Difference between revisions of "Ayurveda" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
m
 
(25 intermediate revisions by one other user not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
 
{{Approved}}{{Submitted}}{{Images OK}}{{Copyedited}}
 
{{Approved}}{{Submitted}}{{Images OK}}{{Copyedited}}
−
[[Image:Dwanandhari Deva.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ayurveda—intertwined with [[Indian mythology|mythology]] and [[Indian religion|religion]]—traces the origin of traditional Indian medicine to the legendary [[Dhanvantari]], who received his knowledge from [[Brahma]]—the [[Hindu]] God of creation.]]
+
[[Image:Dwanandhari Deva.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Ayurveda—intertwined with [[Indian mythology|mythology]] and [[Indian religion|religion]]—traces the origin of traditional Indian medicine to the legendary [[Dhanvantari]], who received his knowledge from [[Brahma]]—the [[Hindu]] God of creation.]]
−
'''Ayurveda''' ([[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]]: आयुर्वॆद, the 'science of life') is a system of [[traditional medicine]] native to [[India]],<ref name=Chopra75>A.S. Chopra, in "Ayurveda," ''Medicine Across Cultures,'' edited by Helaine Selin & H. Shapiro, 75-83. (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003. ISBN 1402011660), 75</ref> and practiced in other parts of the world as a form of [[alternative medicine]].<ref name=AYUSH/> In [[Sanskrit]], the word Ayurveda comprises the words ''{{IAST|āyus}},'' meaning 'life'  and ''{{IAST|veda}}'', meaning 'science'.<ref name=Chopra75/> Evolving throughout its history, Ayurveda remains an influential system of medicine in [[South Asia]].<ref>H. M. Sharma & Gerard C. Bodeker, in "Alternative Medicine" (1997) (medical system). ''Encyclopedia Britannica 2008.'' ; Chopra, 2003 </ref> The earliest literature of Ayurveda appeared during the [[Vedic period]] in India.<ref name=AYUSH>[http://indianmedicine.nic.in/html/ayurveda/ayurveda.htm ''Department of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy''. Ministry of Health & Family Welfare (Government of India).] Retrieved November 16, 2008.</ref> The ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' and the ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'' were influential works on traditional medicine during this era.<ref name=AYUSH/> Ayurvedic practitioners also identified a number of medicinal preparations and surgical procedures for curing various ailments and diseases.<ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07/>
+
'''Ayurveda''' ([[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]]: आयुर्वॆद, the 'science of life') is a system of [[traditional medicine]] native to [[India]], and practiced in other parts of the world as a form of [[alternative medicine]]. In [[Sanskrit]], the word Ayurveda comprises the words ''{{IAST|āyus}},'' meaning 'life'  and ''{{IAST|veda}}'', meaning 'science.'<ref name=Chopra75>A.S. Chopra, in "Ayurveda," ''Medicine Across Cultures,'' edited by Helaine Selin & H. Shapiro. (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003, ISBN 1402011660), 75.</ref> Evolving throughout its history, Ayurveda remains an influential system of medicine in [[South Asia]]. The earliest literature of Ayurveda appeared during the [[Vedic period]] in India. The ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' and the ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'' were influential works on traditional medicine during this era. Ayurvedic practitioners also identified a number of medicinal preparations and surgical procedures for curing various ailments and diseases.
 
{{toc}}
 
{{toc}}
−
[[Image:Cardomom plant.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Hundreds of vegetable drugs are used in Ayurvedic medicine—including [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]], both of which are believed to stimulate [[digestive enzymes]] that break down [[polymeric]] [[macromolecules]] in the Human body.<ref name=Mitra2>K.S. Mitra & P.R. Rangesh, "Irritable Colon (Grahni)," ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies.'' (CRC Press, 2003. ISBN 084931366X), 363</ref>]]
+
 
−
[[Image:Nagarjuna.gif|thumb|200px|right|Several philosophers In India combined religion and traditional medicine—notable examples being that of [[Buddhism]] and Ayurveda. Shown in the image is the philosopher [[Nagarjuna]]—known chiefly for his doctrine of the ''[[Madhyamika]]'' (middle path)—who wrote medical works ''The Hundred Prescriptions'' and ''The Precious Collection,'' among others.<ref name=CliffordMLBD>Terry Clifford. ''Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry.'' (Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 2003. ISBN 8120817842), 42. </ref>]]
+
Ayurveda has become an [[alternative medicine|alternative form of medicine]] in the [[western world]], where [[patent]]s for its medicine have been passed, and the [[intellectual property]] rights contested by Western and Indian institutions.<ref>P.N.V. Kurup in "Ayurveda—A Potential Global Medical System," ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies,'' edited by L.C. Mishra, (CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 084931366X), 1-14.</ref>  
−
[[Image:Fruit I IMG 9577.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Research suggests that ''[[Terminalia arjuna]]'' is useful in alleviating the [[pain and nociception|pain]] of [[angina pectoris]] and in treating [[heart failure]] and [[coronary artery disease]]. Terminalia may also be useful in treating [[hypercholesterolemia]]<ref name="pmid9855567">A.L. Miller, Botanical influences on cardiovascular disease. ''Alern Med Rev'' 3 (3}(1998): 422–431 pmid=9855567</ref>]]
 
−
[[Image:Neemtree.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[Azadirachta indica]]''—believed to have immunopotentiating abilities and used often as an anti-infective—has been found to enhance the production of [[IL-2]] and increase immunity in human volunteers by boosting [[lymphocyte]] and [[T-cell]] count in three weeks.<ref name=Mungantiwar>A.A. Mungantiwar & A.S. Phadke, (2003) "Immunomodulation: Therapeutic Strategy through Ayurveda," in ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies,'' edited by L.C. Mishra. (CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X), 72.</ref>]]
 
−
[[Image:Cataract in human eye.png|thumb|right|200px|Cataract in Human Eye—magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Cataract surgery was known to the physician [[Sushruta]].<ref name=finger66>Stanley Finger. ''Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function.'' (Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0195146948)</ref>  In [[India]], cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the ''Jabamukhi Salaka,'' a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.<ref name=finger66>Finger, 66</ref>]]
 
−
[[Image:Sesame oil.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Oils—such as [[sesame]] and [[sunflower]] oil—are extensively used in Ayurvedic medicine. Studies show that both these oils contain substantial amount of [[linoleate]] in [[triglyceride]] form. Oils rich in [[linoleic acid]] may have [[antineoplastic|antineoplastic properties]].<ref name=SahuCRC>S. Sahu & L.C. Mishra, in "Benign Growths, Cysts, and Malignant Tumors," ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies,'' edited by L.C. Mishra. (CRC Press, 2003. ISBN 084931366X), 300</ref>]]
 
−
Ayurveda has become an [[alternative medicine|alternative form of medicine]] in the [[western world]], where patents for its medicine have been passed, and the intellectual property rights contested by Western and Indian institutions.<ref>P.N.V. Kurup in "Ayurveda—A Potential Global Medical System," ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies,'' edited by L.C. Mishra, 1-14. (CRC Press, 2003. ISBN 084931366X); Mitra, 2003, and Sharma & Bodeker </ref> Ayurveda is considered to be a form of [[complementary and alternative medicine]] (CAM) within the [[United States of America]], where several of its methods—such as herbs, massage, and [[Yoga as exercise or alternative medicine]]—are applied on their own as a form of CAM treatment.<ref name=nccam1>[http://nccam.nih.gov/news/newsletter/2006_winter/ayurveda.htm "A Closer Look at Ayurvedic Medicine." NIH: ''Focus on Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' XII (4) (Fall 2005/Winter 2006). National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, National Institutes of Health.] Retrieved November 16, 2008.</ref>
 
  
 
