problems include [[depression (psychology)|depression]], [[anxiety]], [[guilt]], [[fear]], sexual dysfunction, withdrawal, and acting out. These effects can occur over a very short or long period of time following abuse. Most effects are made manifest within the first two years following abuse. Victims may display regressive behavior, such as thumb sucking or bed wetting. Abuse can also lead to self-destructive behavior such as alcoholism, drug abuse, anxiety attacks or insomnia. Many victims suffer from chronically low [[self-esteem]] and blame themselves for the attacks.<ref>APA Online, [http://www.apa.org/releases/sexabuse/effects.html What are the Effects of Sexual Abuse?] Retrieved September 15, 2007.</ref> |
| | | | |
| − | ===Epidemiology=== | + | ===Social=== |
| − | Goldman ([[2000]]) notes that "the absolute number of children being sexually abused each year has been almost impossible to ascertain" and that "there does not seem to be agreement on the rate of children being sexually abused". A meta-analytic study by Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman ([[1998]]) found that reported prevalence of abuse for males ranged from 3% to 37%, and for females from 8% to 71% with mean rates of 17% and 28% respectively. Significant underreporting of sexual abuse of boys by both women and men is believed to occur due to gender steoreotyping, social denial and minimization of male victimization, and the relative lack of research on sexual abuse of boys.[http://www.sasian.org/papers/boysngirls.htm] Sexual victimization of boys by their mothers or other female relatives is especially rarely researched or reported.[http://www.drmiletski.com/mother_son.html] Sexual abuse of girls by their mothers, and other related and/or unrelated adult females is beginning to be researched and reported despite the highly taboo nature of female-female child sex abuse.[http://www.safersociety.org/allbks/wp046.html] A study by Fromuth and Burkhart ([[1987]]) found that depending upon the definition of CSA used, prevalence among men varied from 4% to 24%.
| + | Victims of sexual abuse often do not interact well with others following abuse. Some victims may develop a [[fear]] or [[anxiety]] about the opposite sex, resulting in strained social interactions. Other victims can exhibit deviant sexual behavior or become hyper-sexualized. This hyper-sexualization may result in promiscuity in some and [[prostitution]] in others. Victims of abuse often have intimacy issues and cannot trust other people. Past victims may have difficulty [[parenting]] and may abuse their own children.<ref>Coolnurse, [http://www.coolnurse.com/sexual_abuse_adult.htm The Effects of Child Sexual Abuse On an Adult Survivor.] Retrieved September 15, 2007.</ref> |
| | | | |
| − | ==Legal definition (U.S.)== | + | ==Reporting sexual abuse== |
| | + | Understanding the pervasiveness of sexual abuse in society is difficult for two reasons: Victims often do not feel comfortable reporting their abuse and abuse often occurs at such an early age that victims cannot accurately remember it.<ref>Psychiatric News, [http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/38/12/14 False Sex Abuse Accusations Leads to Revision of Theories.] Retrieved September 15, 2007.</ref> False reports of abuse can be disruptive to all involved from the supposed victim to the alleged attacker whose reputation is then sullied. |
| | | | |
| − | In every state and federal jurisdiction of the United States, the law states that a minor below the age of consent in that state or jurisdiction cannot consent to sexual activity of any sort involving a partner (with certain exceptions). Such sexual activity is legally considered child abuse. However, state laws usually treat an adult who performs sexual activity with a minor under the age of consent differently from two minors under the age of consent who perform sexual activity with each other. Also, if the minor in question is a preadolescent child then it is generally treated differently then sexual activities with an adolescent under the age of consent. Sexual activities between an adult and an adolescent minor under the age of consent are generally covered under statutory rape laws. Illegal sexual activities involving an adult and a minor are generally categorized as a sex offense. Depending on the penal code of the jurisdiction in which the crime occurs, the specific charges against the adult may include, for example, rape/sexual assault, sexual abuse of a child, incest, or lewd acts. [[Incest]] or child sexual abuse by parents (or other related adult relatives) to ''related'' children is a crime in all states. However, a decided legal double standard exists in most states that favors parents who rape or molest their own children as opposed to ''unrelated'' adults to who rape or molest others' children.[http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/nyt-11202005.html]
| + | The nature of sexual abuse leads many to become overly afraid and suspicious about the possibility, resulting in scares such as the "Daycare Sexual Abuse" hysteria in the 1980s and 1990s, in which daycare workers were accused of ritual sexual abuse of children in America, Canada, and New Zealand. During the scare, concerned [[police]] officers used questionable interrogation tactics on children to elicit tales of abuse by their parents and caregivers, many of which were later found to be untrue.<ref>Frontline, [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/innocence/etc/other.html Innocence Lost the Plea.] Retrieved September 16, 2007.</ref> |
| − | In many states, the legal age of consent is higher if the adult is in a position of authority over the minor, such as a teacher or employer.
