Apocalyptic literature

Apocalyptic literature is a genre of prophetical writing that developed in post-Exilic Jewish culture and was popular among millennialist early Christians. The term "Apocalypse" is from the Greek word for "revelation" which means "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known."

The apocalyptic literature of Judaism and Christianity embraces a considerable period, from the centuries following the Exile in Babylon down to the close of the Middle Ages. The best known literature of this type was created in Judaism from 200 B.C.E. to 100 C.E., and in Christianity from 50 to approximately 350 C.E.

Apocalyptic literature is written in symbolism, poetry, and imageries, as well as in an Old Testament prophetic style (Matt. 24-25; Mark 13; Luke 21; Rev. 1:2-4; 19:9; 22:7-19). In larger works, such forms are woven as a tapestry to describe events in cataclysmic terms, such as in the Book of Daniel and most of Revelation.

Perspectives on the apocalyptic

An apocalypse is a literary report of an amazing, often fearful, violent vision that reveals truths about past, present, and future times in highly symbolic and poetical terms. The writer may represent himself as transported into a heavenly realm, or the vision may be unveiled— and even interpreted—by an angelic messenger. Apocalyptic exhortations are aimed at chastening and reforming their hearers with promises of rewards and punishment in the coming "end times."

Apocalyptic literature may also been seen as a form of prophecy using a new idiom. Indeed, the biblical books of Isaiah and Ezekiel sometimes used apocalyptic forms. The newer apocalyptic writings, in the aftermath of the destruction of Solomon's Temple, looked forward to coming divine retribution and made forecasts of the future that contrasted hope and despair.

Such literature often included extreme and vivid polarized contrasts, elements deriving from Zoroastrian dualism inherited by the Jews of Babylon: demons and dragons or other fantastic beasts, a distinctly realized Satan in opposition to Yahweh, a city of evil contrasted to the city of God, and the corruption and despair of the visible world contrasted with the pure light of the world to come. Some, though not all, apocalyptic literature was messianic, predicting the imminent arrival of a savior or—as in some in Essene writings—of more than one savior.

The overtly allegorical nature of this new literature inspired new interpretations of earlier texts, which influenced the development of techniques of exegesis for Jewish and Christian scholar alike and became a foundation of the medieval hermeneutics, which are still practiced today in some circles.

Among the several known books of apocalyptic Jewish prophecy, the Book of Daniel was accepted into the Hebrew Bible. Other apocalyptic literature however was not included: The Book of Enoch, some of which is older than Daniel was not considered canonical by Jews or Christians, although it is quoted several times in the New Testament. The book of Jubilees (second century B.C.E.) also contains some apocalyptic poetry. The so-called Sibylline Oracles, which were assembled partly in Alexandria, are filled with apocalyptic predictions; they bridge any apparent gap between late Jewish apocalyptic literature and early Christian writings in the genre. Some aspects of apocalyptic visions can also be found in later kabbalistic writings.

Within the Christian tradition, the Apocalypse of Peter and The Shepherd of Hermas and several other apocalypses of the New Testament Apocrypha are examples of revelatory Christian literature that was not included in the Christian Bible.

Old Testament Era Apocalyptic Literature

Canonical books

• Isaiah 24-27; 33; 34-35 — For example: "the stars of the heavens will be dissolved, and the sky rolled up like a scroll; all the starry host will fall." Thought to be the writings of "Second Isaiah" during the Babylonian Exile rather than the more ancient Isaiah of Jerusalem.
• Jeremiah 33:14-26 — A messianic prophecy, though not using typical apocalyptic language.
• Ezekiel 2:8; 38-39. Ezekiel eats a prophetic scroll given to him by an angel, and reports his vision of the Valley of Dry Bones. In addition, Ezekiel's visions of the heavenly chariot and fantastic angelic beasts influenced later apocalyptic writers.
• Joel 3:9-17 — "Beat your plowshares into swords and your pruning hooks into spears... Swing the sickle, for the harvest is ripe... Multitudes, multitudes in the valley of decision!... For the day of the Lord is near. The sun and moon will be darkened, and the stars no longer shine."
• Zechariah 12—14 — "On that day His feet will stand on the Mount of Olives, east of Jerusalem, and the Mount of Olives will be split in two from east to west, forming a great valley, with half of the mountain moving north and half moving south."
• Daniel — "In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven." (7:13)

