Difference between revisions of "Fly" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Brachycera]]*
 
[[Brachycera]]*
 
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{{Taxobox_end}}
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As defined by [[entomologist]]s, a '''fly''' (plural '''flies''') is any species of [[insect]] of the order [[Diptera]], or '''true flies'''. Insects of the order diptera are characterized by having a single pair of true wings, which are used for flight, while the hind wings are reduced into a pair of small knob-like structures called the halteres. In practice, however, the term fly may be used in referring to almost any kind of small flying insect, such as mayflies, which have four wings.
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As defined by [[entomology|entomologist]]s, a '''fly''' (plural '''flies''') is any species of [[insect]] of the order [[Diptera]]. Insects of the order Diptera, known as '''true flies''', are characterized by having a single pair of true wings, which are used for flight, while the hind wings are reduced into a pair of small knob-like structures called the halteres. In general, however, the term fly is commonly used in referring to almost any kind of small flying insect, such as mayflies, which have four wings.
  
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Diptera is a large order containing an estimated 200,000 [[species]], although under half of these (about 85,000 species) have been described. The Diptera are general divided into two suborders, the Nematocera and the Barchycera. Diptera include [[Fly|flies]], [[mosquito|mosquitoes]], [[gnat|gnats]] and [[midge|midges]]. Some species are secondarily wingless (especially in the superfamily Hippoboscoidea, or those that live commensally with other species in social insect colonies).
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Diptera is a large order containing an estimated 200,000 [[species]], although under half of these (about 85,000 species) have been described. Diptera include species labeled as [[Fly|flies]], [[mosquito|mosquitoes]], gnats, and midges. Some species are secondarily wingless (especially in the superfamily Hippoboscoidea, or those that live commensally with other species in social insect colonies).
  
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Diptera is one of the major insect orders both in terms of ecological and human (medical and economic) importance. Ecologically, diptera are very diverse and fill many roles. They may be predaceous, herbivorous, [[endoparasite|endo-]] and [[ectoparasite|ectoparasitic]], [[saprophagous]], [[necrophagy|necrophagous]], and so forth. In addition to being an essential part of the food chain, some species of flies spread pollen, hasten the decomposition of plants, animals, and dung, and, in the case of about 5000 species of Tachina flies, eat other insects.  
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Diptera is one of the major insect orders both in terms of [[ecology|ecological]] and human ([[medicine|medical]] and [[economy|economic]]) importance. Ecologically, diptera are very diverse and fill many roles. They may be predaceous, herbivorous, endo- and ectoparasitic, saprophagous (detritus feeders), necrophagous (feed on dead organisms), and so forth. In addition to being an essential part of [[food chain]]s, some species of flies spread pollen for pollination of [[plant]]s, hasten decomposition, recycle nutrients, and eat other insects.  
  
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Flies are common among humans and some can cause the spread of serious diseases such as [[sleeping sickness]]. In particular the Culicidae family, which includes the mosquito, is of phenomenal historical and current importance as disease transmitters. The [[housefly]] (''Musca domestica'') is particularly common among humans. Other flies, such as the [[horsefly|horse fly]] (Family [[Tabanidae]]), can inflict painful bites.
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Flies are common among humans and some can cause the spread of serious [[disease]]s such as [[sleeping sickness]]. In particular the Culicidae family, which includes the mosquito, is of phenomenal historical and current importance as disease transmitters. The families of Muscidae (house flies), Sarcophagidae (flesh flies), and Calliphoridae (blow flies) can be annoyances and spread disease-causing pathogens. Other flies, such as the horse-fly (Family Tabanidae), can inflict painful bites.  
  
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The [[larva]] of a fly is commonly called a '''maggot'''.  The study of the Diptera is called ''dipterology''.
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The study of the Diptera is called ''dipterology''.
  
 
==Overview==
 
==Overview==
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Flies rely heavily on sight for survival.  The compound eyes of flies are composed of thousands of individual lenses and are very sensitive to movement.  Some flies have very accurate 3D vision.  A few, like ''Ormia ochracea'', have very advanced hearing organs.
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Dipterans are widely distributed, being found in tropical, temperate, and even subartic environments. The largest insects of the present day are probably the 8 cm long robber flies.
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Flies rely heavily on sight for survival.  The [[eye|compound eyes]] of flies are composed of thousands of individual lenses and are very sensitive to movement.  Some flies have very accurate 3D vision.  A few, like ''Ormia ochracea'', have very advanced hearing organs.
  
 
[[Image:Fly 01.gif|thumb]]
 
[[Image:Fly 01.gif|thumb]]
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Flies can move from one point to another point by flying, but they can also walk and run (or scurry), such as moving around a piece of fruit in search of sugar.
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Flies can move from one point to another point by flying, but they can also walk and run (or scurry), such as moving around a piece of [[fruit]] in search of sugar.
  
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The diet of flies varies heavily between species.  The [[horse-fly]] and [[mosquito|mosquitoes]] feed on blood and nectar, and the [[house fly]] eats a semi-digested liquid created by mixing enzyme-rich saliva with its food.
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The diet of flies varies heavily between species.  The [[horse-fly]] and [[mosquito|mosquitoes]] feed on blood and nectar, and the [[house fly]] eats a semi-digested liquid created by mixing [[enzyme]]-rich saliva with its food.
  
