Scripture

Scriptures (from the Latin scriptura, meaning "a writing") are sacred texts used by religious communities to invoke a deeper connection with the divine, to foster communal identity, and to guide spiritual practice. Many religions and spiritual movements believe that their scriptures are wholly divine or inspired in origin. Monotheistic religions often view their sacred texts as the "Word of God" or divine revelation. In the English language, the term scripture is used to describe any religion's sacred text, such as Hindu scriptures, Jewish scriptures, etc. However, when capitalized in English literature, the word "Scripture" generally refers to the sacred texts of the Bible, also referred to as Holy Scripture. However, the Latin term did not originally denote a writing of religious or spiritual significance, as the oldest sources attest.

History

Oral traditions, mythology, folklore, sacred stories handed down from generations eventually written down. corpus memorization, Historical evidence suggests the Rigveda of Hinduism was composed between roughly 1500–1300 B.C.E., making it one of the world's oldest religious text. The oldest portions of the Zoroastrian Avesta are believed to have been transmitted orally for centuries before they found written form, and although widely differing dates for Gathic Avestan (the language of the oldest texts) have been proposed, scholarly consensus floats at around 1000 B.C.E. (roughly contemporary to the Brahmana period of Vedic Sanskrit). The first printed scripture for wide distribution to the masses was The Diamond Sutra, a Buddhist scripture, printed in the year 868 c.e..

Types of Scripture

Scripture is not a literary genre - indeed, it encompasses almost all varieties of literature. At different times and in different traditions, prose, poetry, histories and instructional manuals were all considered scripture. Thus coming to a definition of scripture that is clear, concise, and accurate is an impossible task. It is crucial to recognize that oral traditions, such as those that exist or have existed in Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and the traditions of the indigenous North and South Americans, among many others, ought to be recognized as a form of scripture, though the usage of the word here is counter-intuitive. Though these oral traditions may have not been recorded until relatively late in their respective histories (if at all), they serve the same role as written scripture. Ultimately, it is left to the members of a religion to decide what is considered scripture within their own tradition.

The source of a scripture or collection of scriptures is of great importance to adherents of a particular tradition - often a great of authority is attached to certain persons. In Judaism and Islam we find scriptures attributed to prophets: Moses as the transmitter of the Torah and Muhammad as the transmitter of the Qur'an. Christian tradition attributes the canonical gospels to disciples of Jesus. The Book of Mormon used in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is believed to have been translated by Joseph Smith, Jr. In Hinduism the Vedas are thought to have been recorded by rishis. Though all these traditions accept that these texts were recorded by human hands in writing, all (to varying degrees) believe that these works are in some way "heavenly books". This assertion has different meanings in different traditions. The Qur'an is believed to be of complete divine origin, recited by Muhammad after having it revealed to him by the angel Gabriel. The Vedas of Hinduism are not thought to have been composed by the rishis, but rather seen. In many traditions the influence of a deity is central to establishing the power and authenticity of a text to the religion. Notable exceptions include the Buddhist religion and the traditions of China, which ascribe authority to their texts through other means. The Buddhist tradition sees the power of their scripture in its insight into the nature of reality. Important works in Confucianism and Daoism are not ascribed a heavenly status, but rather their links to a "golden age" in the past are stressed.

Scripture in the Western Religions

The Western religions have, in general, been "religions of the book". Scripture plays the central role in the Abrahamic faiths of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Other religions from that region, like Manichaeism and Druze, are not different. Until the modern age the word "scripture", when used in Christian Europe, most often implied the Bible. In the 18th century C.E., however, a growing knowledge of the world led to a wider understanding of the word scripture in the Western world. This, in turn, led to a growing understanding and incorporation of the idea of "scripture" in cultures that did not place as strong an emphasis on recorded tradition - especially written tradition.

The primacy of the written word in Western traditions can be linked to the idea of authority. Authority in scriptures is derived from the importance of the source and the unity of themes and authorship. In the Abrahamic religions the ultimate author of scripture is believed to be God, who uses human prophets to record law, teachings, and histories. The authors are also deemed important. Jewish tradition suggests that the Hebrew Torah was recorded by Moses, while Islamic tradition asserts that Muhammad is the transmitter of the Qur'an. Unity of authorship is thought to be an indicator of unity of message.

Though bibliolatry may affect any religious tradition, it is frequently a charge leveled against Western religions. Bibliolatry is the elevation of a scripture, in the minds of adherents, to a level of worship. This elevation is most often an unconscious act and not supported by orthodox teachers. The accusation of bibliolatry is not always a fair one; though there are strict codes of conduct in handling Torah scrolls or copies of the Qur'an, it is not accurate to assert that any people following these codes actually worship the text.

