Difference between revisions of "Hedonism" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Hedonism''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: hēdonē (ᾑδονή from [[Ancient Greek]]) "pleasure" + [[–ism]]) describes any way of thinking that gives [[pleasure]] a central role.  Hedonism can be generally summed up as "pleasure is the highest good" or — in an ethical formulation — "whatever causes pleasure is right." Furthermore, Hedonism can be defined as the doctrine holding that behavior is motivated by the desire for pleasure and the avoidance of [[pain]].
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'''Hedonism''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: hēdonē (ᾑδονή from [[Ancient Greek]]) "pleasure" +–ism) describes any way of thinking that gives [[pleasure]] a central role.  Hedonism can be generally summed up as "pleasure is the highest good" or in an ethical formulation, "whatever causes pleasure is right." Hedonism can also  be defined as the doctrine holding that behavior is motivated by the desire for pleasure and the avoidance of [[pain]].
  
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The hedonistic view focuses on increasing ''pleasure'' and reducing ''pain''. Note that while the terms were originally employed literally, this is no longer the case. There seems to be no common ground on what actually constitutes pleasurable or painful activities. The hedonistic [[philosophy]] usually has a [[human sexuality|sexual]] or [[Libido|libidinal]] connotation.
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The three basic types of philosophical hedonism are psychological hedonism, which holds that the tendency to seek pleasure and avoid pain is an essential attribute of human nature; evaluative or ethical hedonism, which sets up certain ethical or moral ends as desirable because attaining them will result in happiness; and reflective, or normative hedonism, which seeks to define value in terms of pleasure. The ancient Greek philosophers Democritus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus (341 – 270 B.C.E.) and their followers developed ethical theories centered on the “good life” (the ideal life, the life most worth living, eudaimonia, happiness) and the role of pleasure of achieving it.   During the Middle Ages, hedonism was rejected as incompatible with Christian ideals, but Renaissance philosophers revived it on the grounds that God intended man to be happy. Nineteenth-century British philosophers [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]] established fundamental principles of hedonism through their ethical theory of [[Utilitarianism]], declaring that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.
  
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==Concepts of Hedonism==
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There are many philosophical forms of hedonism, but they can be distinguished into three basic types: psychological hedonism; evaluative, or ethical hedonism; and reflective, or rationalizing hedonism.  Psychological hedonism holds that it is an essential aspect of human nature to seek pleasure and avoid pain; human beings cannot act in any other way.  A human being will always act in a way that, to his understanding, will produce what he perceives as the greatest pleasure, or protect him from undesirable pain.  Psychological hedonism is either based on observation of human behavior, or necessitated by a definition of “desire.”  Psychological hedonism is often a form of egoism, preoccupied with pleasure of the individual subject, but it can also be concerned with the pleasure of society or humanity as a whole.  Altruistic versions of psychological hedonism involve deep-seated convictions, cultural or religious beliefs which motivate a person to act for the benefit of family or society, or the expectation of an afterlife.  Problems of psychological hedonism include the definitions of desire and pleasure.  Is desire tied to the satisfaction of physical sensations or does it extend to mental and rational conceptions of pleasure?  Are all positive experiences, even minor and mundane ones, psychological motivations?
  
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==Basic concepts==
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Evaluative hedonism is an attempt to set up certain ends or goals as desirable, and to persuade others that these goals ought to be pursued, and that achieving them will result in pleasure. Evaluative hedonism is sometimes used to support or justify an existing system of moral values. Many altruistic and utilitarian moral systems are of this type, because they encourage the individual to sacrifice or restrict immediate sensual gratification in favor of a more rational gratification, such as the satisfaction of serving others, or the maintenance of an egalitarian society where every individual receives certain benefits. Evaluative hedonism raises the problem of deciding exactly what ends are desirable, and why.
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The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that all actions can be measured on the basis of how much ''pleasure'' and how little ''pain'' they produce. In very simple terms, a hedonist strives to maximize this 'ratio' (pleasure over pain). The nineteenth-century British philosophers [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]] established the fundamental principles of hedonism through their ethical theory of [[Utilitarianism]]. Utilitarian value stands as a precursor to hedonistic values in that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill’s hedonistic values are faintly divergent in relation to their exposition of the principle of utility. There are two basic schools of thought on hedonism:
 