| |
| | | | |
| − | Many states include in their penal code a so-called "Romeo exception". This exception deals with situations in which a young adult or adolescent performs a sexual activity with a someone under the age of consent; it exempts the older partner from being charged with a sex offense if they are close in age, and force or coercion are not used. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} Another exemption under states sexual abuse laws that exists in some states applies to adults legally married to minors. Thus, said adults can legally have sexual relations with their spouses without violating the law.
| + | Victims fear reporting their abuse for a number of reasons. First, they are often abused by a close contact and may have mixed feelings about the person. The victims may feel [[loyalty]] and even [[love]] for their attacker. Often the abuser is seen as an authority figure who tells their victim not to discuss their "secret" with other adults. When the abuser is a member of the victims family, or a trusted adult such as a caregiver, teacher, or priest, it is especially difficult for a child to go against their abuser's direction. These intimate relationships also lead to tensions within families or social circles as the victims often have to see their attackers on a regular or daily basis. Victims fear their social lives may be torn apart by leveling allegations against another person. Second, victims may fear retribution either from their attacker or society in general. This would especially be a problem in situations where the attacker is a family member or close associate with whom the victim has regular contact. Retribution may take the form of physical violence, ostracism, or other forms of psychological attack. |
| | | | |
| − | These protections are not consistently available in all states. Young people are often punished for being sexual with themselves and consenting partners of the same age. Teens have been fined, imprisoned, and labeled as sexual offenders for crimes such as taking pictures of themselves[http://news.com.com/Police+blotter+Teens+prosecuted+for+racy+photos/2100-1030_3-6157857.html][http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/04/05/girl_charged_with_child_porn/] and engaging in consensual activity with others. Sometimes a couple under the age of consent are charged as each being both victims and rapists of each other at the same time. [http://www.jsonline.com/story/index.aspx?id=163688]
| + | ==Notes== |
| − | | + | <references/> |
| − | American age of consent laws may or may not apply to [[emancipated minor| emancipated minors]], particularly married or divorced individuals under the age of consent. Emancipated minors, including married or divorced teenagers, are legally adults. A 2003 U.S. Supreme Court case ([[Lawrence_v._Texas|Lawrence v. Texas]]) implies that adults have the right to sexual relations with other adults. Whether or not a 40 year old man having sex with an underaged divorced woman is legal is untested. Likewise, incest between emancipated minors and other adult family members is also legally untested.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Penalties (U.S.)== | |
| − | Penalties for child sexual abuse crimes vary from [[U.S. state|state to state]]. The specific [[crimes]] for which the child sex offender has been convicted determine the [[Sentence (law)|sentence]] the offender will serve.
| |
| − | Examples of criminal penalties include [[prison|imprisonment]], as well as post-release conditions, such as [[Probation officer#Supervision of parolees|parole supervision]] and [[Sex offender registry|registration]] as a sex offender. The trend has been towards progressively longer prison sentences, especially for long-term or repeat offenders.
| |
| − | | |
| − | The victim can also sue the offender in [[Civil law (common law)|civil court]] for the [[cause of action|injuries]] the victim suffered. A civil [[lawsuit]] can result in additional penalties for the offender, such as the payment of monetary [[damages]] to the victim.
| |
| − | | |
| − | Offenders may be subject to penalties outside the court system. The 2006 [[Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act]] (H.R.4472) authorizes the indefinite [[involuntary commitment]] of "sexually dangerous persons" whom the State determines are "dangerous to others because of a mental illness, abnormality, or disorder that creates a risk that the individual will engage in sexually violent conduct or child molestation." A "sexually dangerous person" is defined as a "a person who has engaged or attempted to engage in sexually violent conduct or child molestation and who is sexually dangerous to others."<ref>Jimmy Ryce Civil commitment program, [http://capitaldefenseweekly.com/library/soma.htm Children's Safety and Violent Crime Reduction Act of 2006,] H.R. 4472.</ref>
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Prohibited activities==
| |
| − | The activities identified as sexual abuses of a children vary between countries. In the United States, sexual activity of any kind is generally prohibited between an adult and a person under the age of consent.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Examples of prohibited activities:
| |
| − | | |
| − | * sexual contact between related adults and related children which is [[incest]]
| |
| − | * sexual intercourse (oral, anal or vaginal) with any person under the age of consent, which is between 14 and 18 years in the U.S., depending in which state the intercourse occurs.