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In compound names containing "fly" for members of this order, the name is normally written as two words, as in "crane fly", though there are exceptions, such as "sandfly," "blackfly," and often "housefly." For insects that are members of other orders the name should be written as a single word, as in "butterfly", "scorpionfly", and so forth.
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In compound names containing "fly" for members of the Diptera order, the name is normally written as two words, as in "crane fly", though there are exceptions, such as "sandfly," "blackfly," and commonly "housefly." For insects that are members of other orders the name should be written as a single word, as in "butterfly", "scorpionfly", and so forth.
  
 
==Classification ==  
 
==Classification ==  
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There are two generally accepted suborders of Diptera.  The [[Nematocera]] are usually recognized by their elongated bodies and feathery antennae as represented by mosquitoes and crane flies.  The [[Brachycera]] tend to have a more roundly proportioned body and very short antennae. The Nematocera divided into 77 families of which 35 are [[extinct]] ( [[fossil]] only ) and the Brachycera with 141 families of which 8 are extinct. A more recent classification has been proposed in which the Nematocera is split into two suborders, the [[Archidiptera]] and the [[Eudiptera]], but this has not yet gained widespread acceptance among dipterists.
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There are two generally accepted suborders of Diptera.  The '''Nematocera''' are usually recognized by their elongated bodies and feathery [[antenna]]e as represented by [[mosquito]]es and crane flies.  The '''Brachycera''' tend to have a more roundly proportioned body and very short antennae. In some [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] schemes, the Nematocera are divided into 77 families of which 35 are [[extinct]] ( [[fossil]]s only ) and the Brachycera into 141 families of which 8 are extinct. A more recent classification has been proposed in which the Nematocera is split into two suborders, the Archidiptera and the Eudiptera, but this has not yet gained widespread acceptance among dipterists.
  
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#Suborder Nematocera – long antennae, [[pronotum]] distinct from [[mesonotum]]. In Nematocera larvae are either eucephalic or hemicephalic and often aquatic.
 
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#Suborder Brachycera – short antennae, the [[pupa]] is inside a puparium formed from the last [[larva]]l skin. Brachycera are generally robust flies with larvae having reduced mouthparts.
 
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##Infraorders [[Tabanomorpha]] and [[Asilomorpha]] – these comprise the majority of what was the [[Orthorrhapha]] under older classification schemes. The antennae are short, but differ in structure from those of the [[Muscomorpha]].
 
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##Infraorder [[Muscomorpha]] – (largely the [[Cyclorrhapha]] of older schemes). Muscomorpha have 3-segmented, aristate (with a bristle) [[antenna (biology)|antennae]] and larvae with three [[instar]]s that are acephalic (maggots).
 
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Most of the Muscomorpha are further subdivided into the [[Acalyptratae]] and [[Calyptratae]] based on whether or not they have a calypter (a wing flap that extends over the halteres).
 
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Beyond that, considerable revision in the taxonomy of the flies has taken place since the introduction of modern cladistic techniques, and much remains uncertain.  The secondary ranks between the suborders and the families are more out of practical or historical considerations than out of any strict respect for phylogenetic classifications.  (Modern cladists tend to spurn the use of Linnaean rank names.)  Nearly all classifications in use now, including this article, contain some [[paraphyletic]] groupings; this is emphasized where the numerous alternative systems are most greatly at odds.
 
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==Fly-like insects==
 
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[[Image:Medfly.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Mediterranean fruit fly]], or "medfly", ''Ceratitis capitata'']]
 
 
[[Image:House fly leg.jpg|thumb|200px|House fly leg]]
 
[[Image:House fly leg.jpg|thumb|200px|House fly leg]]
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[[Image:Flies around 60 watt light globe.jpg|thumb|200px|Flies attracted to a light in summer]]
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#Suborder Nematocera – long antennae, pronotum distinct from mesonotum. In Nematocera, larvae are either eucephalic or hemicephalic and often aquatic.
 +
#Suborder Brachycera – short antennae, the pupa is inside a puparium formed from the last larval skin. Brachycera are generally robust flies with larvae having reduced mouthparts.
 +
##Infraorders Tabanomorpha and Asilomorpha – these comprise the majority of what was the Orthorrhapha under older classification schemes. The antennae are short, but differ in structure from those of the Muscomorpha.
 +
##Infraorder Muscomorpha – (largely the Cyclorrhapha of older schemes). Muscomorpha have 3-segmented, aristate (with a bristle) [[antenna (biology)|antennae]] and larvae with three instars that are acephalic (maggots).
 +
Most of the Muscomorpha are further subdivided into the Acalyptratae and Calyptratae based on whether or not they have a calypter (a wing flap that extends over the halteres).
  