  
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* One school, grouped around [[Jeremy Bentham]], argues a quantitative approach.  Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be quantitatively understood.  Essentially, he believed the value of a pleasure to be its intensity multiplied by its duration - so it was not just the number of pleasures, but their intensity and how long they lasted that must be taken into account.
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Reflective, normative, or rationalizing hedonism, seeks to define value in terms of pleasure.  Even the most complex human pursuits are attributed to the desire to maximize pleasure, and it is that desire that makes them rational.  Objections to determining value based on pleasure include the fact that there is no common state or property found in all experiences of pleasure, which could be used to establish an objective measurement.  Not all experiences of pleasure could be considered valuable, particularly if they arise from criminal activity or weakness of character, or cause harm to others.  Another objection is that there are many other types of valuable experiences besides the immediate experience of pleasure, such as being a good parent, creating a work of art or choosing to act with integrity, which, though they could be said to produce some kind of altruistic pleasure, are very difficult to categorize and quantify.
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* Other proponents, like [[John Stuart Mill]] argue a qualitative approach.  Mill believed that there can be different levels of pleasure - higher quality pleasure is better than lower quality pleasure. Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often references [[pig]]s) have an easier access to the simpler pleasures; since they do not see other aspects of life, they can simply indulge in their pleasures. The more elaborate beings tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lessen the time for simple pleasure. It is therefore more difficult for them to indulge in such 'simple pleasures' in the same manner.
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Critics of the qualitative approach, however, argue that there are several problems with it.  They assert that generally, 'pleasures' do not necessarily share common traits, besides the fact that they can be seen as "pleasurable".  Because what is 'pleasant' is a subjective thing, differing between individuals, such critics claim that 'qualities' of pleasures are difficult to study objectively and in terms of universal absolutes.  Critics of the qualitative approach cite the fact that the standards of what ought to be "pleasurable" vary between individuals, of which [[sadism and masochism|sexual sadism]] is an example, in support of their claim that pleasures cannot be distinguished with respect to their 'qualities'.
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==Ancient Hedonism==
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Among the ancient Greek philosophers, discussion of ethical theory often centered on the
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“good life” (the ideal life, the life most worth living, eudaimonia, happiness) and the role of pleasure of achieving it. Various expressions of the concept that “pleasure is the good” were developed by philosophers such as Democritus, Aristippus, Plato, Aristotle and Epicurus and their followers, and vigorously disagreed with by their opponents. Aristippus (fifth century B.C.E.) and the Cyrenaic school maintained that the greatest good was the pleasure of the moment and advocated a life of sensual pleasure, on the grounds that all living creatures pursue pleasure and avoid pain.  This position reflected a skepticism that only the sensations of the moment could be known, and that concern with the past or the future only caused uncertainty and anxiety and should be avoided.
  
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==Predecessors==
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Ancient Greeks looked to the natural world and agreed that every organism was motivated to act for its own good, but differed as to whether that “good” was pleasure. Democritus (c. 460 – c. 370 B.C.E.) is reported to have held that the supreme good was a pleasant state of tranquility of mind (euthumia), and that particular pleasures or pains should be chosen according to how they contributed to that tranquility.  In the Protagoras, Socrates (470 -399 B.C.E.) presented a version of Democritean hedonism which included a method for calculating relative pleasures and pains. Socrates argued that an agent’s own good was not immediate pleasure, and that it was necessary to differentiate between pleasures that promoted good, and harmful pleasures.  In his later dialogues, Plato (c. 428 -347 B.C.E.) agreed that while the good life was pleasant, the goodness consisted in rationality and the pleasantness was an adjunct.
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[[Epicureanism]] is considered by some to be a form of ancient hedonism.  [[Epicurus]] identified pleasure with tranquility and emphasized the reduction of [[tanha|desire]] over the immediate acquisition of pleasure.  In this way, Epicureanism escapes the preceding objection: while pleasure and the [[highest good]] are equated, Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple, moderate life spent with friends and in philosophical discussion. He stressed that it was not good to do something that made one feel good if by experiencing it one would belittle later experiences and make them no longer feel good. For example, too much [[intercourse|sex]] might later decrease interest in sex, which may cause one to be dissatisfied with one's sexual partner leading to unhappiness.
 