Non-Canonical Books

• Book of Noah. This is a lost work, known only through fragments, such as quotes from in in the Book of Enoch.
• 1 Enoch, or the Ethiopic Book of Enoch. Considered the most important of all the apocryphal apocalyptic writings, and quotes several times as scripture in the New Testament.
• Testaments of the 12 Patriarchs. Probably written originally in Hebrew in the second century B.C.E., but has undergone later editing, including some Christian interpolations.
• Psalms of Solomon. These 18 psalms, ascribed to Solomon by later scribes, contain, among other things, a protest against the Hasmonean dynasty for usurping the throne of David, and proclaim the coming of the Messiah, the Son of David, who is to set all things right in the last days.
• The Assumption of Moses. This book was lost for many centuries till a large fragment of it was discovered in 1861. Written between 4 B.C.E. and 7 C.E. this work protests against the growing secularization of the Pharisaic party.
• Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch. This book deals with the Messiah and the Messianic kingdom, the woes of Israel in the past and the destruction of Jerusalem in the present, as well as of theological questions relating to original sin, free will, and works. In its present form, the book was written or edited soon after 70 C.E.
• 4 Ezra. In it earliest Arabic and Ethiopic versions this book is called 1 Ezra; while in some Latin manuscripts and in the English authorized version it is 2 Ezra, and in the Armenian bible it is 3 Ezra. The first two chapters seem to be a Christian origin while the remainder of the book is a series of visions ascribed to the prophet/scribe Ezra. The Ethiopian and Russian Orthodox churches consider the book to be canonical.
• Greek Apocalypse of Baruch. This book survives in two forms in Slavonic and Greek. It was written between A.D. 80 and 200, and deals with the question of the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, affirming the building has been preserved in the heavenly spiritual realm.
• Apocalypse of Abraham. This book is of Jewish origin, but in part worked over by a Christian reviser. The first part treats of Abraham's conversion from idolatry, and the second forms an apocalyptic expansion of Gen. 15, including an encounter between Abraham and the demon Azazel, who was one of the "birds of prey" who descended on Abraham's sacrifice.
• Lost Apocalypses: Prayer of Joseph. The Prayer of Joseph is quoted by Origen as speaking and claiming to be "the first servant in God's presence," "the first-begotten of every creature animated by God," and declaring that the angel who wrestled with Jacob (and was identified by Christians with Christ) was only eighth in rank. The work was obviously anti-Christian.
• Book of Eldad and Modad. This book was written in the name of the two prophets mentioned in Num. 11. 26-29. It consisted, according to the Targ. Jon. on Num. 11. 26-20, mainly of prophecies on Magog's last attack on Israel.
• Apocalypse of Elijah. Mentioned by Origen and others as a revelation given by an angel, possibly to Elijah the prophet.
• Apocalypse of Zephaniah. Known to us through a citation in Clem. Alex. Strom. 5. 2, 77, and by its mention is several lists provided by other Christian writers.
• 2 Enoch, or the Slavonic Enoch, or the Book of the Secrets of Enoch. This work was recently brought to light through five manuscripts discovered in Russia and Serbia. It is a first-person account by Enoch of a journey through the ten heavens that culminates in a meeting with God.
• Testaments of the 3 Patriarchs. This book deals with Abraham's reluctance to die and presents Abraham's vision of heaven, his deeds having been recorded in a book and being weighed by a balance.
• Sibylline Oracles. A series of visions, some of Jewish origin but others clearly added by Christian editors.