| |
| − | * soliciting sexual activity from a child,
| |
| − | * contact with a child's genitals for the purpose of sexual gratification,
| |
| − | * inducing a child to touch his/her genitals or another's genitals for the purpose of sexual gratification,
| |
| − | * acting as a [[pimp]] for [[Prostitution of children|prostituted child]]
| |
| − | * inducing a child to behave sexually in a [[performance]], or to watch any kind of sexual behavior,
| |
| − | * inducing a child to appear in [[child pornography]],
| |
| − | * lewd acts with children, including [[disseminating pornography to a minor]].
| |
| − | | |
| − | Most state laws either provide exceptions for legitimate behavior, such as changing a diaper or giving a legitimate medical examination, or specifically require the activity to be sexually motivated.
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Offences in the UK==
| |
| − | | |
| − | Sexual offences involving children in the United Kingdom is prosecuted under a number different types of offence defined by a succession of [[Acts of Parliament]]. Examples in England and Wales include:
| |
| − | * Indecent assault on a male/female person (under 13/14/15/16), contrary to Section 15(1) of (and schedule 2 to) the [[Sexual Offences Act 1956]]
| |
| − | * (Gross) Indecency with a child, contrary to Section 1(1) of the [[Indecency with Children Act 1960]] (repealed by the 2003 Act)
| |
| − | * Taking Indecent photographs/pseudo-photgraphs of a child, contrary to Section 1(1)(a) and 6 of the [[Protection of Children Act 1978]]
| |
| − | * Sexual assault of a child under (13), contrary to Section 7(1) of [[Sexual Offences Act 2003]]
| |
| − | | |
| − | Examples for Scotland include:
| |
| − | | |
| − | *Incest, intercourse with girls under 16, intercourse of person in position of trust with child under 16, contrary to [[Criminal Law (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 1995]]
| |
| − | *Taking/distributing/possessing indecent photographs/pseudo-photographs of a child, contrary to sections 52 and 52A of [[Civic Government (Scotland) Act 1982]]
| |
| − | *Grooming, paying for sexual services of a child, contrary to [[Protection of Children and Prevention of Sexual Offences (Scotland) Act 2005]]
| |
| | | | |
| | ==References== | | ==References== |
| − | <references />
| + | * Aba, C. 1992. ''Sexual Assaults on Students.'' London: Harper and Row. |
| − | | + | * Dzeich, Billie Wright, and Linda Weiner. 1984. ''The Lecherous Professor: Sexual Harassment on Campus.'' University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252061189. |
| − | * Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect "American Academy of Pediatrics: Guidelines for the Evaluation of Sexual Abuse of Children: Subject Review" [http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/103/1/186 ''Pediatrics'' 103 (1) January 1999, pp. 186-191] | + | * Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff. 2003. ''The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory.'' Ballantine Books. ISBN 0345452798. |
| − | *Denov, Myriam, S. ''Perspectives on Female Sex Offending: A Culture of Denial'', Ashgate, 2004.
| + | * Perry, Bruce. 2007. ''The Boy Who Was Raised As a Dog''. Basic Books. ISBN 0465056520. |
| − | *Crawford, Colin, ''Forbidden Feminity: Child Sexual Abuse and Female Sexuality'', Ashgate, 1997.