Scripture in the Eastern Religions

Within in Indian traditions scripture is seen in Sūtra traditions. Sutra (सूत्र) (Sanskrit) or Sutta (Pāli) literally means a rope or thread that holds things together, and more metaphorically refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual. It is derived from the verbal root siv-, meaning to sew. In Hinduism the 'sutras' form a school of Vedic study, related to and somewhat later than the Upanishads. They served and continue to act as grand treatises on various schools of Hindu Philosophy. They elaborate in succinct, sometimes esoteric, verse Hindu views of metaphysics, cosmogony, the human condition, moksha (liberation), and how to maintain a blissful, dharmic life, in a cosmic spin of karma, reincarnation and desire.

In Buddhism, the term "sutra" refers generally to canonical scirptures that are regarded as records of the oral teachings of Gautama Buddha. These teachings are assembled in the second part of the Tripitaka which is called Sutra Pitaka. There are also some Buddhist texts, such as the Platform Sutra, that are called sutras despite being attributed to much later authors. The Pali form of the word, sutta is used exclusively to refer to Buddhist scriptures, particularly those of the Pali Canon.

Though the sutra tradition is brought to China, Japan, and other parts of Asia through Buddhism, indigenous traditions of these regions (Confucianism, Daoism, and Shinto) have their own scripture traditions. There is a great deal of focus on historical classics, such as the Spring and Autumn Annals in Confucianism or the Kojiki in Shinto.

Uses of Scripture

Like the content and style of the world's religious texts, the role of scripture in the spiritual life of the clergy, lay, and community varies between traditions. In general, the use of scripture is similar in certain regions of the world. The Abrahamic faiths and the traditions that follow them use their holy books in a certain manner, just as the religions of India share in common a teaching and learning tradition. No religions, however, view the use of their scriptures in exactly the same way. There are three major manners in which scripture are used in a religious setting: for communal worship and ritual, for personal, mystical, or devotional study, and for bibliomancy (using scripture for magical purposes).

Community Use

In times before literacy was widespread the average lay adherent of any religion would likely only know their own scriptures through communal worship and ritual, in which a literate member of the clergy would read passages from the communities holy books. Indeed, it is only in the modern age that silently reading one's own scriptures has become a widespread paradigm. Thus those able to read and explain the scriptures were held in high esteem - those who could recite them from memory even more so. Religious instruction in the ancient Brahmin caste of India included a set of mnemonic tools that helped students to memorize the ritual formulae found in the Vedas, which were written down relatively late in Hindu history. Similar (but unrelated) systems were used in the recording of the Qur'an. The Hebrew Bible, recorded in the ancient Hebrew language, is in its original rendering written in such a way that it is recited with a pleasing rhythm.

Scripture can also serve as law for a community. If understood as a holy book, scripture can be readily used as the last word on any matter, especially matters of ethics, class, and family. The Qur'an and the hadith traditions of Islam are outstanding examples of scripture used as law, as is the Torah of Judaism (a word which is translated by some as "law") which can encompass the first five books of the Hebrew Bible or all of Hebrew written and oral tradition. In both the Qur'an and the Torah we find rules for the proper conduct of the pious, including (but not limited to) the treatment of spouses, children, the poor and enemies. The Vinaya writing of Buddhism also fulfills a similar role, serving as rules for those who are practicing within a monastic community.

Individual Use

Though limited literacy and primitive copying methods prevented the widespread dissemination of religious texts for many centuries, scripture has always had a personal aspect - at least, for those with access to it. In modern times, with the promotion of literacy and the advent of printing (and telecommunications) many individuals are able to experience the scriptures from their own traditions first hand. Following the greater access allowed to scriptures most traditions now place a great emphasis on devotional reading of religious texts.

An individual relationship with the Qur'an has always been a focal point for practicing Muslims. A hafiz ("memorizer" or "protector") is one who has commited the entire Qur'an to memory. Though this skill is of great use within a communal setting, it cannot be acheived without a great personal commitment. It is also seen by the community as a great act of personal piety. In the West a substantial market has grown around the Evangelical Christian trend in devotional literature. However, personal study of the Bible is not a new phenomenon: quintessential icons of Christian theology such as St. Augustine, Origen of Alexandria and St. Thomas Aquinas (amongst many others) were all well versed in Biblical literature.