New Testament Era Apocalyptic Literature

Apocalyptic literature of the New Testament era transcends that of the Old Testament in that the newer age is not based on prophetic books bearing the names of the patriarchs, but rather from the words of brave living men who acted as God's messengers. Christianity was, in spirit, the descendant of ancient Jewish prophecy, which had expressed its highest aspirations and ideals in its apocalyptic literature. Hence, we are not surprised to find that the apocalyptic tradition is fully represented in primitive Christianity. In the stress and storm of the first century, the forerunner on the side of its declared asceticism appealed more readily to primitive Christianity than that of He who came "eating and drinking," declaring both worlds good and both God's.

Thus, early Christianity had a natural and special fondness for apocalyptic literature. It was Christianity that preserved the Jewish apocalyptic, when it was abandoned by Judaism as it sank into Rabbinism, and gave it a Christian character. Moreover, it cultivated this form of literature and made it the vehicle of its own ideas. Though the apocalyptic tradition served its purpose in the opening centuries of the Christian era, it must be confessed that in many of its aspects it did belong to the essence of Christian thought. When once it had taught men that the next world was God's, though it did so at the cost of relinquishing the present to Satan, it had achieved its real task. The time had come for it to quit the stage of history. Christianity appeared as the heir of this true spiritual achievement, but it was no less assuredly the heir of ancient prophecy. Therefore, as spiritual representative of what was true in prophecy and the apocalyptic; Christianity's essential teaching was that of its founder—that both worlds were of God and that both should be made God's.

Canonical apocryphal works

• Apocalypse in Mark 13:
• 2 Thessalonians 2:
• Apocalypse (Revelation)