==Origins==
 
==Origins==
−
Ayurveda traces its origins to the [[Vedas]]—the [[Atharvaveda]] in particular—and is connected to [[religion]] and [[mythology]].<ref>Indian medicine has a long history. Its earliest concepts are set out in the sacred writings called the [[Veda]]s, especially in the metrical passages of the [[Atharvaveda]], which may possibly date as far back as the second millennium B.C.E. According to a later writer, the system of medicine called Āyurveda was received by a certain [[Dhanvantari]] from [[Brahma]], and Dhanvantari was deified as the god of medicine. In later times his status was gradually reduced, until he was credited with having been an earthly king who died of snakebite. -E. Ashworth Underwood & P. Rhodes,  in "Medicine, history of", ''Encyclopedia Britannica 2008.''</ref> The ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' of [[Sushruta]] appeared during the first millennium B.C.E. on the work of the surgeon Sushruta<ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07>Girish Dwivedi& Shridhar Dwivedi, 2007. [http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf ''History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence'']. ''National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre'' (Government of India). Retrieved December 10, 2008 </ref>  
+
[[Image:Cardomom plant.JPG|thumb|400px|right|Hundreds of vegetable drugs are used in Ayurvedic medicine—including [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]], both of which are believed to stimulate [[digestive enzymes]] that break down [[polymeric]] [[macromolecules]] in the Human body.<ref name=Mitra2>K.S. Mitra and P.R. Rangesh, "Irritable Colon (Grahni)," ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies'' (CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 084931366X).</ref>]]
 +
[[Image:Nagarjuna.gif|thumb|300px|right|Several philosophers In India combined religion and traditional medicine—notable examples being that of [[Buddhism]] and Ayurveda. Shown in the image is the philosopher [[Nagarjuna]]—known chiefly for his doctrine of the ''[[Madhyamika]]'' (middle path)—who wrote medical works ''The Hundred Prescriptions'' and ''The Precious Collection,'' among others.<ref name=CliffordMLBD>Terry Clifford, ''Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry'' (Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 2003, ISBN 8120817842), 42. </ref>]]
 +
[[Image:Fruit I IMG 9577.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Research suggests that ''[[Terminalia arjuna]]'' is useful in alleviating the [[pain and nociception|pain]] of [[angina pectoris]] and in treating [[heart failure]] and [[coronary artery disease]]. Terminalia may also be useful in treating [[hypercholesterolemia]]<ref name="pmid9855567">A.L. Miller, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9855567/ Botanical influences on cardiovascular disease] ''Altern Med Rev'' 3(3}(1998): 422–431. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref>]]
 +
[[Image:Neemtree.jpg|thumb|400px|right|''[[Azadirachta indica]]''—believed to have immunopotentiating abilities and used often as an anti-infective—has been found to enhance the production of [[IL-2]] and increase immunity in human volunteers by boosting [[lymphocyte]] and [[T-cell]] count in three weeks.<ref name=Mungantiwar>A.A. Mungantiwar & A.S. Phadke,"Immunomodulation: Therapeutic Strategy through Ayurveda," in ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies,'' edited by L.C. Mishra (CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 084931366X), 72.</ref>]]
 +
[[Image:Cataract in human eye.png|thumb|right|400px|Cataract in Human Eye—magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Cataract surgery was known to the physician [[Sushruta]].<ref name=finger66>Stanley Finger, ''Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function'' (Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0195146948).</ref>  In [[India]], cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the ''Jabamukhi Salaka,'' a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.<ref name=finger66/>]]
 +
[[Image:Sesame oil.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Oils—such as [[sesame]] and [[sunflower]] oil—are extensively used in Ayurvedic medicine. Studies show that both these oils contain substantial amount of [[linoleate]] in [[triglyceride]] form. Oils rich in [[linoleic acid]] may have [[antineoplastic|antineoplastic properties]].<ref name=SahuCRC>S. Sahu and L.C. Mishra, "Benign Growths, Cysts, and Malignant Tumors," in ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies,'' edited by L.C. Mishra (CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 084931366X), 300.</ref>]]
 +
Ayurveda traces its origins to the [[Vedas]]—the [[Atharvaveda]] in particular—and is connected to [[religion]] and [[mythology]].<ref>Indian medicine has a long history. Its earliest concepts are set out in the sacred writings called the [[Veda]]s, especially in the metrical passages of the [[Atharvaveda]], which may possibly date as far back as the second millennium B.C.E. According to a later writer, the system of medicine called Āyurveda was received by a certain [[Dhanvantari]] from [[Brahma]], and Dhanvantari was deified as the god of medicine. In later times his status was gradually reduced, until he was credited with having been an earthly king who died of snakebite.</ref> The ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' of [[Sushruta]] appeared during the first millennium B.C.E. on the work of the surgeon Sushruta:
 +
<blockquote>The original text is believed to have 5 books and 120 chapters. The text in its current form contains details of around 1120 medical conditions, 700 medicinal plants, 400 surgeries and 121 surgical instruments.<ref>Aditi Shah, Sushruta Samhita: The Ancient Treatise on Surgery ''Live India'', November 27, 2017.</ref> </blockquote>
  
−
<blockquote>"The main vehicle of the transmission of knowledge during that period was by oral method. The language used was [[Sanskrit]]—the [[Vedic sanskrit|vedic language]] of that period (2000-500 B.C.E.). The most authentic compilation of his teachings and work is presently available in a treatise called ''Sushruta Samhita.'' This contains 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources."</blockquote>
+
This early phase of traditional Indian medicine identified [[fever]] (''takman''), [[cough]], [[consumption]], [[diarrhea]], [[dropsy]], [[abscesses]], [[seizure]]s, [[tumor]]s, and [[skin disease]]s (including [[leprosy]]).<ref name=Britannica>William Archibald Robson Thomson, Douglas James Guthrie, E. Ashworth Underwood, Philip Rhodes, and Robert G. Richardson, [https://academic-eb-com.eres.qnl.qa/levels/collegiate/article/history-of-medicine/110313 History of Medicine] ''Britannica Academic''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref>Treatment of complex ailments—including [[Angina pectoris]], [[diabetes]], [[hypertension]], and [[Calculus (medicine)|stones]]—also ensued during this period.<ref name=Lock836>Stephen Lock, John M. Last, and George Dunea (eds.), ''The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine'' (Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0192629506), 836.</ref> [[Plastic surgery]], [[cataract surgery]], puncturing to release fluids in the [[abdomen]], extraction of foreign elements, treatment of [[anal fistula]]s, treating [[fracture]]s, [[amputation]]s, [[cesarean section]]s, and stitching of wounds were known. The use of [[herb]]s and [[surgical instrument]]s became widespread.<ref name=Britannica/>
  
−
Underwood and Rhodes (2008) hold that this early phase of traditional Indian medicine identified '[[fever]] (''takman''), [[cough]], [[consumption]], [[diarrhea]], [[dropsy]], [[abscesses]], [[seizure]]s, [[tumor]]s, and [[skin disease]]s (including [[leprosy]]).'<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Treatment of complex ailments—including [[Angina pectoris]], [[diabetes]], [[hypertension]], and [[Calculus (medicine)|stones]]—also ensued during this period.<ref name=Lock836>Stephen Lock, etc. ''The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine.'' (Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0192629506), 836</ref><ref name=Dwivedi&Dwivedi07/> [[Plastic surgery]], [[cataract surgery]], puncturing to release fluids in the [[abdomen]], extraction of foreign elements, treatment of [[anal fistula]]s, treating [[fracture]]s, [[amputation]]s, [[cesarean section]]s, and stitching of wounds were known.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> The use of [[herb]]s and [[surgical instrument]]s became widespread.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)>Underwood & Rhodes (2008)</ref>
+
Other early works of Ayurveda include the ''[[Charaka Samhita]],'' attributed to [[Charaka]].<ref name=Britannica/> The earliest surviving excavated written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the ''[[Bower Manuscript]]''—dated to the fourth century C.E.<ref>P. Kutumbian, ''Ancient Indian Medicine'' (Orient Longman, 2005, ISBN 8125015213), XXXII-XXXIII.</ref> The Bower manuscript cites directly from Sushruta, and is of special interest to historians due to the presence of Indian medicine and its concepts in [[Central Asia]].<ref name=WujastykXXVI/> [[Vagbhata (Ayurveda)|Vagbhata]]—the son of a senior doctor by the name of Simhagupta—<ref>Wujastyk, 224.</ref> also compiled his works on traditional medicine. Early Ayurveda had a school of physicians and a school of surgeons.<ref name=AYUSH>[https://www.ayush.gov.in/ Department of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy] ''Government of India''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Tradition holds that the text ''[[Agnivesh tantra]]''—written by the legendary sage Agnivesh, a student of the mythological sage [[Bharadwaja]]—influenced the writings of Ayurveda.<ref>Vināyaka Jayānanda Ṭhākara, ''Methodology of Research in Ayurveda'' (Gujarat Ayurved University, 1989), 7.</ref>  
  
−
Other early works of Ayurveda include the ''[[Charaka Samhita]],'' attributed to [[Charaka]].<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> The earliest surviving excavated written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the ''[[Bower Manuscript]]''—dated to the fourth century C.E.<ref>P. Kutumbian. ''Ancient Indian Medicine.'' (Orient Longman, 2005. ISBN 8125015213), XXXII-XXXIII</ref> The Bower manuscript cites directly from Sushruta, and is of special interest to historians due to the presence of Indian medicine and its concepts in [[Central Asia]].<ref name=WujastykXXVI/> [[Vagbhata (Ayurveda)|Vagbhata]]—the son of a senior doctor by the name of Simhagupta—<ref>Wujastyk, 224</ref> also compiled his works on traditional medicine.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Early Ayurveda had a school of physicians and a school of surgeons.<ref name=AYUSH/> Tradition holds that the text ''[[Agnivesh tantra]]''—written by the legendary sage Agnivesh, a student of the mythological sage [[Bharadwaja]]—influenced the writings of Ayurveda.<ref>Vināyaka Jayānanda Ṭhākara. ''Methodology of Research in Ayurveda.'' (Gujarat Ayurved University, 1989), 7.</ref>  
+
The [[Chinese people|Chinese]] pilgrim [[Fa Hsien]] (ca. 337 - 422 C.E..) wrote about the health care system of the [[Gupta empire]] (320 - 550 C.E.) and—in process—described the institutional approach of Indian medicine which is also visible in the works of Caraka, who mentions a clinic and how it should be equipped.<ref name=WujastykXV-XVI>Wujastyk, XV-XVI</ref> Madhava (700 C.E.), Sarngadhara (1300 C.E.), and Bhavamisra (1500 C.E.) compiled works on Indian medicine.<ref name=WujastykXXVI>Wujastyk, XXVI</ref> The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were translated into [[Arabic language]] during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] (750 C.E.). These Arabic works made their way into [[Europe]] via intermediaries. In [[Italy]] the Branca family of [[Sicily]] and Gaspare Tagliacozzi ([[Bologna]]) became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.<ref name=Lock607>Lock, 607.</ref>
  
−
The [[Chinese people|Chinese]] pilgrim [[Fa Hsien]] (ca. 337 - 422 C.E.) wrote about the health care system of the [[Gupta empire]] (320 - 550 C.E.) and—in process—described the institutional approach of Indian medicine which is also visible in the works of Caraka, who mentions a clinic and how it should be equipped.<ref name=WujastykXV-XVI>Wujastyk, XV-XVI</ref> Madhava (700 C.E.), Sarngadhara (1300 C.E.), and Bhavamisra (1500 C.E.) compiled works on Indian medicine.<ref name=WujastykXXVI>Wujastyk, XXVI</ref> The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were translated into [[Arabic language]] during the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] (750 C.E.).<ref>Lock, 607</ref> These Arabic works made their way into [[Europe]] via intermediaries. In [[Italy]] the Branca family of [[Sicily]] and Gaspare Tagliacozzi ([[Bologna]]) became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.<ref name=Lock607>Lock, 607</ref>
+
[[England|British]] physicians traveled to India to see [[Rhinoplasty]] being performed by native methods. Reports on Indian Rhinoplasty were published in the ''[[Gentleman's Magazine]]'' by 1794.<ref name=Lock651>Lock, 651.</ref> [[Joseph Constantine Carpue]] spent 20 years in India studying local plastic surgery methods. Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the Western world by 1815. Instruments described in the ''Sushruta Samhita'' were further modified in the Western World.<ref name=Lock652>Lock, 652.</ref>
−
 