  
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==Hedonism and Egoism==
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Aristotle challenged the definition of pleasure as a process of remedying a natural deficiency in the organism (satisfying hunger, thirst, desire), declaring instead that pleasure occurs when a natural potentiality for thought or perception is realized in perfect conditions.  Every kind of actualization has its own pleasure; the pleasure of thought, the pleasure of art, the bodily pleasures.  Eudaimonia (the ideal state of existence) consists of the optimal realization of man’s capacity for thought and rational choice, it would naturally be characterized by the greatest degree of pleasure.
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Hedonism can be conjoined with either [[psychological egoism|psychological]] or [[ethical egoism]] to make [[psychological hedonism]]: a purely descriptive claim which states that [[Agent (grammar)|agents]] naturally seek pleasure, or '''ethical hedonism''', the claim that we ''should'' act so as to produce our own pleasure.  
 
  
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One constant objection is that where one finds pleasure, another may find pain, leading to a contradiction in what the [[morality|moral]] act is. This is only a contradiction for [[moral absolutism|moral absolutists]]. From a [[moral relativism|moral relativist's]] point of view, there is no contradiction.
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Epicurus (341 – 270 B.C.E.) and his school distinguished two types of pleasure: the pleasure that supplying the deficiency of an organism (such as hunger or desire) and the pleasure experienced when the organism is in a stable state, free from all pain or disturbance.  He gave supremacy to the latter type, and emphasized the reduction of desire over the immediate acquisition of pleasure. Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple, moderate life spent with friends and in philosophical discussion, and discouraged overindulgence of any kind because it would ultimately lead to some kind of pain or instability.
  
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However, hedonism is not necessarily related to [[egoism]]. The [[Utilitarianism]] of [[John Stuart Mill]] is sometimes classified as a type of hedonism, as it judges the morality of actions by their consequent contributions to the greater good and [[happiness]] of all. Note that this is [[altruism|altruistic]] hedonism. Whereas some hedonistic doctrines propose doing whatever makes an individual happiest (over the long run), Mill promotes actions which make ''everyone'' happy. Compare [[individualism]] and [[collectivism]].
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<blockquote>We recognize pleasure as the first good innate in us, and from pleasure we begin every act of choice and avoidance, and to pleasure we return again, using the feeling as the standard by which we judge every good.
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[Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus] </blockquote>
  
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It is true that Epicurus recommends for us to pursue our own pleasure, but he never suggests we should live a selfish life which impedes others from getting to that same objective.  
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==Hedonism during the Middle Ages and Renaissance==
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Christian philosophers of the Middle Ages denounced Epicurean hedonism as being inconsistent with the Christian values of avoiding sin, obeying the will of God, cultivating virtues such as charity and faith, and seeking a reward in the afterlife for sacrifice and suffering on earth.  During the Renaissance, philosophers such as Erasmus (1465 – 1536) revived hedonism on the grounds that it was God’s wish for human beings to be happy and experience pleasure.  In describing the ideal society of his Utopia (1516), Thomas More said that "the chief part of a person's happiness consists of pleasure."  More argued that God created man to be happy, and uses the desire for pleasure to motivate moral behavior.  More made a distinction between pleasures of the body and pleasures of the mind, and urged the pursuit of natural pleasures rather than those produced by artificial luxuries. 
 +
During the 18th century, Francis Hutcheson (1694-1747) and David Hume (1711-1776) systematically examined the role of pleasure and happiness in morality and society; their theories were precursors to utilitarianism.
 +
==Utilitarian Hedonism==
 +
The nineteenth-century British philosophers [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]] established fundamental principles of hedonism through their ethical theory of [[Utilitarianism]]. Utilitarian value stands as a precursor to hedonistic values in that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. All actions are to be judged on the basis of how much ''pleasure'' they produce in relation to the amount of ''pain'' that results from them. Since utilitarianism was dealing with public policy, it was necessary to develop a “hedonistic calculus” to assign a ratio of pleasure to pain for any given action or policy.  Though consistent in their pursuit of the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number of people, Bentham and Mill differed in the methods by which they measured happiness.
  