Non-Canonical apocryphal works

• Greek Apocalypse of Peter: The significance of the Apocalypse of Peter as an important witness of the Petrine literature is not to be underestimated. Peter is the decisive witness of the resurrection event. Hence he is also deemed worthy of further revelations, which he hands on (in revelation documents) with authority.
• Coptic Apocalypse of Peter: The Apocalypse of Peter contains important source material for a gnostic Christology that understands Jesus as a docetic redeemer. The view of the Gnostic community, including its relationship to Peter as its originator, is another key theme of this document.
• Testament of Hezekiah: A Christian apocalypse, its explains Beliar's anger against Isaiah, who predicted the destruction of Sammael (Satan), the redemption of the world by Jesus, the persecution of the Church by Nero, and the final judgment.
• Testament of Abraham: A Jewish work probably of Egyptian origin, it has many themes in common with several other works, most notably 2En and 3Bar. It should not be confused with the Apocalypse of Abraham, even though the latter work also describes a heavenly tour.
• Oracles of Hystaspes: This eschatological work, according to Lactantius, prophecied the overthrow of Rome and the advent of Zeus to help the godly and destroy the wicked, but omitted all reference to the sending of the Son of God. According to Justin, it prophesied the destruction of the world by fire. According to the Apocryph of Paul, cited by Clement, Hystaspes foretold the conflict of the Messiah with many kings and His advent.
• Vision of Isaiah: The sixth chapter of Isaiah contains the prophet's Vision Of The Holy God. It is commonly thought the vision served as his commission to be a prophet of God and thus marks the beginning of his ministry. Others believe it came to him after years of preaching and was designed to deepen his spirituality (ISBE).
• Shepherd of Hermas: The book is a picturesque religious allegory and is primarily a call to repentance and adherence to a life of strict morality, addressed to Christians among whom the memory of persecution is still fresh, and over whom now hangs the shadow of another great tribulation.
• 5 Ezra: This book contains a strong attack on the Jews, whom it regards as the people of God. It also itself to the Christians as God's people and promises them the heavenly kingdom. Its tone is strongly anti-Jewish. The style is very vigorous and the materials of a strongly apocalyptic character.
• 6 Ezra: Its contents relate to the destruction of the world through war and natural catastrophes—for the heathen a source of menace and fear, but for the persecuted people of God one of admonition and comfort. There is nothing specifically Christian in the book, which represents a persecution that extends over the whole eastern part of the Empire. Moreover, the idiom is particularly Semitic.
• Christian Sibyllines: Critics are still at variance as to the extent of the Christian Sibyllines. Most writers are in favour of Christian authorship; but not so Johannes Geffcken (Oracula Sibyllina, 1902), who strongly insists on the Jewish origin of large sections of these books
• Apocalypses of Paul, Thomas, and Stephen: These are mentioned in the Gelasian decree. The first may possibly be the [Greek: Anabagikon Paulou] mentioned by Epiphanius (Haer. xxxviii. 2) as current among the Cainites. It is not to be confounded with the apocalypse mentioned two sections later.
• Apocalypse of Esdras: In this Greek production, the prophet is perplexed about the mysteries of life, and questions God respecting them. The punishment of the wicked especially occupies his thoughts. Since they have sinned in consequence of Adam's fall, their fate is considered worse than that of the irrational creation.
• Apocalypse of Paul: This work contains a description of the things which the apostle saw in heaven and hell. The text, as first published in the original Greek by Tischendorf, consists of 51 chapters, but is imperfect.
• Apocalypse of John: This contains a description of the future state, the general resurrection and judgment, with an account of the punishment of the wicked, as well as the bliss of the righteous. It appears to be the work of a Jewish Christian.
• Arabic Apocalypse of Peter: Contains a narrative of events from the foundation of the world till the second advent of Christ. The book is said to have been written by Clement, Peter's disciple. This 88-chapter Arabic work has not been printed, but a summary of the contents is given by Alexander Nicoll in his catalogue of the Oriental MSS.
• Apocalypse of the Virgin: This book contains her descent into hell. It is not entirely published, but only several portions from Greek MSS.
• Apocalypse of Sedrach: This late apocalypse, deals with the subject of intercession for sinners and Sedrach's unwillingness to die.
• Apocalypse of Daniel: The primary example of apocalyptic literature in the Hebrew Bible is the book of Daniel. After a long period of fasting, Daniel is standing by a river when a heavenly being appears to him, and the revelation follows (Daniel 10:2). Past history (the rise and fall of the Greek Empire) is often included in the vision, usually in order to give the proper historical setting to the prediction, as the panorama of successive events passes over imperceptibly from the known to the unknown.
• The Revelations of Bartholomew: A fragment of the apocryphal revelations of St Bartholomew contains a narration of the pardon obtained by Adam, in which it is said that the Son ascending from Olivet prays the Father on behalf of His apostles; who consequently receive consecration from the Father, together with the Son and Holy Spirit—Peter being made archbishop of the universe.
• Questions of St Bartholomew: Attributed to Bartholomew which attained some popularity; the Greek manuscripts do not call it a Gospel, but the Questions of Bartholomew. The message: After the resurrection from the dead of our Lord Jesus Christ, Bartholomew came unto the Lord and questioned him, saying: Lord, reveal unto me the mysteries of the heavens. Jesus answered and said unto him: If I put off the body of the flesh, I shall not be able to tell them unto thee.
• Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius: This apocalypse shaped the eschatological imagination of Christendom throughout the Middle Ages. Written in in reaction to the Islamic conquest of the Near East, it is falsely attributed to the fourth-century Church Father Methodius of Olympus. It depicts many familiar Christian eschatological themes: the rise and rule of Antichrist, the invasions of Gog and Magog, and the tribulations that precede the end of the world.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Chartsworth, James H. Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments, Anchor Bible, 1983. ISBN 978-0385096300
• Cook, Stephen L. The Apocalyptic Literature: Interpreting Biblical Texts, Abingdon Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0687051960
• Collins, John Joseph. The Apocalyptic Imagination: A Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 978-0802843715
• Goswiller, Richard. Revelation, Pacific Study Series, Melbourne, 1987.
• Reddish, Mitchell G. Apocalyptic Literature: A Reader, Hendrickson Publishers, 1995. ISBN 978-1565632103

External links

• L. Michael White, "Apocalyptic literature in Judaeism and early Christianity" Thorough historical introduction.
• Prof. Felix Just, S.J., offers definitions of apocalypse.
• David M. Williams, "The Book of Revelation as Jewish Apocalyptic Literature" Concise introduction to the genre.

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