| + | * Renvoizé, Jean. 1982. ''Incest: A Family Pattern.'' London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0710090730. |
| − | *Draucker, Claire. ''Counselling Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse''. SAGE Publications 1992 ISBN 0-8039-8571-1 | + | * Siegel, Daniel. 2001. ''Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are''. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1572307407. |
| − | * Herdt, Gilbert H. (ed.) "Fetish and fantasy in Sambia initiation". In ''Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea''. Pp. 44-98. Berkeley: University of California Press 1982. ISBN 0-520-04448-7
| + | * Sorenson, Susan B. 1997. ''Violence and Sexual Abuse at Home: Current Issues in Spousal Battering and Child Maltreatment''. New York: Haworth Press. ISBN 1-56024-681-2. |
| − | * Smith D., Pearce L., Pringle M., Caplan R., "Adults with a history of child sexual abuse: evaluation of a pilot therapy service" [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/310/6988/1175 ''BMJ'' 1995;310:1175-1178] | + | * Van Stone, Doris. 1992. ''No Place to Cry: The Hurt and Healing of Sexual Abuse.'' Moody Publishers. ISBN 978-0802422781. |
| − | * Kisiel, C. L. and Lyons, J. S., "Dissociation as a Mediator of Psychopathology Among Sexually Abused Children and Adolescents" [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/158/7/1034 ''Am. J. of Psychiatry'' 158:1034-1039, July 2001] | |
| − | * Underwager, Ralph and Wakefield, Hollida, "Antisexuality and Child Sexual Abuse" [http://www.ipt-forensics.com/journal/volume5/j5_2_2.htm ''IPT'' Volume 5 - 1993] | |
| − | *Rind, Bruce and Tromovitch, Philip and Bauserman, Robert "A Meta-Analytic Examination of Assumed Properties of Child Sexual Abuse Using College Samples" http://www.tegenwicht.org/13_rbt_eng/rbt/metaana.htm
| |
| − | * Eric Vern L. Bullough and Bonnie Bullough, "Problems of Research into Adult/Child Sexual Interaction" [http://www.ipt-forensics.com/journal/volume8/j8_2_1.htm ''IPT'' Volume 8 - 1996] | |
| − | * ''Pedophilia: Biosocial Dimensions'' (). Edited by Feierman JR. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1990
| |
| − | * Juliette D. G. Goldman and Usha, K. Padayachi, "Some Methodological Problems in Estimating Incidence and Prevalence in Child Sexual Abuse Research". ''Journal of Sex Research'', Nov, 2000 [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_4_37/ai_72272302/pg_2] | |
| − | * Fromuth, M.E. and Burkhart, B.R., "Childhood sexual victimization among college men: definitional and methodological issues". ''Violence and Victims'' 1987; 2:241-253 | |
| | | | |
| | ==External links== | | ==External links== |
| − | * [http://www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/psychology/female_offenders/6.html ''Female Sex Offenders'']
| + | All links retrieved January 26, 2023. |
| − | * [http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/pblct/sexoffender/female/toc_e.shtml ''CASE STUDIES OF FEMALE SEX OFFENDERS IN THE CORRECTIONAL SERVICE OF CANADA'']
| |
| − | * [http://www.sasian.org/papers/boysngirls.htm ''Sexual Abuse of Boys'']
| |
| − | * [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/nyt-11202005.html ''The Incest Loophole'']
| |
| − | *[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=904100 ''Child Sexual Abuse and the State'']
| |
| − | * [http://www.aacap.org/publications/factsfam/sexabuse.htm American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry on Child Sexual Abuse.]
| |
| − | * [http://www.childadvocate.net/child_sexual_abuse.htm Child Sexual Abuse: Evaluation and Outcomes - a review from the Penn State College of Medicine and the Child Advocate Network.]
| |
| − | * [http://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/statsinfo/nis3.cfm ''Executive Summary of the Third National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect'' (U.S. Dept of Health and Human Services)]
| |
| − | * [http://www.kalimunro.com/ Kali Munro, Therapist (See child sex abuse articles)]
| |
| − | * [http://www.fathermag.com/news/rape/longhill.shtml Women Who Rape]
| |
| − | * [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/sexual.htm Child Sexual Abuse: What It Is and How To Prevent It.]
| |
| − | * [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/sexual.htm The Role of Schools in Sexual Abuse Prevention and Intervention]
| |
| − | * [http://www.malesurvivor.org Male Survivor] - "Overcoming sexual victimization of boys and men"
| |
| − | * [http://www.nsopr.gov National Sex Offender Public Registry]
| |
| − | * [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/parade_071402.html The Difference Between "Sick" and "Evil"] by [[Andrew Vachss]], originally published in ''Parade'' magazine, July 2002.
| |
| − | * [http://www.ethicaltreatment.org Ethical Treatment For All Youth] Critically documents trends in the area of juvenile "sex offenders".