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Some of [[Sigmund Freud]]'s theories of human motivation have been called psychological hedonism; his "life instinct" is essentially the observation that people will pursue pleasure.  However, he introduces extra complexities with various other mechanisms, such as the "[[Death instinct|death instinct]]". The death instinct, [[Thanatos (Freud)|Thanatos]], can be equated to the desire for [[silence]] and [[peace]], for calm and darkness, which causes men another form of happinesss. It is also a death instinct, thus it can also be the desire for death. The fact that he leaves out the instinct to survive as a primary motivator, and that his hypotheses are notoriously invalidated by [[Objective test|objective testing]], casts doubt on this theory.
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[[Jeremy Bentham]] and his followers argued a quantitative approach.  Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be understood by multiplying its intensity by its duration.  Not only the number of pleasures, but their intensity and duration had to be taken into account. Bentham’s quantitative theory identified six “dimensions” of value in a pleasure or pain: intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty, propinquity or remoteness, fecundity, and purity (Bentham 1789, ch. 4).
  
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''[[Christian]] Hedonism'' is a term coined in 1986 for a [[theology|theological]] movement originally conceived by a  [[pastor]], Dr. John Piper, in his book, ''Desiring God: Meditations of a Christian Hedonist''.  The tenets of this philosophy are that humans were created by (the Christian) [[God]] with the priority purpose of lavishly enjoying God through knowing, worshipping, and serving Him.  This philosophy recommends pursuing one's own happiness in God as the ultimate in human pleasure.  Similar to the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure is regarded as something long-term and found not in indulgence but in a life devoted to God.  Serious questions have been raised within the Christian community as to whether Christian Hedonism displaces "love God" with "enjoy God" as the greatest and foremost [[10 commandments|commandment]].  
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[[John Stuart Mill]] argued for a qualitative approach. Mill believed that there are different levels of pleasure, and that pleasure of a higher quality has more value than pleasure of a lower quality.  Mill suggested that simpler beings (he often referenced pigs) have easier access to the simpler pleasures; since they are not aware of other aspects of life, they can simply indulge themselves without thinking.  More elaborate beings think more about other matters and hence lessen the time they spend on the enjoyment of simple pleasures.  Critics of the qualitative approach found several problems with it.  They pointed out that 'pleasures' do not necessarily share common traits, other than the fact that they can be seen as "pleasurable." The definition of 'pleasant' is subjective and differs among individuals, so the 'qualities' of pleasures are difficult to study objectively and in terms of universal absolutes.  Another objection is that “quality” is not an intrinsic attribute of pleasure; the “quality” of  pleasure is judged either its quantity and intensity or by some non-hedonistic value (such as altruism or the capacity to elevate the mind).
  
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A typical apologetic for Christian Hedonism follows: It would seem that if you were to love something truly, then you must truly enjoy it. Thus, Christian Hedonism is exemplified in relation to [[Jesus]] [[Christ]], who justifies God in loving a rebellious creation by providing the sacrifice of Himself as the payment allowing God to love us, and us to love Him, forever. It could be summed up in this statement: "God is most glorified in us, when we are most satisfied in Him".
 
