Difference between revisions of "Caliph" - New World Encyclopedia
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== Origins and history == | == Origins and history == | ||
| − | Muslims | + | Sources vary on the origin of the Caliphate. Some Muslims hold that Muhamamd (pbuh) had neither appointed a successor nor legislated how the community should be governed after his death but that the ''ijma'' (consensus) of the community, which Muhammad said'would not agree in error' decided onthe Khalifate. The Khalif would lead the community but would have no privileged ability to interpret Islam. On the other hand, they were inititailly chosen for their piety of knowledge of Muhammad's ''sunnah'' (example, sayings and acts) and their views would have carried weight. It is beleived that the early Caliphs used the title, 'deputy of the Prophet of God' but that later they dropped 'the Prophet' and used only 'deputy of God'. Patrica Crone and Michael Cook (1997) argue that the Caliphs saw themselves as ruling directly on behalf of God, and that they did claim privileged authority. In fact, once ''Shariah'' (Islamic Law, although 'law' is not altogether an accurate translation) had been codified, it took priority (in theory) over any rulings that a Caliph, or a political authority appointed or designated by the Caliph, such as a Sultan, might decree. |
| − | According to Sunni thought, [[Abu Bakr|Abu Bakr as-Siddiq]], Muhammad's closest friend and father-in-law, either the first or second male convert, was the legitimate succesor to Muhammad, inasmuch as he was elected into the office of the Caliphate in [[632]]. The Shi'a, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad's successor should have been his cousin and son-in-law, [[Ali Ibn Abi Talib]], on the basis of his blood relation to the Prophet himself, and on the belief that he was designated by Muhammad as his successor. Although Ali was historically the fourth holder of the position, Shi'as consider him the first and perhaps only legitimate caliph. The Sunnis identify the first four Caliphs, all close associates of Muhammad, as the '"rightly guided" caliphs, standing in the following line of succession: Abu Bakr, [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], [[Uthman ibn Affan]], and Ali. They consider these to be the only caliphs who did not deviate from the standards laid down by Muhammad, but they generally recognise the legitimacy of the subsequent caliphate dynasties, beginning with [[Muawiyah I]] and the [[Umayyad]] dynasty. | + | Some parallels have been drawn between the offices of the caliphate and the [[Pope|papacy]], a position which, like that of caliph, has embraced spiritual, political and military leadership at different times over the centuries, and seen disputes over individual holders and the nature of the role itself. The two major traditins of Islam, [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]], differ profoundly on the critical question of who the first Caliph of Islam should have been, and the subsequent legitimacy of all later office holders. |
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| + | According to Sunni thought, [[Abu Bakr|Abu Bakr as-Siddiq]], Muhammad's closest friend and father-in-law, either the first or second male convert, was the legitimate succesor to Muhammad, inasmuch as he was elected into the office of the Caliphate in [[632]]. Some interpret various ''hadith'' as having actually appointed him prior to Muhammad's death. Most agree that it was those who gatehred in Madina after Muhamamd's death who decided that Abu Bakr was the 'best among the Muslims', and so should be selected as leader. Tradition says that although a council of citizens selected him initially, this was later ratified by members of the general public taking the oath of allegiance (''bayat''). The Shi'a, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad's successor should have been his cousin and son-in-law, [[Ali Ibn Abi Talib]], on the basis of his blood relation to the Prophet himself, and on the belief that he was designated by Muhammad as his successor. Although Ali was historically the fourth holder of the position, Shi'as consider him the first and perhaps only legitimate caliph. The Sunnis identify the first four Caliphs, all close associates of Muhammad, as the '"rightly guided" caliphs, standing in the following line of succession: Abu Bakr, [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], [[Uthman ibn Affan]], and Ali. They consider these to be the only caliphs who did not deviate from the standards laid down by Muhammad, but they generally recognise the legitimacy of the subsequent caliphate dynasties, beginning with [[Muawiyah I]] and the [[Umayyad]] dynasty. | ||
Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the west, Muslim rule expanded across [[North Africa]] and into [[Spain]]. To the east, it expanded through [[Iran]] and ultimately to [[India]]. However, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within Islam itself. Unlike the Sunni Muslims, the Shi'a did not recognise the legitimacy of the Umayyad dynasty. The Shi'a minority supported the [[Abbasid]] dynasty in its claim to the caliphate through the descendancy of [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]]. However, after the Abbasids successfully seized power from the Umayyads in [[750]], they adopted Sunni Islami once in power and disavowed Shia'a beliefs. The Abassaids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by [[940]] the power of the caliphate under the Abassids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the [[Turkish]] slaves known as [[Mamluks]], gained influence, and [[sultan]]s and [[emir]]s became increasingly independent. However, the caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world. | Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the west, Muslim rule expanded across [[North