Bibliomancy

The use of scripture for magical ends is widespread amongst the world's religions, though often times not sanctioned by governing bodies or the clergy. Most often books of scripture are pored over for secret information encoded in a myriad of different ways, likely unrelated to the text that appears in plain sight. Those searching for this message are confident of the divine nature of the book, even the information that appears for everyone to see; however, they also believe that in the divine creation of scripture secrets are planted in the text for the devout to discover. This is found in the Jewish Kabbalah tradition, which attempts to reveal mystical messages hidden in the Hebrew Bible.

In recent times there has been a surge of bibliomancy in Christian and Muslim circles, each with their own re-examination of scriptures. Most notable is the "Bible Code" phenomenon, in which passages from the Hebrew Bible are arranged in a pre-determined way (often a specific number of characters per line, without spaces) and checked for key words, found by counting letters at certain intervals. Both the number of characters per line and the intervals at which letters are counted are manipulated, often requiring a computer to handle the multitude of calculations. Most often the Bible Code is used for predicting future events. Bibliomancy does not always fall outside of the proscribed use of a text, however - the Daoist classic the Yi Jing (易經) is, at least on the surface, expressly used for divination.

Scripture as Literature and Language

Attitudes to sacred texts differ between religious traditions, and can change over time within a faith group. Some religions make written texts widely available, while others hold that sacred secrets must remain hidden from all but the loyal and the initiate. For instance, in the formative years of Christianity, the Gospels were available only to those who had been baptized and unavailable to the uninitiated. However, in modern Christianity the Gospels are central in proselytizing and conversion, often before baptism. Some religions make texts available gratis or in subsidised form; others require payment and the strict observance of copyright, such as the New Relgious Movement Scientology. References to scriptures profit from standardisation: the Guru Granth Sahib of Sikhism always appears with standardised page numbering while the Abrahamic religions and their offshoots favour chapter and verse pointers.

Most religions promulgate policies defining the limits of the sacred texts and controlling or forbidding changes and additions. Translations of texts may receive official blessing in order to further disseminate doctrine. Buddhism is a prime example of a tradition that encouraged translation - as Buddhism spread texts were translated from Pali and Sanskrit to Tibetan, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, and Vietnamese, among other languages. Many texts exist now only in translation. The need to translate was often a motivating factor in the development of written language - the Tibetan and Thai writing systems were in part developed to record Buddhist works in those languages. However, translation is not always encouraged - an original sacred language often has de facto, absolute or exclusive paramouncy. The Qur'an of Islam is a text that, though translated, is thought to be only truly inspired by God when read in its original Classical Arabic. The Vedas of Hindusim are also strongly connected to their original language (Sanskrit), due to both the importance of sound in Indian spiritual thought, and to the Vedas long preservation only in oral tradition. At times translations can be believed to be just as important and inspired as the original text, as in the case of the Septuagint, a translation of the Hebrew Bible into Koine Greek, revered by Hellenized Jews around the first century B.C.E. Policy regarding translation has an appreciable impact on the growth of a tradition, especially in early stages. Critical points in Protestant Christian history were the translations of the Bible by John Wycliffe and Martin Luther into their respective vernacular languages.

The grammar, vocabulary and style of scripture often becomes the standard against which later language is judged. This is especially true of the Qur'an, which is considered by the Muslim world as the finest use of Arabic, though modern colloquial Arabic is somewhat removed from the language of the Qur'an (as is expected - any language that endures is likely to evolve). In imperial China the Classics (jing 經) were looked upon by educated Confucians as perfected writings, with style to which they would aspire to emulate. Even the King James Bible, itself a translation, is widely revered by many modern English speaking Christians.

Organization and Study of Scripture

Scriptures need not necessarily be unified works of literature, like the Qur'an or the Book of Mormon. At times they are collections of material, such as the Hebrew Bible and the Christian New Testament. These collections are known as canons, and implied in this term is the idea that scriptures in a canon are equally inspired and important. The process of forming a canon is not one that occurs immediately following the writing of texts. The formation of the Christian New Testament is a good example of how canons form. A variety of documents were written in the centuries following Jesus' ministry. Narratives, letters, apocalyptic writing and ritual manuals were used in the growing churches throughout the Mediterranean area. It was not until the beginning of the fifth century that the New Testament was a "fixed" canon - and some works, like the letters of Clement of Rome and the Didache were excluded.