  
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Quite a few people equate hedonism with sexuality and having a very loose or liberal view of the morality of sex. As noted above, many (perhaps most) forms of hedonism actually concentrate on [[spirituality|spiritual]], [[intellectual]], or otherwise non-sexual forms of pleasure. The pursuit of sexual pleasure can certainly be a form of hedonism, but it is not the mainstream one. However, this has become the mainstream use of the word.
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: “Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain, and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do” (Bentham 1789).
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== Christian Hedonism ==
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''[[Christianity|Christian]] Hedonism'' is a term coined in 1986 for a [[theology|theological]] movement originally conceived by a  [[pastor]], Dr. John Piper, in his book, ''Desiring God: Meditations of a Christian Hedonist''. The tenets of this philosophy are that humans were created by (the Christian) [[God]] with the priority purpose of lavishly enjoying God through knowing, worshipping, and serving Him.  This philosophy recommends pursuing one's own happiness in God as the ultimate in human pleasure.  Similar to the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure is regarded as something long-term and found not in indulgence but in a life devoted to God.  Serious questions have been raised within the Christian community as to whether Christian Hedonism displaces "love God" with "enjoy God" as the greatest and foremost [[10 commandments|commandment]].  
 +
 
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A typical apologetic for Christian Hedonism is that if you are to love something truly, then you must truly enjoy it. It could be summed up in this statement: "God is most glorified in us, when we are most satisfied in Him".
  
 
More recently, the term Christian Hedonism has been used by the French philosopher Michel Onfray to qualify the various heretic movements from Middle-Age to [[Montaigne]].
 
More recently, the term Christian Hedonism has been used by the French philosopher Michel Onfray to qualify the various heretic movements from Middle-Age to [[Montaigne]].
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==Hedonism in Common Usage==
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In common usage, the word hedonism is often associated with self-indulgence and having a very loose or liberal view of the morality of sex.  Most forms of hedonism actually concentrate on [[spirituality|spiritual]], [[intellectual]], or the pursuit of general well-being.
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== References ==
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*Aristotle, (4th Cent. BCE), Nicomachean Ethics, 2nd Ed. (Hackett Publishing Co.) ISBN-10: 0872204642 ISBN-13: 978-0872204645  Available online in English or Greek from The Perseus Digital Library http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/, Gregory Crane, ed.
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*Bentham, J., (1789), An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Adamant Media Corporation, 2005.  ISBN-10: 1402185642 ISBN-13: 978-1402185649
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*Brandt, R.. A Theory of the Good and the Right. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1979.
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*Broad, C.D.. Five Types of Ethical Theory. London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1930.
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*Feldman, F.. “Hedonism”, in Encyclopedia of Ethics, eds. L.C. Becker and C.B. Becker (Routledge: London and New York, 2001.
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*Flanagan, O.. Consciousness Reconsidered. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1992. 
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*Mill, J.S.: Sher, George (editor). Utilitarianism. Hackett Publishing Company; 2nd edition. 2002.  ISBN-10: 087220605X  ISBN-13: 978-0872206052
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*Moore, G.E.. Principia Ethica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1903.
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*Ross, W.D.. Foundations of Ethics .Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939.
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*Smart, J.J.C., (1973), “Outline of a system of utilitarian ethics”, in Utilitarianism: For and Against, by J.J.C. Smart and B. Williams. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973.
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*Sumner, W.. Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics .Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.
  
 
==See also==
 
==See also==
 
* [[Morality]]
 
* [[Morality]]
 
* [[Ethics]]
 
* [[Ethics]]
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* [[The Hedonistic Imperative|Hedonistic imperative]]
 
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* [[Paradox of hedonism]]
 
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* [[Psychological hedonism]]
 
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* [[Marquis De Sade]]
 
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* [[Brave New World]], a book by [[Aldous Huxley]] detailing a totalitarian and hedonistic dystopia.
 