Africa]] and into [[Spain]]. To the east, it expanded through [[Iran]] and ultimately to [[India]]. However, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within Islam itself. Unlike the Sunni Muslims, the Shi'a did not recognise the legitimacy of the Umayyad dynasty. The Shi'a minority supported the [[Abbasid]] dynasty in its claim to the caliphate through the descendancy of [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]]. However, after the Abbasids successfully seized power from the Umayyads in [[750]], they adopted Sunni Islami once in power and disavowed Shia'a beliefs. The Abassaids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by [[940]] the power of the caliphate under the Abassids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the [[Turkish]] slaves known as [[Mamluks]], gained influence, and [[sultan]]s and [[emir]]s became increasingly independent. However, the caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world. | ||
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Vocabulary of Islam |
Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam. It is an Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word خليفة or Khalīfah (listen ▶) which means "successor", that is, successor to the prophet Muhammad. Some Orientalists wrote the title as Khalîf. The Caliph has often been referred to as Ameer al-Mumineen (أمير المؤمنين), or "Prince of the Faithful," where "Prince" is used in the context of "commander." The title has been defunct since the abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate in 1924. Historically selected by committee, the holder of this title claims temporal and spiritual authority over all Muslims, but is not regarded as a possessor of a prophetic mission, as Muhammad is regarded in Islam as the final prophet.
Modern understandings of the title of Caliph are varied. Some movements in modern Islamic philosophy have emphasized a protective dimension of Islamic leadership and social policy from an understanding of khalifa that equates roughly to "render stewardship" or "protect the same things as God". The modern absence of a single Muslim head of state is considered by some to be a violation of the Islamic legal code, the Shariah. Others insist that after the four rightful caliphs the office ceased to exist, meaning that those who claimed after that to be "khalifa" were actually "melik" (king). Islamist movements have argued for the necessity of re-establishing the institution of a single office whose occupant, as successor to Muhammad, would possess clear political, military, and legal standing as the global leader of the Muslims. Such an initiative has yet to gather much in the way of practical support in the Muslim world.
Origins and history
Sources vary on the origin of the Caliphate. Some Muslims hold that Muhamamd (pbuh) had neither appointed a successor nor legislated how the community should be governed after his death but that the ijma (consensus) of the community, which Muhammad said'would not agree in error' decided onthe Khalifate. The Khalif would lead the community but would have no privileged ability to interpret Islam. On the other hand, they were inititailly chosen for their piety of knowledge of Muhammad's sunnah (example, sayings and acts) and their views would have carried weight. It is beleived that the early Caliphs used the title, 'deputy of the Prophet of God' but that later they dropped 'the Prophet' and used only 'deputy of God'. Patrica Crone and Michael Cook (1997) argue that the Caliphs saw themselves as ruling directly on behalf of God, and that they did claim privileged authority. In fact, once Shariah (Islamic Law, although 'law' is not altogether an accurate translation) had been codified, it took priority (in theory) over any rulings that a Caliph, or a political authority appointed or designated by the Caliph, such as a Sultan, might decree.
Some parallels have been drawn between the offices of the caliphate and the papacy, a position which, like that of caliph, has embraced spiritual, political and military leadership at different times over the centuries, and seen disputes over individual holders and the nature of the role itself. The two major traditins of Islam, Sunni and Shi'a, differ profoundly on the critical question of who the first Caliph of Islam should have been, and the subsequent legitimacy of all later office holders.
According to Sunni thought, Abu Bakr as-Siddiq, Muhammad's closest friend and father-in-law, either the first or second male convert, was the legitimate succesor to Muhammad, inasmuch as he was elected into the office of the Caliphate in 632. Some interpret various hadith as having actually appointed him prior to Muhammad's death. Most agree that it was those who gatehred in Madina after Muhamamd's death who decided that Abu Bakr was the 'best among the Muslims', and so should be selected as leader. Tradition says that although a council of citizens selected him initially, this was later ratified by members of the general public taking the oath of allegiance (bayat). The Shi'a, on the other hand, believe that Muhammad's successor should have been his cousin and son-in-law, Ali Ibn Abi Talib, on the basis of his blood relation to the Prophet himself, and on the belief that he was designated by Muhammad as his successor. Although Ali was historically the fourth holder of the position, Shi'as consider him the first and perhaps only legitimate caliph. The Sunnis identify the first four Caliphs, all close associates of Muhammad, as the '"rightly guided" caliphs, standing in the following line of succession: Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali. They consider these to be the only caliphs who did not deviate from the standards laid down by Muhammad, but they generally recognise the legitimacy of the subsequent caliphate dynasties, beginning with Muawiyah I and the Umayyad dynasty.
Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the west, Muslim rule expanded across North Africa and into Spain. To the east, it expanded through Iran and ultimately to India. However, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within Islam itself. Unlike the Sunni Muslims, the Shi'a did not recognise the legitimacy of the Umayyad dynasty. The Shi'a minority supported the Abbasid dynasty in its claim to the caliphate through the descendancy of Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. However, after the Abbasids successfully seized power from the Umayyads in 750, they adopted Sunni Islami once in power and disavowed Shia'a beliefs. The Abassaids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by 940 the power of the caliphate under the Abassids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Turkish slaves known as Mamluks, gained influence, and sultans and emirs became increasingly independent. However, the caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world.
During the period of the Abassid dynasty, Abassid claims to the caliphate, did not go unchallenged. The Shi'a Said ibn Husayn of the Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descendancy of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially covering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine, before the Abbassid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting the Fatimids to rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171. The Ummayad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of the Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.
1258 saw the conquest of Baghdad and the execution of Abassid caliph by Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan. Although members of the Abassid dynasty proclaimed a new Caliphate within three years, based in Cairo, various other Muslim rulers had also begun to claim the title of caliph and the Muslim empire became fractured. Eventually the caliphate of the Ottomans established primacy. Thus, by the eve of the First World War, the Ottoman caliphate represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The rulers of the Ottoman state, however, only rarely used title of khalifa for political purposes. It is known that Mehmed II and his grandson Selim used it to justify their conquest of Islamic countries. At a later date, one of the last Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Abdulhamid II, used it as a tool against the European colonisation and occupation of countries with large Muslim populations.
How the Caliphate Came to an End
See the article Demise of the Ottoman Caliphate.
On March 3, 1924, the first President of the Turkish Republic, Kemal Atatürk, constitutionally abolished the institution of the Caliphate. It's powers were transfered to the Turkish Grand National Assembly (parliament) of the newly formed Turkish nation-state and the title has since been inactive. Scattered attempts to revive the Caliphate elsewhere in the Muslim World were made in the years immediately following its abandonment by Turkey, but none were successful. Hussein bin Ali, a former Ottoman governor of the Hejaz who had conspired with the British during World War I and revolted against Istanbul, declared himself Caliph at Mecca two days after Turkey relinquished the title. But no one took his claim seriously, and he was soon ousted and driven out of Arabia by the Saudis, a rival clan that had no interest in the Caliphate. The last Ottoman Sultan Mehmed VI made a similar attempt to re-establish himself as Caliph in the Hejaz after leaving Turkey, but he was also unsuccessful.
In the 1920s the Khilafat Movement, a movement to restore the Turkish Caliphate, spread throughout the British colonial territories in Asia. It was particularly strong in India, where it was a rallying point for Muslim communities. A summit was convened in Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the Caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate and no action was taken to implement the summit’s resolutions. Though the title Ameer al-Mumineen was adopted by the King of Morocco and Mullah Mohammed Omar, former head of the now-defunct Taliban regime of Afghanistan, neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries. The closest thing to a Caliphate in existence today is the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), an international organization founded in 1969 consisting of the governments of most Muslim-majority countries. But the OIC has limited influence; many Muslims are not aware that the organization exists, and its resolutions are often ignored even by member nations.
Contemporary Muslim Attitudes toward the Caliphate
Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the Caliphate has lain dormant and largely unclaimed for much of the past 81 years. The reasons for this are varied and complex. After World War I, most Muslim lands fell under foreign occupation. The Muslim World was subsequently reshaped along secular nationalist lines and heavily influenced by Western or socialist political philosophies. The role of mosques and the religious establishment was substantially reduced in most Muslim countries, leading to the emergence of political and military elites that viewed Islam as a personal matter and not a basis for political unity or a viable foundation for a modern state. Furthermore, the prevalence of old grudges and nationalist rivalries (particularly in the Arab world) have prevented large-scale interstate cooperation amongst Muslim states from taking place.
Though Islam is still a dominant influence in most Muslim societies and many Muslims remain in favor of a Caliphate, tight restrictions on political activity in many Muslim countries coupled with the tremendous practical obstacles to uniting over fifty disparate nation-states under a single institution have prevented efforts to revive the Caliphate from garnering much active support, even amongst devout Muslims. Popular apolitical Islamic movements such as the Tablighi Jamaat identify a lack of spirituality and decline in religious observance as the root cause of the Muslim World's problems, and claim that the Caliphate cannot be successfully revived until these deficiencies are addressed. No attempts at rebuilding a power structure based on Islam were successful anywhere in the Muslim World until the Iranian Revolution in 1979, which was based on Shia principles and did not deal with the issue of a global Caliphate.