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'''Examples'''
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Beyond that, considerable revision in the taxonomy of the flies has taken place since the introduction of modern cladistic techniques, and much remains uncertain.  The secondary ranks between the suborders and the families are more out of practical or historical considerations than out of any strict respect for phylogenetic classifications. 
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*[[mayfly]]: [[Ephemeroptera]]
 
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*[[dragonfly]] and [[damselfly]]: [[Odonata]]
 
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*[[stonefly]]: [[Plecoptera]]
 
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*[[whitefly]]: [[Hemiptera]]
 
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*[[firefly]]: [[Coleoptera]]
 
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*[[Sialidae|alderfly]], [[dobsonfly]], and [[fishfly]]: [[Megaloptera]]
 
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*[[snakefly]], [[mantidfly]], and [[owlfly]]: [[Neuroptera]]
 
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*[[sawfly]]: [[Hymenoptera]]
 
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*[[caddisfly]]: [[Trichoptera]]
 
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*[[butterfly]]: [[Lepidoptera]]
 
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*[[scorpionfly]], [[earwig|earwigfly]], and [[hangingfly]]: [[Mecoptera]]
 
  
 
==Life cycle==
 
==Life cycle==
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[[Image:Medfly.jpg|thumb|200px|The Mediterranean fruit fly, or "medfly", ''Ceratitis capitata'']]
  
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While complex, the life cycle of each fly species follows the same four stages: egg, larva (commonly known as a maggot), pupa, adult.  
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While complex, the life cycle of each fly [[species]] follows the same pattern of four distinct stages: egg, larva (commonly known as a maggot), pupa, and adult.  
  
 
The duration of fly life cycles, from egg to adult, vary widely with species and environmental conditions, including temperature and food. For example, the life cycle of the house fly is about 7 to 10 days in warm temperatures. For the fruit fly (''Drosophilia melanogaster'') the shortest development time from egg to adult, 7 days, is achieved at 28 °C, while it takes 11 days at 30 °C, 19 days at 18 °C, and over 50 days at 12 °C (Ashburner and Thompson 1978, Ashburner et al. 2005).   
 
The duration of fly life cycles, from egg to adult, vary widely with species and environmental conditions, including temperature and food. For example, the life cycle of the house fly is about 7 to 10 days in warm temperatures. For the fruit fly (''Drosophilia melanogaster'') the shortest development time from egg to adult, 7 days, is achieved at 28 °C, while it takes 11 days at 30 °C, 19 days at 18 °C, and over 50 days at 12 °C (Ashburner and Thompson 1978, Ashburner et al. 2005).   
  
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Different species have their own characteristics relative to mating and egg laying. Fly eggs may be laid in decaying flesh, animal dung, manure, or pools of [[stagnant water]]—generally conditions that offer ample food for the larva, generally in a moist area. This can include both meat in trash compactors as well as rats that have died between the ceiling and floor of a home.
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Different species have their own characteristics relative to mating and egg laying. Fly eggs may be laid in decaying flesh, animal dung, manure, or pools of stagnant water—generally conditions that offer ample food for the larva and commonly in a moist area. This can include both meat in trash compactors as well as rats that have died between the ceiling and floor of a home.
  
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AFter an egg has hatched, the fly enters the maggot stage. It begins to feed on whatever the egg was laid on, usually decomposing flesh.  The maggot gorges itself with food until it is ready to enter the pupal stage, at which point the maggot travels away from the food source to a moist spot. During the pupal stage, it [[metamorphosis|morphorphosizes]] into an adult.
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After an egg has hatched, the fly enters the maggot stage. It begins to feed on whatever the egg was laid on, such as decomposing flesh.  The maggot gorges itself with food until it is ready to enter the pupal stage, at which point the maggot travels away from the food source to an appropriate, generally moist spot. During the pupal stage, it [[metamorphosis|morphorphosizes]] into an adult.
  
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===Importance of maggots===
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==Importance of maggots==
 
[[Image:Maggots.jpg|thumb|Maggot therapy used in a small wound]]
 
[[Image:Maggots.jpg|thumb|Maggot therapy used in a small wound]]
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Long ago, some doctors noticed soldiers that had maggots on their wounds healed quicker than those without maggots.{{fact}} Maggots eat the dead skin cells and bacteria. [[Maggot_therapy|Maggot Therapy]] (also known as Maggot Debridement Therapy (MDT), larval therapy, larva therapy, or larvae therapy) is the intentional introduction of live, disinfected maggots or fly larvae into non-healing skin or soft tissue wounds of a human or other animal. This practice was widely used before the discovery of antibiotics, as it serves to clean the [[Necrotic|dead tissue]] within a wound in order to promote healing.
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Long ago, some doctors noticed soldiers that had maggots on their wounds healed quicker than those without maggots. Maggots eat dead skin cells and [[bacteria]]. Maggot Therapy (also known as Maggot Debridement Therapy (MDT), larval therapy, larva therapy, or larvae therapy) is the intentional introduction of live, disinfected maggots or fly larvae into non-healing skin or soft tissue wounds of a human or other animal. This practice was widely used before the discovery of [[antibiotic]]s, as it serves to clean the dead tissue within a wound in order to promote healing.
  