Hierographology (Greek ιερος, hieros, "sacred" or "holy", + γραφος, graphos, "writing", + λογος, logos, "word" or "reason") is the study of sacred texts. Increasingly, sacred texts of many cultures are studied within academic contexts, primarily to increase understanding of other cultures, whether ancient or contemporary. Sometimes this involves the extension of the principles of higher criticism to the texts of many faiths. It may also involve a comparative study of religious texts. The hierographology of the Qur'an can be particularly controversial, especially when questioning the accuracy of Islamic traditions about the text. Scholarship is not limited to academia, however; the study of texts is critical for spiritual learning as well. Exegesis (interpretation of a text, especially within its original context) is crucial for adherents of a religion to better understand their scriptures, which they often believe are essential as the word of God.

Scriptures in the World's Religions

The following list provides a sample of some key scriptures from the various world religions:

Judaism

The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh is comprised of three major sections: the Torah (law), the Nevi'im (prophets), and the Ketuvim (writings). The Hebrew Bible is thought to have been established at the Council of Jamnia following the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., though some dispute that this council ever occured. The Tanakh is an example of a canon of scripture written at different times by different authors in different locations. However, they are thought to be equally inspired by God, and thus have unity in spirit and consistency. Within Judaism there is also a strong oral tradition, preserved in the Talmud. There is disagreement within the Jewish community as to the importance of the Talmud. Orthodox and Conservative Judaism put it on par with the written Torah, though only Orthodox practitioners suggest it was delivered by Moses. More liberal groups, such as Reform Judaism, recognize the work but do not ascribe as high a status to it. The Talmud is made up of the Mishna, the recorded oral law, and the Gemara, commentaries on the Mishna. Another work sometimes recognized as scripture in Judaism is the Zohar, a collection of mystical writings used in Kabbalah.

Christianity

The central scripture to Christianity is the Bible, made up of the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) and the New Testament. The Old Testament is the same as the Jewish Tanakh, used and recognized as scripture by early Christians in the formative period of Christianity. The New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, comprised of narratives, letters and apocalyptic writing. Between Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the canon, primarily in the Apochrypha, a list of works that, though not considered fully scriptural in any major Christian denomination, are regarded with varying levels of respect. The approach to the Bible in its entirety is also varied amongst Christian groups - while the Catholic, Orthodox, and many Protestant groups stress the harmony and importance of scripture and tradition, some Protestant churches focus on the idea of sola scriptura, or scripture alone. This concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and though some Protestant groups have loosened their approach to tradition others, especially Evangelical groups, continue to support the use of scripture as the only source of teaching. Within the Eastern Orthodox church there is also a strong emphasis on icons, a standardized set of images which, though not revered as scripture, serve a similar didactic purpose.

Islam

The central text of Islam is the Qur'an - it is the authority on religious life for every Muslim. The Qur'an was recorded in written form in the middle of the 7th century C.E. by Muslim scholars following Muhammad's death. Though Muhammad did not record any of the material that would make up the Qur'an himself (he is generally thought to have been illiterate), all text that makes up the Qur'an is believed to have been disseminated by him before his death. Islamic tradition holds that the Qur'an exists and has existed in its same form in heaven before its revelation to humanity by the angel Gabriel through Muhammad. There is a great deal of importance attached to the integrity of the Qur'an, especially the degree to which the original text has been preserved over the centuries. Other important works in Islam are the ahadith, which record the words and actions of the prophet Muhammad. Though these works are important in Islam, they are not considered divine in the same manner as the Qur'an. Muslims also recognize works in the Hebrew Bible and about the life of Jesus as somewhat scriptural, but corrupted by humanity over time, and not maintaining the purity of the Qur'an.

Hinduism

Hinduism is a broad and vast religion, both in beliefs and time. Speaking of "Hinduism" is difficult, as the term itself encompasses a vast variety of beliefs and history - a discussion of Hindu scripture is equally as difficult. Thus there is a great deal of material, both oral and written, that is considered scriptural in the Hindu traditions. The Vedas are certainly works that nearly every Hindu would regard as scriptural. These were recorded in Vedic Sanskrit, filled with stories of creation and the acts of the devas. These works, along with their immediate successors, are shruti, or "heard wisdom". Following the Vedas are the Vedantic ("end of the Vedas") works, which reflect the trends in philosophy and discourse on spiritual matters of their time (recording began around the eighth century C.E.). Of these works, the Upanishads are of great importance and philsophical depth. However, a growing increase in the needs for Hindus to experience spirituality through less esoteric means found expression in smriti ("remembered wisdom"), often works that emphasized devotion to a deity. Of these works the Mahabharata and the Ramayana are best known. Other texts in Hinduism discuss mythology, health, yoga, tantras, philosophy and practices for human interaction.