Sunni & Wahabi Islamist movements have gained momentum in recent years, calling for a restoration of the Caliphate. However many such movements have as yet been unable to agree on a roadmap or a coherent model of Islamic governance, and dialog on this issue amongst Muslim intellectuals has been characterized by uncertainty and confusion amidst a broad range of viewpoints on what a modern Islamic state should look like. Many Islamic institutions in Muslim countries today have generally not made the restoration of the Caliphate a top priority and have instead focused on other issues. Most regimes have actually been hostile to such a call. The party most known to call for the restoration of a Caliphate are the transnational vanguard Hizb_ut-Tahrir, who have detailed a draft constitution for a future Caliphate or Khilafah, written books related to its funds, economic system, political system, and a method to go about its restoration.[1]
Famous caliphs
- Abu Bakr - First rightly guided caliph of the Sunnis. Subdued rebel tribes in the Ridda Wars.
- Umar ibn al-Khattab - Second rightly guided caliph. During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include Egypt, Jerusalem, and Persia.
- Uthman ibn Affan - Third rightly guided caliph. The Qur'an was compiled under his direction. Killed by rebels.
- Ali ibn Abi Talib - Fourth and last rightly guided caliph, and considered the first imam by Shi'a Muslims. His reign was fraught with internal conflict.
- Muawiya I - First Umayyad caliph. Muawiya instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son Yazid as his successor, a trend that would continue through all subsequent caliphates.
- Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz - Umayyad caliph considered by some (mainly Sunnis) to be a fifth rightly guided caliph.
- Haroon al-Rasheed - Abbasid caliph during whose reign Baghdad became the world's preeminent center of trade, learning, and culture. Haroon is the subject of many stories in the famous work 1001 Arabian Nights.
- Suleiman the Magnificent - Early Ottoman Sultan during whose reign the Ottoman Empire reached its zenith.
Dynasties
The more important dynasties include:
- The Umayyad dynasty in Damascus (661-750), followed by:
- The Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad (750-1258), and later in Cairo (under Mameluke control) (1260-1517)
- The Shi'ite Fatimid dynasty in North Africa and Egypt (909-1171). Not universally accepted and not currently included in the following list.
- The Umayyad Emirs of Córdoba, Spain, declared themselves Caliphs (known as the Caliphs of Cordoba; not universally accepted; 929-1031)
- The Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Spain (not universally accepted; 1145-1269)
- The Ottomans (1453-1924; the title was not used between the time of Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century and that of Abdul-Hamid II in the late 19th)
Note on the overlap of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates: After the massacre of the Umayyad clan by the Abbassids, one lone prince escaped and fled to North Africa, which remained loyal to the Umayyads. This was Abd-ar-rahman I. From there, he proceeded to Spain, where he overthrew and united the provinces conquered by previous Umayyad Caliphs (in 712 and 712). From 756 to 929, this Umayyad domain in Spain was an independent emirate, until Abd-ar-rahman III reclaimed the title of Caliph for his dynasty. The Umayyad Emirs of Spain are not listed in the summary below because they did not claim the caliphate until 929. For a full listing of all the Umayyad rulers in Spain see the Umayyad article.
List
The Rashidun ("Righteously Guided")
The Umayyads of Damascus
The Abbasids of Baghdad(Not accepted by the Muslim dominions in the Iberian peninsula and parts of North Africa)
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The Umayyads of Cordoba(Not universally accepted)
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The Almohads of Spain and Morroco(Not universally accepted)
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The Abbasids of Cairo
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The Ottomans
Note: From 1908 onwards constitutional monarch without executive powers, with parliament consisting of chosen representatives.
The Republic of Turkey
Although the title of Caliph is currently unused, it could conceivably be used again if the Turkish parliament were to decide to reactivate it. |
See Also
- History of Islam
External links
- History of the Indian Khilafat Movement
- A vision of a 21st Century Khilafah
- List of articles on the nature of a new Khilafah
- Page dedicated to having a Khilafah in Indonesia
- Caliphate Blog
- The Political Framework of Islam & Khilafah by Prof. Kurshid Ahmad
- Prof Yusuf al-Qaradawi on The politics of Islam
- Political Islam: Beyond the Green Menace, by John Esposito, Journal of Current History
ca:Califa da:kalifat de:Kalifat es:Califa eo:Kalifo fr:Califat he:ח'ליף id:Khalifah it:Califfo ja:カリフ la:Calipha nl:Kalifaat no:Kalif pl:Kalifat pt:Califa sv:Kalifat zh:哈里发
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