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* [[Dorian Gray]], a fictional character by [[Oscar Wilde]]
 
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* [[List of recurring robot characters from Futurama#Hedonism Bot|Hedonism Bot]], a fictional character in [[Futurama]].
 
  
 
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Revision as of 14:45, 22 January 2007

Hedonism (Greek: hēdonē (ᾑδονή from Ancient Greek) "pleasure" +–ism) describes any way of thinking that gives pleasure a central role. Hedonism can be generally summed up as "pleasure is the highest good" or in an ethical formulation, "whatever causes pleasure is right." Hedonism can also be defined as the doctrine holding that behavior is motivated by the desire for pleasure and the avoidance of pain.

The three basic types of philosophical hedonism are psychological hedonism, which holds that the tendency to seek pleasure and avoid pain is an essential attribute of human nature; evaluative or ethical hedonism, which sets up certain ethical or moral ends as desirable because attaining them will result in happiness; and reflective, or normative hedonism, which seeks to define value in terms of pleasure. The ancient Greek philosophers Democritus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus (341 – 270 B.C.E.) and their followers developed ethical theories centered on the “good life” (the ideal life, the life most worth living, eudaimonia, happiness) and the role of pleasure of achieving it. During the Middle Ages, hedonism was rejected as incompatible with Christian ideals, but Renaissance philosophers revived it on the grounds that God intended man to be happy. Nineteenth-century British philosophers John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham established fundamental principles of hedonism through their ethical theory of Utilitarianism, declaring that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.

Concepts of Hedonism

There are many philosophical forms of hedonism, but they can be distinguished into three basic types: psychological hedonism; evaluative, or ethical hedonism; and reflective, or rationalizing hedonism. Psychological hedonism holds that it is an essential aspect of human nature to seek pleasure and avoid pain; human beings cannot act in any other way. A human being will always act in a way that, to his understanding, will produce what he perceives as the greatest pleasure, or protect him from undesirable pain. Psychological hedonism is either based on observation of human behavior, or necessitated by a definition of “desire.” Psychological hedonism is often a form of egoism, preoccupied with pleasure of the individual subject, but it can also be concerned with the pleasure of society or humanity as a whole. Altruistic versions of psychological hedonism involve deep-seated convictions, cultural or religious beliefs which motivate a person to act for the benefit of family or society, or the expectation of an afterlife. Problems of psychological hedonism include the definitions of desire and pleasure. Is desire tied to the satisfaction of physical sensations or does it extend to mental and rational conceptions of pleasure? Are all positive experiences, even minor and mundane ones, psychological motivations?

Evaluative hedonism is an attempt to set up certain ends or goals as desirable, and to persuade others that these goals ought to be pursued, and that achieving them will result in pleasure. Evaluative hedonism is sometimes used to support or justify an existing system of moral values. Many altruistic and utilitarian moral systems are of this type, because they encourage the individual to sacrifice or restrict immediate sensual gratification in favor of a more rational gratification, such as the satisfaction of serving others, or the maintenance of an egalitarian society where every individual receives certain benefits. Evaluative hedonism raises the problem of deciding exactly what ends are desirable, and why.

Reflective, normative, or rationalizing hedonism, seeks to define value in terms of pleasure. Even the most complex human pursuits are attributed to the desire to maximize pleasure, and it is that desire that makes them rational. Objections to determining value based on pleasure include the fact that there is no common state or property found in all experiences of pleasure, which could be used to establish an objective measurement. Not all experiences of pleasure could be considered valuable, particularly if they arise from criminal activity or weakness of character, or cause harm to others. Another objection is that there are many other types of valuable experiences besides the immediate experience of pleasure, such as being a good parent, creating a work of art or choosing to act with integrity, which, though they could be said to produce some kind of altruistic pleasure, are very difficult to categorize and quantify.