Buddhism

There is no set of scripture that is universal throughout all of Buddhism. Most traditions have a tripitaka (Pali tipitaka), a Sanskrit word meaning "three baskets". These baskets refer to the three categories of scripture found in most Buddhist organizaitons: the vinaya pitaka (displine and rules for monks and nuns), the sutra pitaka (sermons and teachings by and about the Buddha), and the abhidharma pitaka (a structured presentation of Buddhist teachings). The first tripitaka was the Pali Canon, recorded for the first time in the 1st century B.C.E. from oral tradition. This set of teachings makes up the set of scriptures used by Theravada Buddhists. As new schools of Buddhism formed new texts were written and new canons were prepared. The Mahayana Buddhist tradition produced sets of works thought (by Mahayana Buddhists) to be superior to the Pali Canon, but still a product of the Buddha. These included the Prajnaparamita sutras and the Yogacara sutras. Some of these texts were believed to have been created by the Buddha, but preserved by mystical beings known as nagas and revealed only at the appropriate time. In China and Tibet even further canons were created, incorporating new ideas through the inclusion of new texts. In the Tibetan Nyingmaj tradition special texts called terma are believed to be occulted and revealed in a manner similar to some Mahayana works.

Confucianism

The Confucian tradition does not have scripture in the sense that other religions do - that is, Confucians did not see their books as necessarily heavenly or divine. They did, however, still ascribe great value to them. The works in the Confucian tradition analagous to scripture are best described as "classics". There is debate whether they can be described as scripture, just as there is debate as to whether Confucianism itself can be described as a religion. The important books of Confucianism are divided into the Five Classics and the Four Books. The Five Classics are not specifically Confucian, but do relate strongly to Confucian teachings and values. The Five Classics are the Classic of History, the Classic of Poetry, the Classic of Rites, the Spring and Autumn Annals and the Yi Jing, the last also being an important text in Daoism and folk traditions. The Yi Jing, Classic of Poetry and the Classic of History were recorded (in some form) before Confucius' work, though he is thought to have written the Spring and Autumn Annals and edited other volumes. The Classic of Rites was compiled by subsequent Confucians. The Four Books of Confucianism are the Analects (sayings of Confucius), the Mengzi (writings by a disciple of Confucius), the Doctrine of the Mean and the Great Learning - the latter two are part of the Classic of Rites.

Daoism

The text that is the focal point of Daoism - especially philosophical Daoism - is the Dao de Jing. Though attributed to Laozi, there is no consensus on the matter. It is often dated to around 600 B.C.E. and expounds on themes of nature, ruling, and knowledge, among others. In a similar vein is the subsequent work the Zhuangzi, written by an author of the same name. Written approximately 200 years after the Dao de Jing, the Zhuangzi addressed similar themes - these themes became paramount in the thought of philosophical Daoists. The Classic the Yi Jing would become central in Daoist practice as well, though not specifically a Daoist work. Along with the developments in Daoism new texts were written and popularized. The alchemist Ge Hong wrote the important work the Baopuzi ("Sage Who Embraces Simplicity"), and as alchemy grew in importance in Daoist thought, alchemical works grew in popularity as well. Daoist works, since the fifth century B.C.E., have been arranged and rearranged in a canon known as the daozang, which includes a great variety of Daoist works on a myriad of topics.

Sikhism

The most important work in the Sikh religion is the Guru Granth Sahib, set to paper by the gurus of Sikhism. The Granth is written in Punjabi, Sanskrit and Persian in a script (Gurmukhi) standardized to record the words of the Sikh gurus. The first instance of this work was called the Adi Granth (a name by which the Guru Granth Sahib is sometimes known today) and compiled in its final form in 1604 by the fifth Guru Arjan. Subsequently the Adi Granth was expanded by following Sikh gurus, eventually becoming the Guru Granth Sahib as it is known today. The last of the Sikh gurus (Guru Gobind Singh) declared that the Granth would serve as guru for the Sikh tradition - a unique role for scripture in the world's religions. Also unique is the reference system used: while many traditions (especially those of the West) use a chapter and verse system, the Guru Granth Sahib's composition is standardized in such a way that every instance of the book has the same number of pages (1430) and the same text on every page. Thus, when searching for a particular page in the Granth, the universal reference is a page number, rather than a chapter or verse citation. In addition to the Guru Granth Sahib, Sikhs hold the Dasam Granth in high esteem. This work records the teachings of Guru Gobind Singh, who, by tradition, was not able to add to the Guru Granth Sahib itself.