 
−
[[England|British]] physicians traveled to India to see [[Rhinoplasty]] being performed by native methods.<ref name=Lock651>Lock, 651</ref> Reports on Indian Rhinoplasty were published in the ''[[Gentleman's Magazine]]'' by 1794.<ref name=Lock651/> [[Joseph Constantine Carpue]] spent 20 years in India studying local plastic surgery methods.<ref name=Lock651/> Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the Western world by 1815. Instruments described in the ''Sushruta Samhita'' were further modified in the Western World.<ref name=Lock652>Lock, 652</ref>
 
  
 
==Description==
 
==Description==
−
Ayurveda believes in 'five great elements' ([[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]]: पन्छतत्व‌; [[earth]], [[water]], [[fire]], [[air]] and [[space]]) forming the universe, including the human body.<ref name=Chopra75/> [[Blood]], [[flesh]], [[fat]], [[bone]], [[bone marrow|marrow]], [[chyle]], and [[semen]] are the seven primary constituent elements (Devanāgarī: सप्तधातु) of the body.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Ayurveda stresses a balance of three substances: wind/spirit/air, [[phlegm]], and [[bile]], each representing divine forces.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> The doctrine of these three ''Dosas'' (Devanāgarī: त्रिदॊश्)—''vata'' (wind/spirit/air), ''pitta'' (bile) and ''kapha'' (phlegm)—is important. Traditional beliefs hold that humans possess a unique constellation of ''Dosas.''<ref name=Chopra77>Chopra, 77</ref> In Ayurveda, the human body has 20 ''Guna'' (Devanāgarī: गुन, meaning quality).<ref name=Chopra76>Chopra, 76</ref> Surgery and surgical instruments are employed. It is believed that building a healthy [[metabolism|metabolic system]], attaining good [[digestion]], and proper [[excretion]] leads to vitality.<ref name=Chopra76/> Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, [[yoga]], [[meditation]], and [[massage]].
+
Ayurveda believes in 'five great elements' ([[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]]: पन्छतत्व‌; [[earth]], [[water]], [[fire]], [[air]] and [[space]]) forming the universe, including the human body.<ref name=Chopra75/> [[Blood]], [[flesh]], [[fat]], [[bone]], [[bone marrow|marrow]], [[chyle]], and [[semen]] are the seven primary constituent elements (Devanāgarī: सप्तधातु) of the body.<ref name=Britannica/> Ayurveda stresses a balance of three substances: wind/spirit/air, [[phlegm]], and [[bile]], each representing divine forces. The doctrine of these three ''Dosas'' (Devanāgarī: त्रिदॊश्)—''vata'' (wind/spirit/air), ''pitta'' (bile) and ''kapha'' (phlegm)—is important. Traditional beliefs hold that humans possess a unique constellation of ''Dosas.''<ref name=Chopra77>Chopra, 77.</ref> In Ayurveda, the human body has 20 ''Guna'' (Devanāgarī: गुन, meaning quality).<ref name=Chopra76>Chopra, 76.</ref> Surgery and surgical instruments are employed. It is believed that building a healthy [[metabolism|metabolic system]], attaining good [[digestion]], and proper [[excretion]] leads to vitality.<ref name=Chopra76/> Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, [[yoga]], [[meditation]], and [[massage]].
  
−
The concept of ''[[Panchakarma]]'' (Devanāgarī: पन्छ्कर्म‌) is believed to eliminate [[toxin|toxic]] elements from the body.<ref>A.K. Sharma, (2003) in "Panchkarma Therapy in Ayurvedic Medicine," ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies,'' edited by L.C. Mishra. (CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X), 43.</ref> Eight disciplines of Ayurveda treatment, called ''Ashtanga'' (Devanāgarī: अश्ताग्), are given below:<ref name=Chopra80>Chopra, 80</ref>  
+
The concept of ''[[Panchakarma]]'' (Devanāgarī: पन्छ्कर्म‌) is believed to eliminate [[toxin|toxic]] elements from the body.<ref>A.K. Sharma, "Panchkarma Therapy in Ayurvedic Medicine," in ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies,'' edited by L.C. Mishra, (CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 084931366X), 43.</ref> Eight disciplines of Ayurveda treatment, called ''Ashtanga'' (Devanāgarī: अश्ताग्), are given below:<ref name=Chopra80>Chopra, 80</ref>  
  
 
* [[Surgery]] ''(Shalya-chkitsa).''
 
* [[Surgery]] ''(Shalya-chkitsa).''
 
* Treatment of diseases above the [[clavicle]] ''(Salakyam).''
 
* Treatment of diseases above the [[clavicle]] ''(Salakyam).''
 
* Internal [[medicine]] ''(Kaya-chikitsa).''
 
* Internal [[medicine]] ''(Kaya-chikitsa).''
−
* [[Demonic possession]] ''([[Bhuta]] [[VIDYA|vidya]])'': Ayurveda believes in demonic intervention and—as a form of traditional medicine—identifies a number of ways to counter the supposed effect of these interferences.<ref name=WujastykXXI>Wujastyk, XXI</ref> ''Bhuta vidya'' has been called psychiatry.<ref name=AYUSH/>
+
* [[Demonic possession]] ''([[Bhuta]] [[VIDYA|vidya]])'': Ayurveda believes in demonic intervention and—as a form of traditional medicine—identifies a number of ways to counter the supposed effect of these interferences.<ref name=WujastykXXI>Wujastyk, XXI.</ref> ''Bhuta vidya'' has been called psychiatry.<ref name=AYUSH/>
 
* [[Pediatrics]] ''(Kaumarabhrtyam).''
 
* [[Pediatrics]] ''(Kaumarabhrtyam).''
 
* [[Toxicology]] ''(Agadatantram).''
 
* [[Toxicology]] ''(Agadatantram).''
Line 39: Line 39:
  
 
==Practices==
 
==Practices==
−
[[Buddhism]] may have been an influence on the development of many of Ayurveda's central ideas—particularly its fascination with balance, known in Buddhism as ''[[Madhyamika]]'' (Devanāgarī: मद्यमिका).<ref name=WujastykXVIII/> Balance is emphasized and suppressing natural urges is seen to be unhealthy and doing so may almost certainly lead to illness.<ref name=WujastykXVIII/> To stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure is stressed upon.<ref name=WujastykXVIII/> Ayurveda emphasizes on moderation in food intake, sleep, sexual intercourse, and the intake of medicine.<ref name=WujastykXVIII>Wujastyk, XVIII</ref>
+
[[Buddhism]] may have been an influence on the development of many of Ayurveda's central ideas—particularly its fascination with balance, known in Buddhism as ''[[Madhyamika]]'' (Devanāgarī: मद्यमिका). Balance is emphasized and suppressing natural urges is seen to be unhealthy and doing so may almost certainly lead to illness. To stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure is stressed upon.<ref name=WujastykXVIII/> Ayurveda emphasizes on moderation in food intake, sleep, sexual intercourse, and the intake of medicine.<ref name=WujastykXVIII>Wujastyk, XVIII.</ref>
−
 
 
−
Ayurveda incorporates an entire system of dietary recommendations.<ref name=Chopra75/> Chopra (2003), on the subject of Ayurveda dietetics, writes:<ref name=Chopra78>Chopra, 78</ref>
 
  
−
<blockquote>"Ayurvedic dietetics comprise a host of recommendations, ranging from preparation and consumption of food, to healthy routines for day and night, sexual life, and rules for ethical conduct. In contrast to contemporary practitioners of New Age Ayurveda, older Ayurvedic authors tended to be religiously neutral. Even Buddhist authors refrained from trying to convert the patient to follow their particular religious ways."</blockquote>
+
Ayurveda incorporates an entire system of dietary recommendations:
 +
<blockquote>Ayurvedic dietetics comprise a host of recommendations, ranging from preparation and consumption of food, to healthy routines for day and night, sexual life, and rules for ethical conduct. In contrast to contemporary practitioners of New Age Ayurveda, older Ayurvedic authors tended to be religiously neutral. Even Buddhist authors refrained from trying to convert the patient to follow their particular religious ways.<ref name=Chopra78>Chopra, 78.</ref>
 +
</blockquote>
  
−
For diagnosis the patient is to be questioned and all five [[senses]] are to be employed. The ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'' recommends a tenfold examination of the patient. The qualities to be judged are: constitution, abnormality, essence, stability, body measurements, diet suitability, psychic strength, digestive capacity, physical fitness and age.<ref name=Chopra79>Chopra, 79</ref> [[Hearing]] is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> The study of the vital [[pressure points]] or ''[[marmam|marma]]'' is of special importance.<ref name=Chopra76/>
+
For diagnosis the patient is to be questioned and all five [[senses]] are to be employed. The ''[[Charaka Samhita]]'' recommends a tenfold examination of the patient. The qualities to be judged are: constitution, abnormality, essence, stability, body measurements, diet suitability, psychic strength, digestive capacity, physical fitness and age.<ref name=Chopra79>Chopra, 79.</ref> [[Hearing]] is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech.<ref name=Britannica/> The study of the vital [[pressure points]] or ''[[marmam|marma]]'' is of special importance.<ref name=Chopra76/>
  
 
Chopra (2003) identifies five influential criteria for diagnosis: 'origin of the disease, prodrominal (precursory) symptoms, typical symptoms of the fully developed disease, observing the effect of therapeutic procedures, and the pathological process.'<ref name=Chopra79/>
 
Chopra (2003) identifies five influential criteria for diagnosis: 'origin of the disease, prodrominal (precursory) symptoms, typical symptoms of the fully developed disease, observing the effect of therapeutic procedures, and the pathological process.'<ref name=Chopra79/>
  
−
[[Hygiene]]—also a component of religious virtue to many Indians—is a strong belief.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Hygienic living involves regular bathing, cleansing of teeth, skin care, and eye washing.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Occasional anointing of the body with oil is also prescribed.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/>
+
[[Hygiene]]—also a component of religious virtue to many Indians—is a strong belief. Hygienic living involves regular bathing, cleansing of teeth, skin care, and eye washing. Occasional anointing of the body with oil is also prescribed.<ref name=Britannica/>
  