Ancient Hedonism

Among the ancient Greek philosophers, discussion of ethical theory often centered on the “good life” (the ideal life, the life most worth living, eudaimonia, happiness) and the role of pleasure of achieving it. Various expressions of the concept that “pleasure is the good” were developed by philosophers such as Democritus, Aristippus, Plato, Aristotle and Epicurus and their followers, and vigorously disagreed with by their opponents. Aristippus (fifth century B.C.E.) and the Cyrenaic school maintained that the greatest good was the pleasure of the moment and advocated a life of sensual pleasure, on the grounds that all living creatures pursue pleasure and avoid pain. This position reflected a skepticism that only the sensations of the moment could be known, and that concern with the past or the future only caused uncertainty and anxiety and should be avoided.

Ancient Greeks looked to the natural world and agreed that every organism was motivated to act for its own good, but differed as to whether that “good” was pleasure. Democritus (c. 460 – c. 370 B.C.E.) is reported to have held that the supreme good was a pleasant state of tranquility of mind (euthumia), and that particular pleasures or pains should be chosen according to how they contributed to that tranquility. In the Protagoras, Socrates (470 -399 B.C.E.) presented a version of Democritean hedonism which included a method for calculating relative pleasures and pains. Socrates argued that an agent’s own good was not immediate pleasure, and that it was necessary to differentiate between pleasures that promoted good, and harmful pleasures. In his later dialogues, Plato (c. 428 -347 B.C.E.) agreed that while the good life was pleasant, the goodness consisted in rationality and the pleasantness was an adjunct.

Aristotle challenged the definition of pleasure as a process of remedying a natural deficiency in the organism (satisfying hunger, thirst, desire), declaring instead that pleasure occurs when a natural potentiality for thought or perception is realized in perfect conditions. Every kind of actualization has its own pleasure; the pleasure of thought, the pleasure of art, the bodily pleasures. Eudaimonia (the ideal state of existence) consists of the optimal realization of man’s capacity for thought and rational choice, it would naturally be characterized by the greatest degree of pleasure.

Epicurus (341 – 270 B.C.E.) and his school distinguished two types of pleasure: the pleasure that supplying the deficiency of an organism (such as hunger or desire) and the pleasure experienced when the organism is in a stable state, free from all pain or disturbance. He gave supremacy to the latter type, and emphasized the reduction of desire over the immediate acquisition of pleasure. Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple, moderate life spent with friends and in philosophical discussion, and discouraged overindulgence of any kind because it would ultimately lead to some kind of pain or instability.

We recognize pleasure as the first good innate in us, and from pleasure we begin every act of choice and avoidance, and to pleasure we return again, using the feeling as the standard by which we judge every good. [Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus]

Hedonism during the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Christian philosophers of the Middle Ages denounced Epicurean hedonism as being inconsistent with the Christian values of avoiding sin, obeying the will of God, cultivating virtues such as charity and faith, and seeking a reward in the afterlife for sacrifice and suffering on earth. During the Renaissance, philosophers such as Erasmus (1465 – 1536) revived hedonism on the grounds that it was God’s wish for human beings to be happy and experience pleasure. In describing the ideal society of his Utopia (1516), Thomas More said that "the chief part of a person's happiness consists of pleasure." More argued that God created man to be happy, and uses the desire for pleasure to motivate moral behavior. More made a distinction between pleasures of the body and pleasures of the mind, and urged the pursuit of natural pleasures rather than those produced by artificial luxuries. During the 18th century, Francis Hutcheson (1694-1747) and David Hume (1711-1776) systematically examined the role of pleasure and happiness in morality and society; their theories were precursors to utilitarianism.

Utilitarian Hedonism

The nineteenth-century British philosophers John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham established fundamental principles of hedonism through their ethical theory of Utilitarianism. Utilitarian value stands as a precursor to hedonistic values in that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. All actions are to be judged on the basis of how much pleasure they produce in relation to the amount of pain that results from them. Since utilitarianism was dealing with public policy, it was necessary to develop a “hedonistic calculus” to assign a ratio of pleasure to pain for any given action or policy. Though consistent in their pursuit of the greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest number of people, Bentham and Mill differed in the methods by which they measured happiness.