Manichaeism

Manichaeism, like Islam, has a single primary author. In this case, it is the Persian religious adept Mani who recorded the scriptures of Manichaeism. Most of the primary material of Manichaeism is now lost, and much information concerning the religion is preserved only in sources hostile to the practices and beliefs of Manichees. As well, many of these preserved texts are translations of the originals. In the 20th century, however, several original writings were found in China and Egypt, in languages such as Coptic, Persian, Turkish and Chinese. Though Mani usually wrote in Syriac or Eastern Aramaic, these works were critical in granting a better, unbiased insight into the thought of Mani and the concepts found in Manichaeism. The discovery of these works was also a testament to the vigourous missionary work of this now bygone religious tradition. Manichaeism is unique in the world's religions for the inclusion of paintings as scripture (though these were not canonical). Another interesting but non-canonical scripture of Manichaeism was the Shabuhragan, written in Persian, discusses spiritual ideas like the cosmos and the end of time, and was dedicated to Mani's patron king Shapur I.

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, as a Christian denomination, recognizes the Bible as scripture. However, Joseph Smith Jr., in establishing the church, added works either through translation (the Book of Mormon) or writing himself (Doctrine and Covenants). The Book of Mormon was reported as a translation performed by Josepht Smith, Jr. and published in 1830. The work itself was written in a book of bound gold plates, recorded by Mormon and his son Moroni. The plates were presented to Joseph Smith, Jr. by the angel Moroni, who also provided the means to translate them. This translation is the Book of Mormon used in the Church today. Other important works in the Latter-day Saint community are the Pearl of Great Price, a text that contains Smith's translation of the Gospel of Matthew and a part of Genesis (called the "Book of Moses"), as well as the "Book of Abraham", from Egyptian papyri. Also included are a history of the church by Smith, and the Articles of Faith, which constitutes a creed. Finally, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints recognizes a book entitled "Doctrine and Covenants", a book of church governance and revelation. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has an open canon, meaning new revelations may become scriptural.

Future of Scripture

Technologies such as the Internet, television, and computers have changed the way and frequency with which information is shared - religions, and ultimately scriptures, are no different. Most of the world's religious texts and classics have been stored electronically on the Internet, and are available to be read and searched in many languages. Many scriptures from around the world - such as the Bible and the Ramayana, among many others - have been played out on television. The future of scripture is accessability: virtually anyone anywhere can access any of the world's scriptures in translation or the original language, as well as a wealth of commentaries on the world's religions.

External Links

• Chinese repository of Buddhist Sutras translated into English. Also has other texts.
• Mahayana Buddhist Sutras in English
• Sacred-texts.com
• Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (log in with userID "guest")
• A Modern Sutra
• Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon
• Pali Suttas at Access to Insight
• Ida B. Wells Memorial Sutra Lirary (Pali Suttas)
• The Canon of Scripture – a Catholic perspective
• Table of Old Testament Books - includes Latin, English, Hebrew and abbreviated names (from Tel Aviv University).
• Articles on Various Books from Biblical Resource Database
• Judaica Press Translation - Online Jewish translation of the books of the Bible. The Tanakh and Rashi's entire commentary.
• Books of the Bible King James(KJV) and Revised Standard Version(RSV) searchable Bibles
• Slavonic Bible
• Books of the Apocrypha (from UMC)
• Armenian Bible (an essay, with full official canon at the end)
• Ethiopian Orthodox "narrow canon" (from UMC)
• Eternal Pages Readable, searchable Bible in multiple languages and versions.
• Add Bible to your life! Online Bible search and resources. Includes several versions, translations and languages.
• Internet Sacred Texts Archive Extensive online resource for a wide variety of world religions, folklore, and traditional beliefs.
• Ocean Downloadable and searchable database of world religious texts. Extensive Bahá'í, Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Islamic & Jewish libraries in seven European languages.
• avesta.org: Translations of the Avesta texts

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Cook, Michael. The Koran: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-285344-9
• Graham, William A. "Scripture" in The Encyclopedia of Religion, pg. 133-145, edited by Mircea Eliade. MacMillan, 1987. ISBN 0028971353
• McGrath, Alister E. Historical Theology. Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 1998. ISBN 0-631-20844-5
• Monier-Williams, Monier. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass, 1899

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