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Some types of maggots found on corpses can be of great use to forensic scientists. By their stage of development, these maggots can be used to give an indication of the time elapsed since death, as well as the place the organism died. The size of the house fly maggot is 9.5-19.1mm (3/8 to 3/4 inch). At the height of the summer season, a generation of flies (egg to adult) may be produced in 12-14 days.
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Some types of maggots found on corpses can be of great use to forensic scientists. By their stage of development (instar), these maggots can be used to give an indication of the time elapsed since death, as well as the place the organism died.  
  
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Maggots are classified using "instar" stages. An ''instar I'' is about 2-5 mm long; ''instar II'' 6-14 mm; ''instar III'' 15-20 mm. These correspond to an age of 2-3 days, 3-4 days, and 4-6 days (for average house flies or bottle flies) since the eggs were laid. Some forensic scientists use this data to determine the approximate time of death of a human body.
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Maggots are bred commercially, as a popular bait in fishing, and a food for carnivourous pets such as [[reptile]]s or [[bird]]s. Maggots have been used in food production, particularly cheese.  
  
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Various maggots cause damage in [[agriculture|agricultural]] crop production, including [[root maggot]]s in [[rapeseed]] and [[midge (insect)|midge]] maggots in [[wheat]]. Some maggots are [[leaf mine|leaf miners]].
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On the other hand, diverse maggots cause damage in [[agriculture|agricultural]] crop production, including root maggots in rapeseed and midge maggots in [[wheat]]. Some maggots are leaf miners.
  
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Maggots are bred commercially, as a popular bait in [[angling]], and a food for carnivourous pets such as [[reptiles]] or [[birds]]. Due to the increasing popularity of maggots, a maggot vending machine has been installed in the [[England|English]] county town of [[Northampton]].{{fact}}
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Maggots can also be a threat to household pets.  Flies reproduce rapidly in the summer months and maggots can come in large numbers, creating a maggot infestation and a high risk of [[myiasis]] (invasion of living tissues) in pets. Despite the fact that maggots only eat dead tissue, they can be painful and present a serious risk to pets or any other animals.  Humans are not immune to the feeding habits of maggots and can also contract myiasis.  Interaction between humans and maggots usually occurs near garbage cans, dead animals, rotten food, and other breeding grounds for maggots.  Maggots will look for dark moist areas and are commonly found in unclean places such as under bed sheets.
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Maggots have been used in food production, particularly cheese. For more information, see [[Casu marzu]].
 
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As with [[flea]]s and [[tick]]s, maggots can be a threat to household pets.  Flies reproduce rapidly in the summer months and maggots can come in large numbers, creating a maggot infestation and a high risk of [[myiasis]] in pets. Despite the fact that maggots only eat dead tissue, they can be painful and present a serious risk to pets or any other animals.  Humans are not immune to the feeding habits of maggots and can also contract myiasis.  Interaction between humans and maggots usually occurs near garbage cans, dead animals, rotten food, and other breeding grounds for maggots.  Maggots will look for dark moist areas and are commonly found in unclean places such as under bed sheets.
 
  
 
A major problem also arises when maggots turn into flies and start the life cycle over again.  Within a few generations the number of maggots exponentially grows and becomes a serious problem.  Professionals can remove maggots or many over the counter bug sprays can be used to deter flies and maggots.  Keeping trash in a sealed container and using a garbage disposal or freezing rotting leftovers until trash day help prevent infestation.
 
A major problem also arises when maggots turn into flies and start the life cycle over again.  Within a few generations the number of maggots exponentially grows and becomes a serious problem.  Professionals can remove maggots or many over the counter bug sprays can be used to deter flies and maggots.  Keeping trash in a sealed container and using a garbage disposal or freezing rotting leftovers until trash day help prevent infestation.
  
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==Flies in mythology and religion==
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==Flies in mythology, religion, and culture==
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*In traditional [[Navajo people|Navajo]] religion, [[Big Fly]] is an important spirit being.
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In traditional Navajo religion, Big Fly is an important spirit being. In the Hebrew language, the name Beelzebub, sometimes used as a synonym for Satan, is called Lord of the Flies (or rendered God of the fly, or host of the fly). In Greek mythology, Myiagros was a god who chased away flies during the sacrifices to [[Zeus]] and [[Athena]]. Also, Zeus sent a fly to sting the horse Pegasus causing Bellerophon to fall back to Earth when he attempted to ride to Mount Olympus.
  
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*In [[demonology]], [[Beelzebub]] is referred to as the "Lord of the Flies".
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In [[art]], extremely life-like flies have sometimes been depicted in the trompe l'oeil paintings of the 15th century. An example is the painting ''Portrait of a Carthusian'' by Petrus Christus, showing a fly sitting on a fake frame.  
  