−
Ayurveda stresses on [[vegetable]] drugs.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Fats are used both for consumption and for external use.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Hundreds of vegetable drugs are employed, including [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]].<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Some animal products may also be used, for example [[milk]], [[bones]], and [[gallstone]]s, etc.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> [[Mineral]]s—including [[sulfur]], [[arsenic]], [[lead]], [[copper sulfate]], and [[gold]]—are also consumed as prescribed.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/>
+
Ayurveda stresses on [[vegetable]] drugs. Fats are used both for consumption and for external use. Hundreds of vegetable drugs are employed, including [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]]. Some animal products may also be used, for example [[milk]], [[bones]], and [[gallstone]]s, etc. [[Mineral]]s—including [[sulfur]], [[arsenic]], [[lead]], [[copper sulfate]], and [[gold]]—are also consumed as prescribed.<ref name=Britannica/>
  
−
[[Alcohol]] is used as a [[narcotic]] for the patient undergoing operation in some cases.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> The advent of [[Islam]] introduced [[opium]] as a narcotic.<ref name=Chopra80/> Both oil and tar are used to stop bleeding.<ref name=Underwood&Rhodes(2008)/> Oils may be used in a number of ways including regular consumption as a part of food, [[anointing]], smearing, ''[[champissage|head massage]],'' and prescribed application to infected areas.<ref name=WujastykXX>Wujastyk, XX</ref>
+
[[Alcohol]] is used as a [[narcotic]] for the patient undergoing operation in some cases.<ref name=Britannica/> The advent of [[Islam]] introduced [[opium]] as a narcotic.<ref name=Chopra80/> Both oil and tar are used to stop bleeding.<ref name=Britannica/> Oils may be used in a number of ways including regular consumption as a part of food, [[anointing]], smearing, ''[[champissage|head massage]],'' and prescribed application to infected areas.<ref name=WujastykXX>Wujastyk, XX.</ref>
  
−
The proper function of channels—tubes that exist within the body and transport fluids from one point to another—is seen as vital, and the lack of healthy channels may lead to [[disease]] and [[insanity]].<ref name=WujastykXIX-XX>Wujastyk, XIX-XX</ref> Sushruta identifies that blockages of these channels may lead to [[rheumatism]], [[epilepsy]], [[paralysis]], and [[convulsion]]s as fluids and channels are diverted from their ideal locations.<ref name=WujastykXIX-XX/> [[Sweating]] is favored as a manner in which to open up the channels and dilute the ''Doshas'' causing the blockages and harming a patient—a number of ways to take [[Steambath|steam bathing]] and other [[steam]] related cures are recommended so that these [[toxin]]s are released.<ref name=WujastykXIX-XX/>
+
The proper function of channels—tubes that exist within the body and transport fluids from one point to another—is seen as vital, and the lack of healthy channels may lead to [[disease]] and [[insanity]]. Sushruta identifies that blockages of these channels may lead to [[rheumatism]], [[epilepsy]], [[paralysis]], and [[convulsion]]s as fluids and channels are diverted from their ideal locations. [[Sweating]] is favored as a manner in which to open up the channels and dilute the ''Doshas'' causing the blockages and harming a patient—a number of ways to take [[Steambath|steam bathing]] and other [[steam]] related cures are recommended so that these [[toxin]]s are released.<ref name=WujastykXIX-XX>Wujastyk, XIX-XX.</ref>
  
 
==Current Status==
 
==Current Status==
 
===Within South Asia===
 
===Within South Asia===
−
In 1970, the Indian Medical Central Council Act was passed by the [[Parliament of India]], which aims to standardize qualifications for Ayurveda and provide accredited institutions for its study and research.<ref name=WujastykXXII/> In India, over 100 colleges offer degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine. Indian Government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels—both at the national and state levels—and helps institutionalize traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.<ref name=WujastykXVI>Wujastyk, XVI</ref> The state-sponsored [[Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha]] (CCRAS) is the apex institution for promotion of traditional medicine in India. The studies conducted by this institution encompass clinical, drug, literary, and family welfare research.<ref name=Kurup7>Kurup, 7</ref>
+
In 1970, the Indian Medical Central Council Act was passed by the [[Parliament of India]], which aims to standardize qualifications for Ayurveda and provide accredited institutions for its study and research.<ref name=WujastykXXII/> In India, over 100 colleges offer degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine. Indian Government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels—both at the national and state levels—and helps institutionalize traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.<ref name=WujastykXVI>Wujastyk, XVI</ref> The state-sponsored [[Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha]] (CCRAS) is the apex institution for promotion of traditional medicine in India. The studies conducted by this institution encompass clinical, drug, literary, and family welfare research.<ref name=Kurup7>Kurup, 7.</ref>
  
−
Many successful clinics are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes—both in the urban and the rural areas.<ref name=WujastykXXII>Wujastyk, XXII</ref> Mukherjee and Wahile cite [[World Health Organization]] statistics to demonstrate the popularity of traditional medicine, on which a significant number of the world's population depends for primary health care.<ref name=Mukherjee&Wahile>P.K. Mukherjee & A. Wahile, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16271286 P.K. Mukherjee & A. Wahile in "Integrated approaches towards drug development from Ayurveda and other Indian system of medicines," ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'' 103(1) (Jan 3, 2006):25-35. Retrieved November 16, 2008.</ref> In [[Sri Lanka]], the number of traditional Ayurveda practitioners is greater than trained [[History_of_medicine#Modern_medicine|modern medicine]] professionals.<ref>"Health and welfare (from Sri Lanka)." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' (2008).</ref> The manufacture and marketing of Ayurvedic medicine has been commercially successful for several [[pharmaceutical]] companies.<ref name=WujastykXXII>Wujastyk, XXII</ref>
+
Many successful clinics are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes—both in the urban and the rural areas.<ref name=WujastykXXII>Wujastyk, XXII.</ref> Mukherjee and Wahile cite [[World Health Organization]] statistics to demonstrate the popularity of traditional medicine, on which a significant number of the world's population depends for primary health care.<ref name=Mukherjee&Wahile>P.K. Mukherjee and A. Wahile, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16271286/ Integrated approaches towards drug development from Ayurveda and other Indian system of medicines] ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'' 103(1) (Jan 3, 2006):25-35. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> The manufacture and marketing of Ayurvedic medicine has been commercially successful for several [[pharmaceutical]] companies.<ref name=WujastykXXII/>
  
 
===Outside India===
 
===Outside India===
 
Ayurveda practitioners require a license in another stream of [[health care]] in the [[United States of America]]. Academic institutions related to traditional medicine in India have contributed to Ayurveda's international visibility. Kurup (2003) comments on the role of [[Gujarat Ayurved University]]:
 
Ayurveda practitioners require a license in another stream of [[health care]] in the [[United States of America]]. Academic institutions related to traditional medicine in India have contributed to Ayurveda's international visibility. Kurup (2003) comments on the role of [[Gujarat Ayurved University]]:
  
−
<blockquote>"The Gujarat Ayurved University has signed the [[Memorandum of Understanding]] (MoU) with nine Ayurvedic institutes functioning in [[Japan]], [[Australia]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Italy]], [[Argentina]], and [[Germany]] to coordinate and facilitate the globalization of Ayurveda through academic collaboration. Earlier, Medical (Ayu) Institute of [[Russia]] had signed the MoU with the Government of India, in which Gujarat Aryurved University is also one of the implementing authorities."<ref name=Kurup6>Kurup, 6</ref></blockquote>
+
<blockquote>"The Gujarat Ayurved University has signed the [[Memorandum of Understanding]] (MoU) with nine Ayurvedic institutes functioning in [[Japan]], [[Australia]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Italy]], [[Argentina]], and [[Germany]] to coordinate and facilitate the globalization of Ayurveda through academic collaboration. Earlier, Medical (Ayu) Institute of [[Russia]] had signed the MoU with the Government of India, in which Gujarat Aryurved University is also one of the implementing authorities."<ref name=Kurup6>Kurup, 6.</ref></blockquote>
  
−
Ayurveda gained recognition in the [[Western world]] as medical scholars researched and outlined its various postulates.<ref>Frank John Ninivaggi. ''Ayurveda: A Comprehensive Guide to Traditional Indian Medicine for the West.'' (Praeger Press, 2007. ISBN 0313348375.)</ref> In the [[United States of America]], the NIH [[NCCAM]] spends some of its budget on Ayurvedic medicine research. In addition, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine (NIAM), established by Dr. Scott Gerson, is an example of a research institute that has carried out research into Ayurvedic practices.<ref>[http://niam.com/corp-web/index.htm ''National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine'' (United States)]''NIAM"". Retrieved November 16, 2008.</ref> Gerson has published part of his work on the antifungal activities of certain Ayurvedic plants in academic journals.<ref>S. Gerson & L.H. Green, in "Preliminary Evaluation Of Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts of Morinda citrifolia Linn," ''Abstr. Am. Soc. Microbiol.'' A-66 (May 2002):13 </ref> The postulates and history of Ayurveda have also been outlined by foreign scholars—such as Dominik Wujastyk in the [[United Kingdom]].<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/wujastyk.html Dr Dominik Wujastyk, University College London.] Retrieved November 16, 2008.</ref>
+
Ayurveda gained recognition in the [[Western world]] as medical scholars researched and outlined its various postulates.<ref>Frank John Ninivaggi, ''Ayurveda: A Comprehensive Guide to Traditional Indian Medicine for the West'' (Praeger Press, 2007, ISBN 0313348375).</ref> In the [[United States of America]], the NIH [[NCCAM]] spends some of its budget on Ayurvedic medicine research. In addition, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine (NIAM), established by Dr. Scott Gerson, is an example of a research institute that has carried out research into Ayurvedic practices.<ref>[http://www.panchakarma.com/the-national-institute-of-ayurvedic-medicine-new-york-usa-p-342.html ''The National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine, New York, USA''] Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref>  
  