Jeremy Bentham and his followers argued a quantitative approach. Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be understood by multiplying its intensity by its duration. Not only the number of pleasures, but their intensity and duration had to be taken into account. Bentham’s quantitative theory identified six “dimensions” of value in a pleasure or pain: intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty, propinquity or remoteness, fecundity, and purity (Bentham 1789, ch. 4).

John Stuart Mill argued for a qualitative approach. Mill believed that there are different levels of pleasure, and that pleasure of a higher quality has more value than pleasure of a lower quality. Mill suggested that simpler beings (he often referenced pigs) have easier access to the simpler pleasures; since they are not aware of other aspects of life, they can simply indulge themselves without thinking. More elaborate beings think more about other matters and hence lessen the time they spend on the enjoyment of simple pleasures. Critics of the qualitative approach found several problems with it. They pointed out that 'pleasures' do not necessarily share common traits, other than the fact that they can be seen as "pleasurable." The definition of 'pleasant' is subjective and differs among individuals, so the 'qualities' of pleasures are difficult to study objectively and in terms of universal absolutes. Another objection is that “quality” is not an intrinsic attribute of pleasure; the “quality” of pleasure is judged either its quantity and intensity or by some non-hedonistic value (such as altruism or the capacity to elevate the mind).


“Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain, and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do” (Bentham 1789).


Christian Hedonism

Christian Hedonism is a term coined in 1986 for a theological movement originally conceived by a pastor, Dr. John Piper, in his book, Desiring God: Meditations of a Christian Hedonist. The tenets of this philosophy are that humans were created by (the Christian) God with the priority purpose of lavishly enjoying God through knowing, worshipping, and serving Him. This philosophy recommends pursuing one's own happiness in God as the ultimate in human pleasure. Similar to the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure is regarded as something long-term and found not in indulgence but in a life devoted to God. Serious questions have been raised within the Christian community as to whether Christian Hedonism displaces "love God" with "enjoy God" as the greatest and foremost commandment.

A typical apologetic for Christian Hedonism is that if you are to love something truly, then you must truly enjoy it. It could be summed up in this statement: "God is most glorified in us, when we are most satisfied in Him".

More recently, the term Christian Hedonism has been used by the French philosopher Michel Onfray to qualify the various heretic movements from Middle-Age to Montaigne.

Hedonism in Common Usage

In common usage, the word hedonism is often associated with self-indulgence and having a very loose or liberal view of the morality of sex. Most forms of hedonism actually concentrate on spiritual, intellectual, or the pursuit of general well-being.

References
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  • Aristotle, (4th Cent. BCE), Nicomachean Ethics, 2nd Ed. (Hackett Publishing Co.) ISBN-10: 0872204642 ISBN-13: 978-0872204645 Available online in English or Greek from The Perseus Digital Library http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/, Gregory Crane, ed.
  • Bentham, J., (1789), An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Adamant Media Corporation, 2005. ISBN-10: 1402185642 ISBN-13: 978-1402185649
  • Brandt, R.. A Theory of the Good and the Right. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1979.
  • Broad, C.D.. Five Types of Ethical Theory. London and Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1930.
  • Feldman, F.. “Hedonism”, in Encyclopedia of Ethics, eds. L.C. Becker and C.B. Becker (Routledge: London and New York, 2001.
  • Flanagan, O.. Consciousness Reconsidered. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1992.
  • Mill, J.S.: Sher, George (editor). Utilitarianism. Hackett Publishing Company; 2nd edition. 2002. ISBN-10: 087220605X ISBN-13: 978-0872206052
  • Moore, G.E.. Principia Ethica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1903.
  • Ross, W.D.. Foundations of Ethics .Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939.
  • Smart, J.J.C., (1973), “Outline of a system of utilitarian ethics”, in Utilitarianism: For and Against, by J.J.C. Smart and B. Williams. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973.
  • Sumner, W.. Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics .Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.

See also

External links


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