| |
| − | * [http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/L/levine_harmful.html Judith Levine: ''Harmful to Minors''] - a book critical of the assumption of harm in adult-child sexual encounters.
| |
| − | * [http://psychforums.com] discussion forum with information and support for victims
| |
| − | * [http://www.lfcc.on.ca/tipping.htm How Children Tell About Child Sexual Abuse] a study of the disclosure process of over 500 cases
| |
| − | * [http://www.charite.de/ch/swsm/doc-pdf/prevention-project.pdf]
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==Organizations==
| |
| − | * [http://www.icasa.org/links.asp?parentid=524 List of State Sexual Assault Coalitions]
| |
| − | * [http://www.theawarenesscenter.org/ The Awareness Center, Inc. (Jewish Coalition Against Sexual Abuse/Assault)]
| |
| − | * [http://www.childhelpusa.org/ ChildHelp US (National Child Abuse Hotline)]
| |
| − | * [http://www.malesurvivor.org/ MaleSurvivor: National organization against Male Sexual Victimization]
| |
| − | * [http://www.rainn.org/ RAINN (Rape, Abuse, Incest, National Network)]
| |
| − | * [http://www.snapnetwork.org/ SNAP (Survivors Network of those Abused by Priests)]
| |
| − | * [http://www.voices-action.org/ VOICES In Action VOICES In Action (Victims of Incest Can Emerge Survivors)]
| |
| − | * [[HAVOCA|HAVOCA - Help for Adult Victims Of Child Abuse]]
| |
| − | | |
| − | ==See also==
| |
| − | * [[:Category:Convicted child sex offenders|Convicted child sex offenders]]
| |
| − | * [[Age of majority]]
| |
| − | * [[Commercial sexual exploitation of children]]
| |
| − | * [[Roman Catholic sex abuse cases]]
| |
| − | * [[Jehovah's Witnesses and child sex abuse]]
| |
| − | * [[Incest]]
| |
| − | * [[Child sexuality]]
| |
| − | * [[Child grooming]]
| |
| − | * [[False allegation of child sexual abuse]]
| |
| − | * [[Pedophilia]]
| |
| − | * [[Pedophilia and child sexual abuse in fiction]]
| |
| − | * [[Pedophilia and child sexual abuse in films]]
| |
| − | * [[Pedophilia and child sexual abuse in the theatre]]
| |
| − | * [[NAMBLA]]
| |
| − | * [[Megan's Law]] and [[Megan Kanka]]
| |
| − | | |
| − | | |
| | | | |
| | + | * Andrew, R., [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=904100 ''Child Sexual Abuse and the State,''] ''UC Davis Law Review,'' vol. 39, 2006. |
| | + | * U.S. Dept. of Justice, [http://www.ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/portable_guides/csa_02/index.html ''Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Child Sexual Abuse,''] 2001. |
| | + | * Vachss, A., [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/nyt-11202005.html ''The Incest Loophole,''] ''New York Times,'' Nov. 20, 2005. |
| | + | |
| | | | |
| − | {{Credits|Sexual_abuse|126194387|Child_sexual_abuse|126713427|}} | + | {{Credits|Sexual_abuse|143028568|Child_sexual_abuse|142771809|}} |
Sexual abuse (also referred to as molestation) is defined by the forcing of undesired sexual acts by one person to another, or sexual activity with someone defined as improper, such as a child. Different types of sexual abuse involve non-consensual, forced physical sexual behavior, such as rape, sexual assault, or sexual harassment, psychological forms of abuse, such as verbal sexual behavior, or stalking, or the use of a position of trust for sexual purposes. When involving a child, and the perpetrator is a member of their own family, this constitutes incest.
Sexual behavior is related to the very purpose of human existence: Love, the production of new life, and the continuation of lineage. With such significant social ramifications, most societies set limits, through social norms and taboos, moral and religious guidelines, and legal constraints, to protect those who are not ready to participate in a sexual relationship. Sexual abuse violates the sanctity of the individual—physically, emotionally, and spiritually—threatening the core of the victim's being.
Types
Spousal sexual abuse
Spousal abuse is the term applied to the specific form of domestic violence, where physical or sexual abuse is perpetrated by one spouse upon another. Frequently, this involves forced sex (spousal rape) upon a spouse without their consent.