 
===Patents===
 
===Patents===
−
In December 1993, the [[University of Mississippi]] Medical Center had a patent issued to them by [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] on the use of [[turmeric]] for healing.<ref>US Patent No. 5,401,504</ref> The patent was contested by India's industrial research organization, [[CSIR India|Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R)]], on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for centuries, making this patent a case of [[bio-piracy]].<ref name="HerbalGram">Barbara Johnston & Ginger Webb, 1997. Turmeric Patent Overturned in Legal Victory. ''HerbalGram'' 41 (Fall 1997): 11 [http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=7&hid=108&sid=ecc8454b-c5ab-4d0c-9358-e355356593fe%40sessionmgr103 ]] Retrieved November 18, 2008.</ref>
+
In December 1993, the [[University of Mississippi]] Medical Center had a patent issued to them by [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] on the use of [[turmeric]] for healing.<ref>US Patent No. 5,401,504.</ref> The patent was contested by India's industrial research organization, [[CSIR India|Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R)]], on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for centuries, making this patent a case of [[bio-piracy]]. To fight biopiracy and unethical patents, in 2001 the government of India set up the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library as a repository for formulations of various systems of Indian medicine, such as Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and Yoga.<ref>[https://www.wipo.int/meetings/en/2011/wipo_tkdl_del_11/about_tkdl.html About the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library] ''WIPO''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref>
  
 
=== Scientific evidence ===
 
=== Scientific evidence ===
−
As a [[traditional medicine]], many Ayurveda products have not been tested in rigorous scientific studies and [[clinical trials]]. In India, research in Ayurveda is largely undertaken by the statutory body of the [[Government of India|Central Government]], the [[Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha]] (CCRAS), through a national network of research institutes.<ref name="ccras">Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (Government of India) [http://www.ccras.nic.in/ ]. Retrieved November 16, 2008.</ref> A systematic review of Ayurveda treatments for rheumatoid [[arthritis]] concluded that there was insufficient evidence, as most of the trials were not done properly, and the one high-quality trial showed no benefits.<ref name=Park2005>J. Park & E. Ernst, Ayurvedic medicine for rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review. ''Semin. Arthritis Rheum.'' 34 (5)(April 2005): 705–713. pmid 15846585 doi=10.1016/j.semarthrit.2004.11.005.</ref> A review of Ayurveda and [[cardiovascular disease]] concluded that while the herbal evidence is not yet convincing, the spices are appropriate; some herbs are promising, and [[yoga]] is also a promising complementary treatment.<ref name=Mamtani2005>R. Mamtani, Ayurveda and yoga in cardiovascular diseases. ''Cardiol Rev'' 13 (3) (2005): 155–162 pmid=15834238 doi= [http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1061-5377&volume=13&issue=3&spage=155]. Retrieved November 18, 2008.</ref>
+
As a [[traditional medicine]], many Ayurveda products have not been tested in rigorous scientific studies and [[clinical trials]]. In India, research in Ayurveda is largely undertaken by the statutory body of the [[Government of India|Central Government]], the [[The Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences]] (CCRAS), through a national network of research institutes.<ref>[http://www.ccras.nic.in/ The Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS)] ''Ministry of AYUSH'', Government of India. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref>  
−
 
 
−
Despite these misgivings, some ayurvedic products, mainly [[herbalism|herbs]] used for [[phytotherapy]], have been tested with promising results. [[Turmeric]] and its derivative [[curcumin]] appears to have beneficial properties.<ref name=Aggarwal2007>B.B. Aggarwal, C. Sundaram, N. Malani, H. Ichikawa. Curcumin: the Indian solid gold. ''Adv. Exp. Med. Biol.'' 595 (2007): 1–75.  pmid=17569205 </ref> Tinspora cordifolia has been tested.<ref name=Panchabhai2008>T.S. Panchabhai, U.P. Kulkarni, N.N. Rege, Validation of therapeutic claims of Tinospora cordifolia: a review. ''Phytother Res'' 22 (4)(April 2008): 425–441 pmid=18167043  doi=10.1002/ptr.2347 </ref> Among the medhya ''rasayanas'' (intellect rejuvenation), two varieties of sage have been tested; one improved word recall in young adults,<ref name="pmid12895685">N.T. Tildesley, D.O. Kennedy, E.K. Perry,  et al. Salvia lavandulaefolia (Spanish sage) enhances memory in healthy young volunteers. ''Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav.'' 75 (3)(June 2003): 669–674 pmid=12895685 </ref> and another improved symptoms in Alzheimer's patients.<ref name="pmid12605619">S. Akhondzadeh, et al. Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. ''J Clin Pharm Ther'' 28 (1) (February 2003): 53–59  pmid=12605619 </ref> In some cases, Ayurvedic medicine may provide clues to therapeutic compounds. For example, derivatives of [[snake venom]] have various therapeutic properties.<ref name=Koh2006>D.C. Koh, A. Armugam, K. Jeyaseelan. Snake venom components and their applications in biomedicine. ''Cell. Mol. Life Sci.'' 63 (24) (December 2006): 3030–3041 pmid=17103111 doi=10.1007/s00018-006-6315-0 </ref> Many plants used as ''rasayana'' (rejuvenation) medications are potent antioxidants.<ref name=Govindarajan2005> {{cite journal |author= Govindarajan R. , Vijayakumar M. , Pushpangadan P.  Antioxidant approach to disease management and the role of 'Rasayana' herbs of Ayurveda. ''J Ethnopharmacol'' 99 (2)(June 2005): 165–178 pmid=15894123 doi=10.1016/j.jep.2005.02.035 </ref> [[Neem]] appears to have beneficial pharmacological properties as well.<ref name=Subapriya2005>R. Subapriya, S. Nagini. Medicinal properties of neem leaves: a review. ''Curr Med Chem Anticancer Agents'' 5 (2) (March 2005):149–146 pmid=15777222 [http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/nlm?genre=article&issn=1568-0118&volume=5&issue=2&spage=149&aulast=Subapriya]. Retrieved November 18, 2008.</ref>
 
  
−
Mitra and Rangesh (2003) hold that [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]] are believed to stimulate [[digestive enzymes]] that break down [[polymeric]] [[macromolecules]] in the Human body.<ref name=Mitra2>Mitra & Rangesh, page 363</ref> Research suggests that ''[[Terminalia arjuna]]'' is useful in alleviating the [[pain and nociception|pain]] of [[angina pectoris]] and in treating [[heart failure]] and [[coronary artery disease]].<ref name="pmid9855567"/> ''Terminalia arjun'' may also be useful in treating [[hypercholesterolemia]].<ref name="pmid9855567"/> ''[[Azadirachta indica]]'' is believed to have immunopotentiating abilities and is used often as an anti-infective.<ref name=Mungantiwar/> It has been found to enhance the production of [[IL-2]] and increase immunity in human volunteers by boosting [[lymphocyte]] and [[T-cell]] count in three weeks.<ref name=Mungantiwar/> Both [[black pepper]] and [[long pepper]] find application in Ayurvedic medicine in conjunction with [[ginger]] to form ''trikatu''—a the traditional mixture. ''Trikatu'' has been suggested to increase appetite, promote the secretion of [[digestive juices]], and cure certain [[gastric|gastric disorder]]s—particularly [[Achlorhydria]] and [[Hypochlorhydria]].
+
There are few research studies that confirm the effectiveness of Ayurvedic medicine. Some results suggest that Ayurvedic approaches may be effective in reducing pain and increasing movement due to [[osteoarthritis]].<ref name=NCCIH>[https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ayurvedic-medicine-in-depth#concerns Ayurvedic Medicine: In Depth] ''National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health''. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> Although laboratory experiments suggest it is possible that some substances in Ayurveda might be developed into effective treatments, there is no evidence that any are effective in themselves.
  
 
===Safety concerns===
 
===Safety concerns===
−
A paper by Saper et al. published in 2004 in the [[Journal of the American Medical Association]] studied the [[chemistry]] of Ayurveda compounds and found significant levels of [[toxic metals|toxic heavy metals]] such as [[lead]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[arsenic]] in 20 percent of Ayurvedic preparations that were made in South Asia for sale around [[Boston]] and extrapolated the data to America.<ref name="pmid15598918">R.B. Saper, S.N. Kales, J. Paquin, et al. Heavy metal content of Ayurveda herbal medicine products. ''JAMA'' 292 (23) (December 2004): 2868–2873. pmid=15598918 doi=10.1001/jama.292.23.2868 [http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/292/23/2868]. Retrieved November 18, 2008.</ref> The Journal found that, if taken according to the manufacturers' instructions, this 20 percent of remedies "could result in heavy metal intakes above published regulatory standards"<ref name="pmid15598918"/> There is a technique of detoxification applied to heavy metals and toxic herbs called [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]], which is similar to the Chinese [[pao zhi]] although the Ayurvedic technique is more complex and may involve prayers as well as physical pharmacy techniques. There is evidence that using some Ayurveda medicine, especially those involving [[herb]]s, [[metal]]s, [[mineral]]s, or other materials involves potentially serious risks, including [[toxicity]].<ref>[http://nccam.nih.gov/health/ayurveda/#concerns ''Ayurvedic Medicine: An Introduction'']. 2005. ''National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine''. Retrieved November 16, 2008.</ref><ref name=NewYorkTimes2008-09-17>Abby Ellin, [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/18/fashion/18skin.html?em=&pagewanted=all Skin Deep: Ancient, but how safe?]. [[New York Times]] 2008-09-17, accessdate 2008-09-19. "A report in the Aug. 27 issue of The ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' found that nearly 21 percent of 193 ayurvedic herbal supplements bought online, produced in both India and the United States, contained [[lead]], [[mercury]] or [[arsenic]]."</ref>
+
Significant levels of [[toxic metals|toxic heavy metals]] such as [[lead]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[arsenic]] have been found in Ayurvedic preparations.<ref name="pmid15598918">R.B. Saper, S.N. Kales, J. Paquin, et al. [https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1108395 Heavy metal content of Ayurveda herbal medicine products] ''JAMA'' 292 (23) (December 2004): 2868–2873. Retrieved March 5, 2021.</ref> There is evidence that using some Ayurveda medicine, especially those involving [[herb]]s, [[metal]]s, [[mineral]]s, or other materials involves potentially serious risks, including [[toxicity]]. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration warns that the presence of metals in some Ayurvedic products makes them potentially harmful.<ref name=NCCIH/>
−
 