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*In [[Greek mythology]], [[Myiagros]] was a god who chased away flies during the sacrifices to [[Zeus]] and [[Athena]]. Also, [[Zeus]] sent a fly to sting the horse [[Pegasus]] causing [[Bellerophon]] to fall back to Earth when he attempted to ride to [[Mount Olympus]].
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==Fly-like insects==
  
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== Flies in art and popular culture ==
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The following are some examples of insects called flies, but not "true flies" (belonging to Diptera):
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*In [[art]], extremely life-like flies have sometimes been depicted in the [[trompe l'oeil]] paintings of the [[15th century]]. An example is the painting ''Portrait of a Carthusian'' by [[Petrus Christus]], showing a fly sitting on a fake frame. [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/optg/hod_49.7.19.htm]
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*[[mayfly]]*: [[Ephemeroptera]]*
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*[[dragonfly]]* and [[damselfly]]*: [[Odonata]]
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*The [[1958]] science fiction film ''[[The Fly (1986 film)|The Fly]]'', remade in [[1986]], revolves around the accidental merger of a human and a fly.  In reality, the [[human bot fly]] lives parasitically in the human body.
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*[[stonefly]]*: [[Plecoptera]]*
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*[[whitefly]]*: [[Hemiptera]]*
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*[[firefly]]: [[Coleoptera]]
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*[[Sialidae|alderfly]]*, [[dobsonfly]]*, and [[fishfly]]*: [[Megaloptera]]*
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*[[snakefly]]*, [[mantidfly]]*, and [[owlfly]]*: [[Neuroptera]]*
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*[[sawfly]]*: [[Hymenoptera]]*
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*[[caddisfly]]*: [[Trichoptera]]*
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*[[butterfly]]*: [[Lepidoptera]]*
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*[[scorpionfly]]*, [[earwig|earwigfly]]*, and [[hangingfly]]*: [[Mecoptera]]*
  
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*In [[2001]], Garnet Hertz produced an art project in which a complete [[web server]] was implanted into a dead fly.
 
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*In music:
 
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**[[AC/DC]], an [[Australia|Australian]] [[hard rock]] band, released an album called ''[[Fly on the Wall (album)|Fly on the Wall]]'' in [[1985]]. The cover featured a fly, probably the same fly that is animated in the ''Fly on the Wall'' videos.
 
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**[[Iron Maiden]], a [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band, released a song called ''[[Lord of the Flies (song)|Lord of the flies]]'' as a single for their album ''[[The X Factor (album)|The X Factor]]'' in 1996 (later released on the live [[Death on the Road]]). It was based on the [[Lord of the Flies|book by the same name]].
 
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**[[Alice in chains]] released an album called [[Jar of flies]].
 
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
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===Biology===
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* Ashburner, M., and J. N. Thompson. 1978. The laboratory culture of ''Drosophila''. In M. Ashburner and T. R. F. Wright, eds., ''The genetics and biology of ''Drosophila. Academic Press. volume 2A: 1-81
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*[[Harold Oldroyd]] ''The Natural History of Flies''. New York: W. W. Norton.1965.
+
* Ashburner, M., K. G. Golic, and R. S. Hawley. 2005. ''Drosophila: A Laboratory Handbook''. Cold Spring Harbor, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.  
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*[[Eugène Séguy]] ''Diptera: recueil d'etudes biologiques et systematiques sur les Dipteres du Globe'' (Collection of biological and systematic studies on Diptera of the World). 11 vols. Text figs. ''Part of  Encyclopedie Entomologique'', Serie B II: Diptera. 1924-1953.
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* Blagoderov, V. A., E. D. Lukashevich, and M. B. Mostovski. 2002. [http://palaeoentomolog.ru/New/diptera.html Order Diptera]. In A. P. Rasnitsyn and D. L. J. Quicke, ''The History of Insects'', Dordrecht: Kluwer Publ.
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* Eugène Seguy. ''La Biologie des Dipteres'' 1950. pp. 609. 7 col + 3 b/w plates, 225 text figs.  
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* Oldroyd, H. 1965. ''The Natural History of Flies''. New York: W. W. Norton.
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===Classification===
 
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*Colless, D.H. & McAlpine, D.K.1991 ''Diptera (flies)'' , pp. 717-786. In: The Division of Entomology. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra (spons.), The insects of Australia.Melbourne Univ. Press, Melbourne.  
 
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*Griffiths, G.C.D. ''The phylogenetic classification of Diptera Cyclorrhapha, withspecial reference to the structure of the male postabdomen.'' Ser. Ent. 8, 340 pp. [Dr. W. Junk, N. V., The Hague] (1972).
 
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*Hendel, F. 1935 Bemerkungen zu "The families and genera of North American Diptera" by C. H.Curran,New-York 1934. ''Konowia'' 14: 51-57. [1935.03.15]
 
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*[[Willi Hennig]]  ''Die Larvenformen der Dipteren''. 3. Teil. Akad.-Verlag, Berlin. 185 pp., 3 pls. 1948 and
 
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*Flugelgeader und System der Dipteren unter Berucksichtigung der aus dem Mesozoikum beschriebenen Fossilien. ''Beitr. Ent.'' 4: 245-388 (1954).
 
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A very well-researched reference list of works on the [[Phylogeny]] (Classification and Identification of Diptera) is provided by Thompson as a pdf [http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/diptera/names/BDWDsour.pdf]
 
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===Evolution===
 
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Blagoderov, V.A., Lukashevich, E.D. & Mostovski, M.B. 2002. [http://palaeoentomolog.ru/New/diptera.html Order Diptera]. In: [[Alex Rasnitsyn|Rasnitsyn, A.P.]] and Quicke, D.L.J. The History of Insects, Kluwer Publ., Dordrecht, Boston, London, pp. 227-240.
 