Sexual abuse of minors
Child sexual abuse is an umbrella term describing criminal and civil offenses in which an adult engages in sexual activity with a minor or exploits a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification.[1] This term includes a variety of sexual offenses, including rape, sexual molestation, or sexual exploitation. Rape occurs when an adult touches a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification; for example, rape, sodomy, and sexual penetration with an object.[2] Sexual molestation includes offenses in which an adult engages in non-penetrative activity with a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification; for example, exposing a minor to pornography or to the sexual acts of others.[3] Sexual exploitation involves an adult victimizing a minor for advancement, sexual gratification, or profit; for example, prostituting a child,[4] and creating or trafficking in child pornography.[5]
Legal aspects
In the majority of cultures and countries, sexual activity is legal and acceptable only if both parties give consent. The age of consent, that is, the age at which the law presumes a person has the physical, emotional, and sexual maturity to make an informed adult decision to enter into sexual activity, differs from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, from the low teen years in Italy and Spain to the mid to high teen years elsewhere, for example 16 in the United Kingdom, 17 in Ireland, 18 in India. (Some states also provide different ages of consent for homosexual boys as compared to heterosexual boys and girls.)
Yet, separately the law may specify a different age where a teenager ceases to be a child and becomes an adult. As a result, where a difference exists, it may be perfectly legal to have sex with a child where the individual, though still deemed a child in law, is above the age of consent specified in local legislation. In most cases, the age of consent and statutory rape laws aim at protecting children and teenagers from exploitation, particularly physical or psychological exploitation involving sexual behavior.
International law
One hundred forty nations are signatories to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. This international treaty defines a set of protections which signatories agree to provide for the children of their respective countries.[6]
Articles 34 and 35 require that signatories protect their nations’ children from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. This includes outlawing the coercion of a child to perform sexual activity, the prostitution of children, and the exploitation of children in creating pornography. Signatories also agree to prevent abduction, sale, or trafficking of children.[7]
Penalties for child sexual abuse
Penalties for child sexual abuse vary with the specific offenses for which the perpetrator has been convicted. Criminal penalties may include imprisonment, fines, registration as a sex offender, and restrictions on probation and parole. Civil penalties may include liability for damages, injunctions, involuntary commitment, and, for perpetrators related to their victims, loss of custody or parental rights.
In the late twentieth century, many state legislatures increased prison terms and other penalties for child sex offenders.[8] This trend toward more stringent sentences generally targets those perpetrators who are repeat offenders,[9] who victimize multiple children,[10] or who stood in a position of trust with respect to their victims, such as a guardian, parent, pastor, or teacher.[11]
Offenders
Offenders are more likely to be relatives or acquaintances of their victim than strangers.[12] The percentage of incidents of sexual abuse by female perpetrators that come to the attention of the legal system is usually reported as between 1 percent and 4 percent.[13] Studies of sexual misconduct in U.S. schools female sex offenders have showed mixed results with rates between 4 percent to 43 percent of female offenders.[14] In U.S. schools, educators who offend range in age from "21 to 75 years old, with an average age of 28" with teachers, coaches, substitute teachers, bus drivers, and teacher's aids (in that order) totaling 69 percent of the offenders.[15]
Typology
Typologies for child sex offenders have been used since the 1970s. Male offenders are typically classified by their motivation, which is usually assessed by reviewing their offense's characteristics. Phallometric tests may also be used to determine the abuser's level of pedophilic interest.[16] Groth et al. proposed a simple, dichotomous system in 1982, which classed offenders as either "regressed" or "fixated."[17] There are generally two types of offenders: Regressed and fixated.
Regressed offenders are primarily attracted to their own age group but are passively aroused by minors.
- The sexual attraction in minors is not manifested until adulthood.
- Their sexual conduct until adulthood is aligned with that of their own age group.
- Their interest in minors is either not cognitively realized until well into adulthood or it was recognized early on and simply suppressed due to social taboo.
Other scenarios may include:
- Not associating their attractions as pedosexual in nature due to cultural differences.
- Age of consent laws were raised in their jurisdiction but mainstream views toward sex with that age group remained the same, were acted upon, then they were charged with a crime.
- The person's passive interest in children is manifested temporarily upon the consumption of alcohol and acted upon while inhibitions were low.
Fixated offenders are most often adult pedophiles who are maladaptive to accepted social norms. The sexual acts are typically preconceived and are not alcohol or drug related. Maletzky (1993) found that, of his sample of 4,402 convicted pedophilic offenders, the vast majority were male with only 0.4 percent being female.[18]
Effects of sexual abuse
Developmental
Research has shown that traumatic stress, including stress caused by sexual abuse, causes notable changes in brain functioning and development.[19]
Various studies have suggested that severe child sexual abuse may have a deleterious effect on brain development. Ito et al. (1998) found "reversed hemispheric asymmetry and greater left hemisphere coherence in abused subjects;"[20] Anderson et al. (2002) recorded abnormal transverse relaxation time in the cerebellar vermis of adults sexually abused in childhood; Teicher et al. (1993) found that child sexual abuse was associated with a reduced corpus callosum area; various studies have found an association of reduced volume of the left hippocampus with child sexual abuse;[21] and Ito et al. (1993) found increased electrophysiological abnormalities in sexually abused children.
Navalta et al. (2006) found that the self-reported math Scholastic Aptitude Test scores of their sample of women with a history of repeated child sexual abuse were significantly lower than the self-reported math SAT scores of their non-abused sample. Because the abused subjects verbal SAT scores were high, they hypothesized that the low math SAT scores could "stem from a defect in hemispheric integration," which, they say, "could be a consequence of reduced corpus callosal area." They also found a strong association between short term memory impairments for all categories tested (verbal, visual, and global) and the duration of the abuse.[22] The authors hypothesized that the development of brain regions which myelinate over decades (such as the corpus callosum and hippocampus) may be disturbed by stress, because stress hormones such as cortisol suppress the final mitosis of granule cells and thereby the production of the oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells that form the myelin sheath.
Psychological
Sufferers of sexual abuse can experience a wide range of psychological trauma. Problems include depression, anxiety, guilt, fear, sexual dysfunction, withdrawal, and acting out. These effects can occur over a very short or long period of time following abuse. Most effects are made manifest within the first two years following abuse. Victims may display regressive behavior, such as thumb sucking or bed wetting. Abuse can also lead to self-destructive behavior such as alcoholism, drug abuse, anxiety attacks or insomnia. Many victims suffer from chronically low self-esteem and blame themselves for the attacks.[23]
Social
Victims of sexual abuse often do not interact well with others following abuse. Some victims may develop a fear or anxiety about the opposite sex, resulting in strained social interactions. Other victims can exhibit deviant sexual behavior or become hyper-sexualized. This hyper-sexualization may result in promiscuity in some and prostitution in others. Victims of abuse often have intimacy issues and cannot trust other people. Past victims may have difficulty parenting and may abuse their own children.[24]
Reporting sexual abuse
Understanding the pervasiveness of sexual abuse in society is difficult for two reasons: Victims often do not feel comfortable reporting their abuse and abuse often occurs at such an early age that victims cannot accurately remember it.[25] False reports of abuse can be disruptive to all involved from the supposed victim to the alleged attacker whose reputation is then sullied.
The nature of sexual abuse leads many to become overly afraid and suspicious about the possibility, resulting in scares such as the "Daycare Sexual Abuse" hysteria in the 1980s and 1990s, in which daycare workers were accused of ritual sexual abuse of children in America, Canada, and New Zealand. During the scare, concerned police officers used questionable interrogation tactics on children to elicit tales of abuse by their parents and caregivers, many of which were later found to be untrue.[26]
Victims fear reporting their abuse for a number of reasons. First, they are often abused by a close contact and may have mixed feelings about the person. The victims may feel loyalty and even love for their attacker. Often the abuser is seen as an authority figure who tells their victim not to discuss their "secret" with other adults. When the abuser is a member of the victims family, or a trusted adult such as a caregiver, teacher, or priest, it is especially difficult for a child to go against their abuser's direction. These intimate relationships also lead to tensions within families or social circles as the victims often have to see their attackers on a regular or daily basis. Victims fear their social lives may be torn apart by leveling allegations against another person. Second, victims may fear retribution either from their attacker or society in general. This would especially be a problem in situations where the attacker is a family member or close associate with whom the victim has regular contact. Retribution may take the form of physical violence, ostracism, or other forms of psychological attack.
Notes
- ↑ The Sexual Exploitation of Children, University of Pennsylvania Center for Youth Policy Studies, U.S. National Institute of Justice, August 2001.
- ↑ Child Abuse Reported to the Police, Juvenile Justice Bulletin, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, May 2001.
- ↑ Criminal Investigation of Child Sexual Abuse, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, March 2001.
- ↑ Prostitution of Juveniles, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, June 2004.
- ↑ Child Sexual Exploitation: Improving Investigations and Protecting Victims, Massachusetts Child Exploitation Network, U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, January 1995.
- ↑ www.ohchr.org, Signatories to the United Nations on the Convention of the Rights of the Child. Retrieved September 22, 2007.
- ↑ www.unhchr.ch, United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child.
- ↑ Ruby Andrew, Child Sexual Abuse and the State, UC Davis Law Review, vol. 39, 2006.
- ↑ People v. Murphy, 19 P.3d 1129 (2001).
- ↑ People v. Hammer, 69 P.3d 436 (2003).
- ↑ Washington v. Grewe, 813 P.2d 1238 (1991).
- ↑ D.M. Fergusson, M.T. Lynskey, and L.J. Horwood, "Childhood sexual abuse and psychiatric disorder in young adulthood: Prevalence of sexual abuse and factors associated with sexual abuse," Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35(10): 1355-64.
- ↑ M.S. Denov, "The myth of innocence: sexual scripts and the recognition of child sexual abuse by female perpetrators," The Journal of Sex Research 40, 3 (2003): 303-314.
- ↑ C. Shakeshaft, Educator Sexual Misconduct: A Synthesis of the Literature (U.S. Department of Education, 2004), p. 25.
- ↑ Ibid.
- ↑ Karen J. Terry and Jennifer Tallon, Child Sexual Abuse: A Review of the Literature. Retrieved September 22, 2007.
- ↑ A.N. Groth, W.F. Hobson, and T.S. Gary, The child molester: Clinical observations, Journal of Social Work and Child Sexual Abuse 1(1/2), 129-144.
- ↑ B.M. Maletzky, "Factors associated with success and failure in the behavioral and cognitive treatment of sexual offenders," Annals of Sex Research 6: 241-258.
- ↑ Daniel Siegel, Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are (Guilford Press, 2001, ISBN 978-1572307407).
- ↑ Y. Ito, et al., Preliminary evidence for aberrant cortical development in abused children: a quantitative EEG study, The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 10: 298–307. Retrieved September 22, 2007.
- ↑ Martin H. Teicher, Scars That Won't Heal: The Neurobiology of Child Abuse, Scientific American magazine, 2003.
- ↑ Carryl P. Navalta, et al., "Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse on Neuropsychological and Cognitive Function in College Women," The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 18: 45-53.
- ↑ APA Online, What are the Effects of Sexual Abuse? Retrieved September 15, 2007.
- ↑ Coolnurse, The Effects of Child Sexual Abuse On an Adult Survivor. Retrieved September 15, 2007.
- ↑ Psychiatric News, False Sex Abuse Accusations Leads to Revision of Theories. Retrieved September 15, 2007.
- ↑ Frontline, Innocence Lost the Plea. Retrieved September 16, 2007.
References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Aba, C. 1992. Sexual Assaults on Students. London: Harper and Row.
- Dzeich, Billie Wright, and Linda Weiner. 1984. The Lecherous Professor: Sexual Harassment on Campus. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252061189.
- Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff. 2003. The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0345452798.
- Perry, Bruce. 2007. The Boy Who Was Raised As a Dog. Basic Books. ISBN 0465056520.
- Renvoizé, Jean. 1982. Incest: A Family Pattern. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 0710090730.
- Siegel, Daniel. 2001. Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1572307407.
- Sorenson, Susan B. 1997. Violence and Sexual Abuse at Home: Current Issues in Spousal Battering and Child Maltreatment. New York: Haworth Press. ISBN 1-56024-681-2.
- Van Stone, Doris. 1992. No Place to Cry: The Hurt and Healing of Sexual Abuse. Moody Publishers. ISBN 978-0802422781.
External links
All links retrieved January 26, 2023.
- Andrew, R., Child Sexual Abuse and the State, UC Davis Law Review, vol. 39, 2006.
- U.S. Dept. of Justice, Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Child Sexual Abuse, 2001.
- Vachss, A., The Incest Loophole, New York Times, Nov. 20, 2005.
Credits
New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article
in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:
The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:
Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.