 
−
Following the study conducted by Saper et al. the Government of India ruled that Ayurvedic products must specify their metallic content directly on the labels of the product.<ref name=Valiathan06>M.S. Valiathan, Ayurveda: Putting the house in order. ''Current Science''  90 (1) (10 January 2006): 5-6, Indian Academy of Sciences.</ref> The harmful effects of the samples is attributed in part to the adulterated raw material and lack of workers trained in traditional medicine.<ref name=Dubeyetc./> In a letter to the [[Indian Academy of Sciences]], Patwardhan Bhushan—director of the Interdisciplinary School of Health Sciences, [[University of Pune]]—cites Saper etc. and states that contamination and carelessness during the modern manufacturing processes, quicker than the safer traditional methods of preparation, is to blame for the heavy level of [[toxicity]] in traditional medicine.<ref name=Bhusanetc.>Bhushan, et al. Heavy metals and Ayurveda. ''Current Science'' 88 (10) (25 May 2005). Indian Academy of Sciences.</ref> Bhushan further writes, "Presence of spurious substances in market samples is not new. However, it does not reflect adversely on the importance of modern medicine. For instance, [[cyanide]] tainted Tylenol 5, according to Bhushan. Therefore, conclusion of Saper et al. that ‘users of Ayurvedic medicine may be at risk for heavy metal toxicity’ is certainly not justified. It only relates to certain samples of Ayurvedic medicines from certain companies in certain locations."<ref name=Bhusanetc./> The flawed output has resulted in decline of Ayurveda in India as well as abroad.<ref name=Dubeyetc.>N.K. Dubey, R. Kumar, and P. Tripathi. Global promotion of herbal medicine: India’s opportunity. ''Current Science'' 86 (1) (10 January 2004): 37-41. Indian Academy of Sciences.</ref>
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 90: Line 86:
 
==References==
 
==References==
  
−
* Aggarwal B.B., C. Sundaram, N. Malani, H. Ichikawa. Curcumin: the Indian solid gold. ''Adv. Exp. Med. Biol.'' 595 (2007): 1–75.  
+
* Aggarwal B.B., C. Sundaram, N. Malani, and H. Ichikawa. Curcumin: the Indian solid gold. ''Adv. Exp. Med. Biol.'' 595 (2007): 1–75.  
−
* Akhondzadeh S., M. Noroozian, M. Mohammadi, S. Ohadinia, A.H. Jamshidi, M. Khani. (February 2003). Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. ''J Clin Pharm Ther'' 28 (1): 53–59.  
+
* Akhondzadeh S., M. Noroozian, M. Mohammadi, S. Ohadinia, A.H. Jamshidi, M. Khani. Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. ''J Clin Pharm Ther'' 28(1) (February 2003): 53–59.  
−
* Bhushan, et al. Heavy metals and Ayurveda. ''Current Science'' 88 (10) (25 May 2005). Indian Academy of Sciences.
+
* Bhushan, et al. Heavy metals and Ayurveda. ''Current Science'' 88(10) (May 25, 2005).  
−
* Chopra, A.S. in "Ayurveda," ''Medicine Across Cultures,'' edited by Selin, Helaine & Shapiro, H. 75-83. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003. ISBN 1402011660.
 
 
* Clifford, Terry. ''Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry.'' Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 2003. ISBN 8120817842.
 
* Clifford, Terry. ''Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry.'' Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 2003. ISBN 8120817842.
−
* Dwivedi, Girish & Shridhar Dwivedi, 2007. [http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf ''History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence'']. National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre (Government of India).
 
 
* Finger, Stanley. ''Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function.'' US: Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0195146948.
 
* Finger, Stanley. ''Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function.'' US: Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0195146948.
−
* Gerson, S. & L.H. Green, in Preliminary Evaluation Of Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts of Morinda citrifolia Linn., ''Abstr. Am. Soc. Microbiol.'' A-66 (May 2002):13.
+
* Gerson, S., and L.H. Green. Preliminary Evaluation Of Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts of Morinda citrifolia Linn., ''Abstr. Am. Soc. Microbiol.'' A-66 (May 2002):13.
−
* Govindarajan R., M. Vijayakumar, P. Pushpangadan. (June 2005). Antioxidant approach to disease management and the role of 'Rasayana' herbs of Ayurveda. ''J Ethnopharmacol'' 99 (2): 165–178.
+
* Govindarajan R., M. Vijayakumar, and P. Pushpangadan. Antioxidant approach to disease management and the role of 'Rasayana' herbs of Ayurveda. ''J Ethnopharmacol'' 99(2) (June 2005): 165–178.  
−
 
 
−
* Johnston, Barbara, & Ginger Webb, 1997. Turmeric Patent Overturned in Legal Victory. ''HerbalGram'' 41 (Fall 1997): 11 [http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=7&hid=108&sid=ecc8454b-c5ab-4d0c-9358-e355356593fe%40sessionmgr103 ]] Retrieved November 18, 2008. 
 
−
* Kurup, P.N.V. in "Ayurveda—A Potential Global Medical System," ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies,'' edited by Mishra, L.C. 1-14. CRC Press, 2003. ISBN 084931366X.
 
 
* Kutumbian, P. ''Ancient Indian Medicine.'' Orient Longman, 2005. ISBN 8125015213.
 
* Kutumbian, P. ''Ancient Indian Medicine.'' Orient Longman, 2005. ISBN 8125015213.
−
* Lock, Stephen, etc. ''The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine.'' Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0192629506.
+
* Lock, Stephen, John M. Last, and George Dunea (eds.). ''The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine.'' Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0192629506.
−
* Mamtani, R. Ayurveda and yoga in cardiovascular diseases. ''Cardiol Rev'' 13 (3) (2005): 155–162 pmid=15834238 doi= [http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1061-5377&volume=13&issue=3&spage=155]. Retrieved November 18, 2008
+
* Miller, A.L. Botanical influences on cardiovascular disease. ''Alern Med Rev'' 3(3} (1998): 422–431.  
−
* Miller, A.L. Botanical influences on cardiovascular disease. ''Alern Med Rev'' 3 (3}(1998): 422–431 pmid=9855567.  
+
* Mishra, L.C. (ed). ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies'' CRC Press, 2003. ISBN 084931366X.
−
* Mitra, K.S. & P.R. Rangesh, in "Irritable Colon (Grahni)," ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies,'' edited by Mishra, L.C. CRC Press, 2003. ISBN 084931366X.
+
* Mukherjee, P.K., and A. Wahile, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16271286/ Integrated approaches towards drug development from Ayurveda and other Indian system of medicines] ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'' 103(1) (Jan 3, 2006):25-35. Retrieved March 1, 2021.
−
* Mukherjee, P.K., & A. Wahile, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16271286 P.K. Mukherjee & A. Wahile in "Integrated approaches towards drug development from Ayurveda and other Indian system of medicines," ''Journal of Ethnopharmacology'' 103(1) (Jan 3, 2006):25-35. Retrieved November 16, 2008.
 
−
* Mungantiwar, A.A., & A.S. Phadke, "Immunomodulation: Therapeutic Strategy through Ayurveda," in Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies, edited by Mishra, L.C. 72. (CRC Press, 2003.  ISBN 084931366X.
 
 
* Ninivaggi, Frank John. ''Ayurveda: A Comprehensive Guide to Traditional Indian Medicine for the West.'' Praeger Press, 2007. ISBN 0313348375.
 
* Ninivaggi, Frank John. ''Ayurveda: A Comprehensive Guide to Traditional Indian Medicine for the West.'' Praeger Press, 2007. ISBN 0313348375.
−
* Panchabhai T.S., U.P. Kulkarni, N.N. Rege. (April 2008). Validation of therapeutic claims of Tinospora cordifolia: a review. ''Phytother Res'' 22 (4): 425–441.
+
* Panchabhai T.S., U.P. Kulkarni, and N.N. Rege. Validation of therapeutic claims of Tinospora cordifolia: a review. ''Phytother Res'' 22 (4) (April 2008): 425–441.
−
* Park. J., E. Ernst. Ayurvedic medicine for rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review. ''Semin. Arthritis Rheum.'' 34 (5)(April 2005): 705–713.   
+
* Park. J., and E. Ernst. Ayurvedic medicine for rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review. ''Semin. Arthritis Rheum.'' 34(5) (April 2005): 705–713.   
−
* Sahu, S. & L.C. Mishra, (2003) in "Benign Growths, Cysts, and Malignant Tumors," ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies edited by L.C. Mishra.'' CRC Press: ISBN 084931366X.
+
* Selin, Helaine, and H. Shapiro (eds.). ''Medicine Across Cultures'', Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003. ISBN 1402011660.
−
* Sharma, A.K. in "Panchkarma Therapy in Ayurvedic Medicine," ''Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies,'' edited by Mishra, L.C. CRC Press, 2003. ISBN 084931366X.
+
* Subapriya, R., and S. Nagini. [https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cmcaca/2005/00000005/00000002/art00006;jsessionid=166qby8a6jq1y.x-ic-live-03 Medicinal properties of neem leaves: a review]. ''Curr Med Chem Anticancer Agents'' 5(2) (March 2005):149–146. Retrieved March 1, 2021.
−
* Sharma, H. M. & Gerard C. Bodeker, in "Alternative Medicine" (1997) (medical system). ''Encyclopedia Britannica 2008.''
 
−
* Subapriya, R., S. Nagini. Medicinal properties of neem leaves: a review. ''Curr Med Chem Anticancer Agents'' 5 (2) (March 2005):149–146 pmid=15777222 [http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/nlm?genre=article&issn=1568-0118&volume=5&issue=2&spage=149&aulast=Subapriya]. Retrieved November 18, 2008
 
 
* Ṭhākara, Vināyaka Jayānanda. ''Methodology of Research in Ayurveda.'' Gujarat Ayurved University, 1989.
 