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===Identification===
 
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*[[Erwin Lindner]] ''Die Fliegen der Paläarktischen Region''. The available parts of this very large work are listed on the publishers website [http://www.schweizerbart.de/pubs/series/lindner-erwin:-die-fliegen-der-palaearktischen-region132.html]. Band 1 ''Handbuch'', by Lindner himself, contains a history of dipterology, with sections on [[morphology]], [[physiology]] and [[taxonomy]] with a key to families and short notes on each. The work is finished and almost all parts are out of date but it remains the essential work.
 
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*''Faune de France'' Lechevalier, Paris. The many parts of this work are listed on the publishers website [http://www.insects.demon.co.uk/faune-france.html]. Less comprehensive than Lindner and , similarly, out of date but more convenient to use. The best parts are Parent on [[Dolichopodidae]] and Séguy’s large part 28 on [[Muscidae]] (including [[Anthomyiidae]]) [[Scathophagidae]] and [[Acalyptratae]]).
 
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*''Diptera of European part of Russia'' and ''Diptera of Far East of the U.S.S.R.'' in ''Fauna of the U.S.S.R.'' (New Series ''Fauna SSSR'')
 
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(Nasekomye dvukrylye) Chief Editor: B.E. Bykhovskii; Editorial board: I.M. Gromov, A.S. Monchadskii, A .A. Shtakel’berg, 0-A. Skarlato, and A.A. Strelkov (Volume editor) Izdatel’stvo “Nauka”Leningradskoe Otdelenie Leningrad (St. Petersburg). In Russian but with very useful figures. Some parts have been translated. Can anyone add a full list and availalibility details?
 
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*[[Willi Hennig]] Diptera (Zweifluger). ''Handb. Zool. Berl''. 4 (2 ) (31):1-337. General introduction with key to World Families. In German.
 
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*[[László Papp (entomology)|László Papp]] and [[Béla Darvas]] ''Contributions to a Manual of Palaearctic Diptera''. This book series was written by a group of international scientists. (1992-2000).
 
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*McAlpine, J. P. (ed.) ''Manual of Nearctic Diptera''. Research Branch, Agriculture Canada Monograph 27, 28 & 32 1981-89. Very good family and other keys.
 
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*Smith, KGV 1989 An introduction to the immature stages of British flies. Diptera (14). ''Handbks. Ident. Br. Insects'' 10(14). RESL Excellent introduction to Diptera larvae.
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
<ref name=Ashburner1>[[Michael Ashburner|Ashburner, M.]] and J. N. Thompson (1978). The laboratory culture of ''[[Drosophila]]''. In: ''The genetics and biology of ''Drosophila. (eds: [[Michael Ashburner|Ashburner, M.]] and T. R. F. Wright) Academic Press. volume 2A: 1-81</ref><ref name=Ashburner2>[[Michael Ashburner|Ashburner, M.]], K. G. Golic and R. S. Hawley (2005). ''Drosophila'': A Laboratory Handbook. Cold Spring Harbor, New York, USA, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Relevant data at page 162-164.</ref>
 
−
 
 
  
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==External links==
 
−
*[http://www.diptera.info/ Diptera.info] This is an interactive site for dipterists from all continents dealing with all aspects of dipterology (the study of Diptera: flies and midges) and dipterists.
 
−
*[http://www.cirrusimage.com/flies.htm Order Diptera - True Flies of North America]
 
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*[http://www.nearctica.com/nomina/diptera/diptera.htm Catalog of Neartic Diptera]
 
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*[http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/Diptera/biosys.htm The Diptera Site]
 
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*[http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/fossilcat/ The Bishop Museum Catalog of Fossil Diptera]
 
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*[http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Diptera The Tree of Life Project]
 
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*[http://www.zsm.mwn.de/Diptera/Dipt_Bay.htm Katalog der Dipteren Bayerns]
 
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*[http://www.isis.vt.edu/~fanjun/text/Link_specf02.html#special Flies Virginia Tech USA]
 
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*[http://www.speciesaccounts.org/Diptera.htm Species Accounts]
 
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*[http://www.dipteristsforum.org.uk The British Dipterists Forum]
 
  
 
<gallery>
 
<gallery>
−
Image:diptera_02gg.jpg|[[Calliphoridae]] - greenbottle fly
+
Image:diptera_02gg.jpg|Calliphoridae - greenbottle fly
−
Image:diptera_01gg.jpg|[[Sarcophagidae]] - flesh fly
+
Image:diptera_01gg.jpg|Sarcophagidae - flesh fly
−
Image:diptera_03gg.jpg|[[Muscidae]] - lesser house fly
+
Image:diptera_03gg.jpg|Muscidae - lesser house fly
−
Image:Golden-green-fly.jpg|[[Dolichopodidae]] - longlegged fly
+
Image:Golden-green-fly.jpg|Dolichopodidae - longlegged fly
 +
Image:Robber Fly 1 REFON.JPG|Robber fly
 +
Image:Neoitamus cyanurus.jpg|''Neoitamus cyanurus''
 +
Image:Choerades fimbriata01.jpg |''Choerades fimbriata''
 +
Image:asilidae.jpg|''Dasypogon diadema''
 