* Ṭhākara, Vināyaka Jayānanda. ''Methodology of Research in Ayurveda.'' Gujarat Ayurved University, 1989.
−
* Tildesley N.T., D.O. Kennedy, E.K. Perry, et al (June 2003). Salvia lavandulaefolia (Spanish sage) enhances memory in healthy young volunteers. ''Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav.'' 75 (3): 669–674.
+
* Tildesley N.T., D.O. Kennedy, E.K. Perry, et al. Salvia lavandulaefolia (Spanish sage) enhances memory in healthy young volunteers. ''Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav.'' 75(3) (June 2003): 669–674.
−
* Underwood, E. Ashworth & P. Rhodes, (2008) in "Medicine, history of", ''Encyclopedia Britannica 2008.''
+
* Valiathan, M.S. Ayurveda: Putting the house in order. ''Current Science'' 90(1) (January 10, 2006): 5-6.
−
* Valiathan, M. S. in Ayurveda: Putting the house in order. ''Current Science'' 90 (1) (10 January 2006): 5-6, Indian Academy of Sciences
 
 
* Wujastyk, D. ''The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings.'' Penguin Classics, 2003. ISBN 0140448241
 
* Wujastyk, D. ''The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings.'' Penguin Classics, 2003. ISBN 0140448241
  

Latest revision as of 06:06, 10 January 2023

Ayurveda—intertwined with mythology and religion—traces the origin of traditional Indian medicine to the legendary Dhanvantari, who received his knowledge from Brahma—the Hindu God of creation.

Ayurveda (Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद, the 'science of life') is a system of traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other parts of the world as a form of alternative medicine. In Sanskrit, the word Ayurveda comprises the words āyus, meaning 'life' and veda, meaning 'science.'[1] Evolving throughout its history, Ayurveda remains an influential system of medicine in South Asia. The earliest literature of Ayurveda appeared during the Vedic period in India. The Sushruta Samhita and the Charaka Samhita were influential works on traditional medicine during this era. Ayurvedic practitioners also identified a number of medicinal preparations and surgical procedures for curing various ailments and diseases.

Ayurveda has become an alternative form of medicine in the western world, where patents for its medicine have been passed, and the intellectual property rights contested by Western and Indian institutions.[2]

Origins

Hundreds of vegetable drugs are used in Ayurvedic medicine—including cardamom and cinnamon, both of which are believed to stimulate digestive enzymes that break down polymeric macromolecules in the Human body.[3]
Several philosophers In India combined religion and traditional medicine—notable examples being that of Buddhism and Ayurveda. Shown in the image is the philosopher Nagarjuna—known chiefly for his doctrine of the Madhyamika (middle path)—who wrote medical works The Hundred Prescriptions and The Precious Collection, among others.[4]
Research suggests that Terminalia arjuna is useful in alleviating the pain of angina pectoris and in treating heart failure and coronary artery disease. Terminalia may also be useful in treating hypercholesterolemia[5]
Azadirachta indica—believed to have immunopotentiating abilities and used often as an anti-infective—has been found to enhance the production of IL-2 and increase immunity in human volunteers by boosting lymphocyte and T-cell count in three weeks.[6]
Cataract in Human Eye—magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Cataract surgery was known to the physician Sushruta.[7] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.[7]
Oils—such as sesame and sunflower oil—are extensively used in Ayurvedic medicine. Studies show that both these oils contain substantial amount of linoleate in triglyceride form. Oils rich in linoleic acid may have antineoplastic properties.[8]

Ayurveda traces its origins to the Vedas—the Atharvaveda in particular—and is connected to religion and mythology.[9] The Sushruta Samhita of Sushruta appeared during the first millennium B.C.E. on the work of the surgeon Sushruta:

The original text is believed to have 5 books and 120 chapters. The text in its current form contains details of around 1120 medical conditions, 700 medicinal plants, 400 surgeries and 121 surgical instruments.[10]

This early phase of traditional Indian medicine identified fever (takman), cough, consumption, diarrhea, dropsy, abscesses, seizures, tumors, and skin diseases (including leprosy).[11]Treatment of complex ailments—including Angina pectoris, diabetes, hypertension, and stones—also ensued during this period.[12] Plastic surgery, cataract surgery, puncturing to release fluids in the abdomen, extraction of foreign elements, treatment of anal fistulas, treating fractures, amputations, cesarean sections, and stitching of wounds were known. The use of herbs and surgical instruments became widespread.[11]

Other early works of Ayurveda include the Charaka Samhita, attributed to Charaka.[11] The earliest surviving excavated written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the Bower Manuscript—dated to the fourth century C.E.[13] The Bower manuscript cites directly from Sushruta, and is of special interest to historians due to the presence of Indian medicine and its concepts in Central Asia.[14] Vagbhata—the son of a senior doctor by the name of Simhagupta—[15] also compiled his works on traditional medicine. Early Ayurveda had a school of physicians and a school of surgeons.[16] Tradition holds that the text Agnivesh tantra—written by the legendary sage Agnivesh, a student of the mythological sage Bharadwaja—influenced the writings of Ayurveda.[17]

The Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien (ca. 337 - 422 C.E.) wrote about the health care system of the Gupta empire (320 - 550 C.E.) and—in process—described the institutional approach of Indian medicine which is also visible in the works of Caraka, who mentions a clinic and how it should be equipped.[18] Madhava (700 C.E.), Sarngadhara (1300 C.E.), and Bhavamisra (1500 C.E.) compiled works on Indian medicine.[14] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka were translated into Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 C.E.). These Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermediaries. In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[19]

British physicians traveled to India to see Rhinoplasty being performed by native methods. Reports on Indian Rhinoplasty were published in the Gentleman's Magazine by 1794.[20] Joseph Constantine Carpue spent 20 years in India studying local plastic surgery methods. Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the Western world by 1815. Instruments described in the Sushruta Samhita were further modified in the Western World.[21]

Description

Ayurveda believes in 'five great elements' (Devanāgarī: पन्छतत्व‌; earth, water, fire, air and space) forming the universe, including the human body.[1] Blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow, chyle, and semen are the seven primary constituent elements (Devanāgarī: सप्तधातु) of the body.[11] Ayurveda stresses a balance of three substances: wind/spirit/air, phlegm, and bile, each representing divine forces. The doctrine of these three Dosas (Devanāgarī: त्रिदॊश्)—vata (wind/spirit/air), pitta (bile) and kapha (phlegm)—is important. Traditional beliefs hold that humans possess a unique constellation of Dosas.[22] In Ayurveda, the human body has 20 Guna (Devanāgarī: गुन, meaning quality).[23] Surgery and surgical instruments are employed. It is believed that building a healthy metabolic system, attaining good digestion, and proper excretion leads to vitality.[23] Ayurveda also focuses on exercise, yoga, meditation, and massage.

The concept of Panchakarma (Devanāgarī: पन्छ्कर्म‌) is believed to eliminate toxic elements from the body.[24] Eight disciplines of Ayurveda treatment, called Ashtanga (Devanāgarī: अश्ताग्), are given below:[25]

  • Surgery (Shalya-chkitsa).
  • Treatment of diseases above the clavicle (Salakyam).
  • Internal medicine (Kaya-chikitsa).
  • Demonic possession (Bhuta vidya): Ayurveda believes in demonic intervention and—as a form of traditional medicine—identifies a number of ways to counter the supposed effect of these interferences.[26] Bhuta vidya has been called psychiatry.[16]
  • Pediatrics (Kaumarabhrtyam).
  • Toxicology (Agadatantram).
  • Prevention and building immunity (rasayanam).
  • Aphrodisiacs (Vajikaranam).

Practices

Buddhism may have been an influence on the development of many of Ayurveda's central ideas—particularly its fascination with balance, known in Buddhism as Madhyamika (Devanāgarī: मद्यमिका). Balance is emphasized and suppressing natural urges is seen to be unhealthy and doing so may almost certainly lead to illness. To stay within the limits of reasonable balance and measure is stressed upon.[27] Ayurveda emphasizes on moderation in food intake, sleep, sexual intercourse, and the intake of medicine.[27]

Ayurveda incorporates an entire system of dietary recommendations:

Ayurvedic dietetics comprise a host of recommendations, ranging from preparation and consumption of food, to healthy routines for day and night, sexual life, and rules for ethical conduct. In contrast to contemporary practitioners of New Age Ayurveda, older Ayurvedic authors tended to be religiously neutral. Even Buddhist authors refrained from trying to convert the patient to follow their particular religious ways.[28]

For diagnosis the patient is to be questioned and all five senses are to be employed. The Charaka Samhita recommends a tenfold examination of the patient. The qualities to be judged are: constitution, abnormality, essence, stability, body measurements, diet suitability, psychic strength, digestive capacity, physical fitness and age.[29] Hearing is used to observe the condition of breathing and speech.[11] The study of the vital pressure points or marma is of special importance.[23]

Chopra (2003) identifies five influential criteria for diagnosis: 'origin of the disease, prodrominal (precursory) symptoms, typical symptoms of the fully developed disease, observing the effect of therapeutic procedures, and the pathological process.'[29]

Hygiene—also a component of religious virtue to many Indians—is a strong belief. Hygienic living involves regular bathing, cleansing of teeth, skin care, and eye washing. Occasional anointing of the body with oil is also prescribed.[11]

Ayurveda stresses on vegetable drugs. Fats are used both for consumption and for external use. Hundreds of vegetable drugs are employed, including cardamom and cinnamon. Some animal products may also be used, for example milk, bones, and gallstones, etc. Minerals—including sulfur, arsenic, lead, copper sulfate, and gold—are also consumed as prescribed.[11]

Alcohol is used as a narcotic for the patient undergoing operation in some cases.[11] The advent of Islam introduced opium as a narcotic.[25] Both oil and tar are used to stop bleeding.[11] Oils may be used in a number of ways including regular consumption as a part of food, anointing, smearing, head massage, and prescribed application to infected areas.[30]

The proper function of channels—tubes that exist within the body and transport fluids from one point to another—is seen as vital, and the lack of healthy channels may lead to disease and insanity. Sushruta identifies that blockages of these channels may lead to rheumatism, epilepsy, paralysis, and convulsions as fluids and channels are diverted from their ideal locations. Sweating is favored as a manner in which to open up the channels and dilute the Doshas causing the blockages and harming a patient—a number of ways to take steam bathing and other steam related cures are recommended so that these toxins are released.[31]

Current Status

Within South Asia

In 1970, the Indian Medical Central Council Act was passed by the Parliament of India, which aims to standardize qualifications for Ayurveda and provide accredited institutions for its study and research.[32] In India, over 100 colleges offer degrees in traditional Ayurvedic medicine. Indian Government supports research and teaching in Ayurveda through many channels—both at the national and state levels—and helps institutionalize traditional medicine so that it can be studied in major towns and cities.[33] The state-sponsored Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS) is the apex institution for promotion of traditional medicine in India. The studies conducted by this institution encompass clinical, drug, literary, and family welfare research.[34]