</gallery>
 
</gallery>
  

Revision as of 01:53, 12 December 2006

Diptera
200px
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Subclass: Pterygota
Infraclass: Neoptera
Superorder: Endopterygota
Order: Diptera
Linnaeus, 1758
Suborders

Nematocera (includes Eudiptera)
Brachycera

As defined by entomologists, a fly (plural flies) is any species of insect of the order Diptera. Insects of the order Diptera, known as true flies, are characterized by having a single pair of true wings, which are used for flight, while the hind wings are reduced into a pair of small knob-like structures called the halteres. In general, however, the term fly is commonly used in referring to almost any kind of small flying insect, such as mayflies, which have four wings.

Diptera is a large order containing an estimated 200,000 species, although under half of these (about 85,000 species) have been described. Diptera include species labeled as flies, mosquitoes, gnats, and midges. Some species are secondarily wingless (especially in the superfamily Hippoboscoidea, or those that live commensally with other species in social insect colonies).

Diptera is one of the major insect orders both in terms of ecological and human (medical and economic) importance. Ecologically, diptera are very diverse and fill many roles. They may be predaceous, herbivorous, endo- and ectoparasitic, saprophagous (detritus feeders), necrophagous (feed on dead organisms), and so forth. In addition to being an essential part of food chains, some species of flies spread pollen for pollination of plants, hasten decomposition, recycle nutrients, and eat other insects.

Flies are common among humans and some can cause the spread of serious diseases such as sleeping sickness. In particular the Culicidae family, which includes the mosquito, is of phenomenal historical and current importance as disease transmitters. The families of Muscidae (house flies), Sarcophagidae (flesh flies), and Calliphoridae (blow flies) can be annoyances and spread disease-causing pathogens. Other flies, such as the horse-fly (Family Tabanidae), can inflict painful bites.

The study of the Diptera is called dipterology.

Overview

Dipterans are widely distributed, being found in tropical, temperate, and even subartic environments. The largest insects of the present day are probably the 8 cm long robber flies.

Flies rely heavily on sight for survival. The compound eyes of flies are composed of thousands of individual lenses and are very sensitive to movement. Some flies have very accurate 3D vision. A few, like Ormia ochracea, have very advanced hearing organs.

Fly 01.gif

Flies can move from one point to another point by flying, but they can also walk and run (or scurry), such as moving around a piece of fruit in search of sugar.

The diet of flies varies heavily between species. The horse-fly and mosquitoes feed on blood and nectar, and the house fly eats a semi-digested liquid created by mixing enzyme-rich saliva with its food.

In compound names containing "fly" for members of the Diptera order, the name is normally written as two words, as in "crane fly", though there are exceptions, such as "sandfly," "blackfly," and commonly "housefly." For insects that are members of other orders the name should be written as a single word, as in "butterfly", "scorpionfly", and so forth.

Classification

There are two generally accepted suborders of Diptera. The Nematocera are usually recognized by their elongated bodies and feathery antennae as represented by mosquitoes and crane flies. The Brachycera tend to have a more roundly proportioned body and very short antennae. In some taxonomic schemes, the Nematocera are divided into 77 families of which 35 are extinct ( fossils only ) and the Brachycera into 141 families of which 8 are extinct. A more recent classification has been proposed in which the Nematocera is split into two suborders, the Archidiptera and the Eudiptera, but this has not yet gained widespread acceptance among dipterists.

House fly leg
  1. Suborder Nematocera – long antennae, pronotum distinct from mesonotum. In Nematocera, larvae are either eucephalic or hemicephalic and often aquatic.
  2. Suborder Brachycera – short antennae, the pupa is inside a puparium formed from the last larval skin. Brachycera are generally robust flies with larvae having reduced mouthparts.
    1. Infraorders Tabanomorpha and Asilomorpha – these comprise the majority of what was the Orthorrhapha under older classification schemes. The antennae are short, but differ in structure from those of the Muscomorpha.
    2. Infraorder Muscomorpha – (largely the Cyclorrhapha of older schemes). Muscomorpha have 3-segmented, aristate (with a bristle) antennae and larvae with three instars that are acephalic (maggots).

Most of the Muscomorpha are further subdivided into the Acalyptratae and Calyptratae based on whether or not they have a calypter (a wing flap that extends over the halteres).

Beyond that, considerable revision in the taxonomy of the flies has taken place since the introduction of modern cladistic techniques, and much remains uncertain. The secondary ranks between the suborders and the families are more out of practical or historical considerations than out of any strict respect for phylogenetic classifications.

Life cycle

The Mediterranean fruit fly, or "medfly", Ceratitis capitata

While complex, the life cycle of each fly species follows the same pattern of four distinct stages: egg, larva (commonly known as a maggot), pupa, and adult.

The duration of fly life cycles, from egg to adult, vary widely with species and environmental conditions, including temperature and food. For example, the life cycle of the house fly is about 7 to 10 days in warm temperatures. For the fruit fly (Drosophilia melanogaster) the shortest development time from egg to adult, 7 days, is achieved at 28 °C, while it takes 11 days at 30 °C, 19 days at 18 °C, and over 50 days at 12 °C (Ashburner and Thompson 1978, Ashburner et al. 2005).

Different species have their own characteristics relative to mating and egg laying. Fly eggs may be laid in decaying flesh, animal dung, manure, or pools of stagnant water—generally conditions that offer ample food for the larva and commonly in a moist area. This can include both meat in trash compactors as well as rats that have died between the ceiling and floor of a home.

After an egg has hatched, the fly enters the maggot stage. It begins to feed on whatever the egg was laid on, such as decomposing flesh. The maggot gorges itself with food until it is ready to enter the pupal stage, at which point the maggot travels away from the food source to an appropriate, generally moist spot. During the pupal stage, it morphorphosizes into an adult.

Importance of maggots

Maggot therapy used in a small wound

Long ago, some doctors noticed soldiers that had maggots on their wounds healed quicker than those without maggots. Maggots eat dead skin cells and bacteria. Maggot Therapy (also known as Maggot Debridement Therapy (MDT), larval therapy, larva therapy, or larvae therapy) is the intentional introduction of live, disinfected maggots or fly larvae into non-healing skin or soft tissue wounds of a human or other animal. This practice was widely used before the discovery of antibiotics, as it serves to clean the dead tissue within a wound in order to promote healing.

Some types of maggots found on corpses can be of great use to forensic scientists. By their stage of development (instar), these maggots can be used to give an indication of the time elapsed since death, as well as the place the organism died.

Maggots are bred commercially, as a popular bait in fishing, and a food for carnivourous pets such as reptiles or birds. Maggots have been used in food production, particularly cheese.

On the other hand, diverse maggots cause damage in agricultural crop production, including root maggots in rapeseed and midge maggots in wheat. Some maggots are leaf miners.

Maggots can also be a threat to household pets. Flies reproduce rapidly in the summer months and maggots can come in large numbers, creating a maggot infestation and a high risk of myiasis (invasion of living tissues) in pets. Despite the fact that maggots only eat dead tissue, they can be painful and present a serious risk to pets or any other animals. Humans are not immune to the feeding habits of maggots and can also contract myiasis. Interaction between humans and maggots usually occurs near garbage cans, dead animals, rotten food, and other breeding grounds for maggots. Maggots will look for dark moist areas and are commonly found in unclean places such as under bed sheets.

A major problem also arises when maggots turn into flies and start the life cycle over again. Within a few generations the number of maggots exponentially grows and becomes a serious problem. Professionals can remove maggots or many over the counter bug sprays can be used to deter flies and maggots. Keeping trash in a sealed container and using a garbage disposal or freezing rotting leftovers until trash day help prevent infestation.

Flies in mythology, religion, and culture

In traditional Navajo religion, Big Fly is an important spirit being. In the Hebrew language, the name Beelzebub, sometimes used as a synonym for Satan, is called Lord of the Flies (or rendered God of the fly, or host of the fly). In Greek mythology, Myiagros was a god who chased away flies during the sacrifices to Zeus and Athena. Also, Zeus sent a fly to sting the horse Pegasus causing Bellerophon to fall back to Earth when he attempted to ride to Mount Olympus.

In art, extremely life-like flies have sometimes been depicted in the trompe l'oeil paintings of the 15th century. An example is the painting Portrait of a Carthusian by Petrus Christus, showing a fly sitting on a fake frame.

Fly-like insects

The following are some examples of insects called flies, but not "true flies" (belonging to Diptera):

  • mayfly: Ephemeroptera
  • dragonfly and damselfly: Odonata
  • stonefly: Plecoptera
  • whitefly: Hemiptera
  • firefly: Coleoptera
  • alderfly, dobsonfly, and fishfly: Megaloptera
  • snakefly, mantidfly, and owlfly: Neuroptera
  • sawfly: Hymenoptera
  • caddisfly: Trichoptera
  • butterfly: Lepidoptera
  • scorpionfly, earwigfly, and hangingfly: Mecoptera


References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Ashburner, M., and J. N. Thompson. 1978. The laboratory culture of Drosophila. In M. Ashburner and T. R. F. Wright, eds., The genetics and biology of Drosophila. Academic Press. volume 2A: 1-81
  • Ashburner, M., K. G. Golic, and R. S. Hawley. 2005. Drosophila: A Laboratory Handbook. Cold Spring Harbor, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
  • Blagoderov, V. A., E. D. Lukashevich, and M. B. Mostovski. 2002. Order Diptera. In A. P. Rasnitsyn and D. L. J. Quicke, The History of Insects, Dordrecht: Kluwer Publ.
  • Oldroyd, H. 1965. The Natural History of Flies. New York: W. W. Norton.


  • Diptera 02gg.jpg

    Calliphoridae - greenbottle fly

  • Sarcophagidae - flesh fly

  • Muscidae - lesser house fly

  • Dolichopodidae - longlegged fly

  • Robber fly

  • Neoitamus cyanurus

  • Choerades fimbriata

  • Dasypogon diadema

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