Many successful clinics are run by professionals who qualify from these institutes—both in the urban and the rural areas.[32] Mukherjee and Wahile cite World Health Organization statistics to demonstrate the popularity of traditional medicine, on which a significant number of the world's population depends for primary health care.[35] The manufacture and marketing of Ayurvedic medicine has been commercially successful for several pharmaceutical companies.[32]

Outside India

Ayurveda practitioners require a license in another stream of health care in the United States of America. Academic institutions related to traditional medicine in India have contributed to Ayurveda's international visibility. Kurup (2003) comments on the role of Gujarat Ayurved University:

"The Gujarat Ayurved University has signed the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with nine Ayurvedic institutes functioning in Japan, Australia, the Netherlands, Italy, Argentina, and Germany to coordinate and facilitate the globalization of Ayurveda through academic collaboration. Earlier, Medical (Ayu) Institute of Russia had signed the MoU with the Government of India, in which Gujarat Aryurved University is also one of the implementing authorities."[36]

Ayurveda gained recognition in the Western world as medical scholars researched and outlined its various postulates.[37] In the United States of America, the NIH NCCAM spends some of its budget on Ayurvedic medicine research. In addition, the National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine (NIAM), established by Dr. Scott Gerson, is an example of a research institute that has carried out research into Ayurvedic practices.[38]

Patents

In December 1993, the University of Mississippi Medical Center had a patent issued to them by United States Patent and Trademark Office on the use of turmeric for healing.[39] The patent was contested by India's industrial research organization, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R), on the grounds that traditional Ayurvedic practitioners were already aware of the healing properties of the substance and have been for centuries, making this patent a case of bio-piracy. To fight biopiracy and unethical patents, in 2001 the government of India set up the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library as a repository for formulations of various systems of Indian medicine, such as Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and Yoga.[40]

Scientific evidence

As a traditional medicine, many Ayurveda products have not been tested in rigorous scientific studies and clinical trials. In India, research in Ayurveda is largely undertaken by the statutory body of the Central Government, the The Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS), through a national network of research institutes.[41]

There are few research studies that confirm the effectiveness of Ayurvedic medicine. Some results suggest that Ayurvedic approaches may be effective in reducing pain and increasing movement due to osteoarthritis.[42] Although laboratory experiments suggest it is possible that some substances in Ayurveda might be developed into effective treatments, there is no evidence that any are effective in themselves.

Safety concerns

Significant levels of toxic heavy metals such as lead, mercury and arsenic have been found in Ayurvedic preparations.[43] There is evidence that using some Ayurveda medicine, especially those involving herbs, metals, minerals, or other materials involves potentially serious risks, including toxicity. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration warns that the presence of metals in some Ayurvedic products makes them potentially harmful.[42]

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 A.S. Chopra, in "Ayurveda," Medicine Across Cultures, edited by Helaine Selin & H. Shapiro. (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003, ISBN 1402011660), 75.
  2. ↑ P.N.V. Kurup in "Ayurveda—A Potential Global Medical System," Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies, edited by L.C. Mishra, (CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 084931366X), 1-14.
  3. ↑ K.S. Mitra and P.R. Rangesh, "Irritable Colon (Grahni)," Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies (CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 084931366X).
  4. ↑ Terry Clifford, Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry (Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 2003, ISBN 8120817842), 42.
  5. ↑ A.L. Miller, Botanical influences on cardiovascular disease Altern Med Rev 3(3}(1998): 422–431. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  6. ↑ A.A. Mungantiwar & A.S. Phadke,"Immunomodulation: Therapeutic Strategy through Ayurveda," in Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies, edited by L.C. Mishra (CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 084931366X), 72.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Stanley Finger, Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function (Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0195146948).
  8. ↑ S. Sahu and L.C. Mishra, "Benign Growths, Cysts, and Malignant Tumors," in Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies, edited by L.C. Mishra (CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 084931366X), 300.
  9. ↑ Indian medicine has a long history. Its earliest concepts are set out in the sacred writings called the Vedas, especially in the metrical passages of the Atharvaveda, which may possibly date as far back as the second millennium B.C.E. According to a later writer, the system of medicine called Āyurveda was received by a certain Dhanvantari from Brahma, and Dhanvantari was deified as the god of medicine. In later times his status was gradually reduced, until he was credited with having been an earthly king who died of snakebite.
  10. ↑ Aditi Shah, Sushruta Samhita: The Ancient Treatise on Surgery Live India, November 27, 2017.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 William Archibald Robson Thomson, Douglas James Guthrie, E. Ashworth Underwood, Philip Rhodes, and Robert G. Richardson, History of Medicine Britannica Academic. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  12. ↑ Stephen Lock, John M. Last, and George Dunea (eds.), The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine (Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0192629506), 836.
  13. ↑ P. Kutumbian, Ancient Indian Medicine (Orient Longman, 2005, ISBN 8125015213), XXXII-XXXIII.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Wujastyk, XXVI
  15. ↑ Wujastyk, 224.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Department of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and Homoeopathy Government of India. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  17. ↑ Vināyaka Jayānanda Ṭhākara, Methodology of Research in Ayurveda (Gujarat Ayurved University, 1989), 7.
  18. ↑ Wujastyk, XV-XVI
  19. ↑ Lock, 607.
  20. ↑ Lock, 651.
  21. ↑ Lock, 652.
  22. ↑ Chopra, 77.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Chopra, 76.
  24. ↑ A.K. Sharma, "Panchkarma Therapy in Ayurvedic Medicine," in Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies, edited by L.C. Mishra, (CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 084931366X), 43.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Chopra, 80
  26. ↑ Wujastyk, XXI.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Wujastyk, XVIII.
  28. ↑ Chopra, 78.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Chopra, 79.
  30. ↑ Wujastyk, XX.
  31. ↑ Wujastyk, XIX-XX.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Wujastyk, XXII.
  33. ↑ Wujastyk, XVI
  34. ↑ Kurup, 7.
  35. ↑ P.K. Mukherjee and A. Wahile, Integrated approaches towards drug development from Ayurveda and other Indian system of medicines Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103(1) (Jan 3, 2006):25-35. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  36. ↑ Kurup, 6.
  37. ↑ Frank John Ninivaggi, Ayurveda: A Comprehensive Guide to Traditional Indian Medicine for the West (Praeger Press, 2007, ISBN 0313348375).
  38. ↑ The National Institute of Ayurvedic Medicine, New York, USA Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  39. ↑ US Patent No. 5,401,504.
  40. ↑ About the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library WIPO. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  41. ↑ The Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS) Ministry of AYUSH, Government of India. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Ayurvedic Medicine: In Depth National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  43. ↑ R.B. Saper, S.N. Kales, J. Paquin, et al. Heavy metal content of Ayurveda herbal medicine products JAMA 292 (23) (December 2004): 2868–2873. Retrieved March 5, 2021.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Aggarwal B.B., C. Sundaram, N. Malani, and H. Ichikawa. Curcumin: the Indian solid gold. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 595 (2007): 1–75.
  • Akhondzadeh S., M. Noroozian, M. Mohammadi, S. Ohadinia, A.H. Jamshidi, M. Khani. Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a double blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther 28(1) (February 2003): 53–59.
  • Bhushan, et al. Heavy metals and Ayurveda. Current Science 88(10) (May 25, 2005).
  • Clifford, Terry. Tibetan Buddhist Medicine and Psychiatry. Motilal Banarsidass Publications, 2003. ISBN 8120817842.
  • Finger, Stanley. Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function. US: Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0195146948.
  • Gerson, S., and L.H. Green. Preliminary Evaluation Of Antimicrobial Activity of Extracts of Morinda citrifolia Linn., Abstr. Am. Soc. Microbiol. A-66 (May 2002):13.
  • Govindarajan R., M. Vijayakumar, and P. Pushpangadan. Antioxidant approach to disease management and the role of 'Rasayana' herbs of Ayurveda. J Ethnopharmacol 99(2) (June 2005): 165–178.
  • Kutumbian, P. Ancient Indian Medicine. Orient Longman, 2005. ISBN 8125015213.
  • Lock, Stephen, John M. Last, and George Dunea (eds.). The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine. Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0192629506.
  • Miller, A.L. Botanical influences on cardiovascular disease. Alern Med Rev 3(3} (1998): 422–431.
  • Mishra, L.C. (ed). Scientific Basis for Ayurvedic Therapies CRC Press, 2003. ISBN 084931366X.
  • Mukherjee, P.K., and A. Wahile, Integrated approaches towards drug development from Ayurveda and other Indian system of medicines Journal of Ethnopharmacology 103(1) (Jan 3, 2006):25-35. Retrieved March 1, 2021.
  • Ninivaggi, Frank John. Ayurveda: A Comprehensive Guide to Traditional Indian Medicine for the West. Praeger Press, 2007. ISBN 0313348375.
  • Panchabhai T.S., U.P. Kulkarni, and N.N. Rege. Validation of therapeutic claims of Tinospora cordifolia: a review. Phytother Res 22 (4) (April 2008): 425–441.
  • Park. J., and E. Ernst. Ayurvedic medicine for rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 34(5) (April 2005): 705–713.
  • Selin, Helaine, and H. Shapiro (eds.). Medicine Across Cultures, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003. ISBN 1402011660.
  • Subapriya, R., and S. Nagini. Medicinal properties of neem leaves: a review. Curr Med Chem Anticancer Agents 5(2) (March 2005):149–146. Retrieved March 1, 2021.
  • Ṭhākara, Vināyaka Jayānanda. Methodology of Research in Ayurveda. Gujarat Ayurved University, 1989.
  • Tildesley N.T., D.O. Kennedy, E.K. Perry, et al. Salvia lavandulaefolia (Spanish sage) enhances memory in healthy young volunteers. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 75(3) (June 2003): 669–674.
  • Valiathan, M.S. Ayurveda: Putting the house in order. Current Science 90(1) (January 10, 2006): 5-6.
  • Wujastyk, D. The Roots of Ayurveda: Selections from Sanskrit Medical Writings. Penguin Classics, 2003. ISBN 0140448241

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Ayurveda&oldid=1094726

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki