Difference between revisions of "Personality assessment" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
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[[Category:Psychology]]
 
[[Category:Psychology]]
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[[Image:Lavater1.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The four temperaments as illustrated by Johann Kaspar Lavater.]]
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A '''personality test''' aims to assess aspects of a person's character that remain stable across situations, referred to as their [[personality]]. Personality is generally understood as a collection of [[emotion]]al, [[thought]], and behavioral patterns unique to a person, that is consistent over time. Generally, personality tests assess common characteristics for large segments of the population, describing people according to a number of dimensions or traits, rather than attempting to describe every detail of any particular individual's personality.
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{{toc}}
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A variety of methods have been developed to assess personality differences and characteristics, based on various approaches to the nature of personality. While none is a complete description of human personality, many tests have proven useful in specific applications, such as interviewing prospective employees, through focusing on the attributes important for the particular situation. Through this use, a good fit can be found between an individual and what they will be called on to accomplish, thus benefiting both the individual and the whole purpose that they are serving.
  
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==Early history==
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{{readout|Greek philosopher [[Hippocrates]] recorded the first known [[personality]] model basing his four "types" on the amount of body fluids, or "humors," an individual possessed.|right}} Greek physician [[Galen]] expounded upon Hippocrates' theory based on the four basic body fluids (humors): blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. According to their relative predominance in an individual, they would produce, respectively, [[temperament]]s designated sanguine (warm, pleasant), phlegmatic (slow-moving, apathetic), melancholic (depressed, sad), and choleric (quick to react, hot tempered). German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] popularized these ideas by organizing the constructs along the two axes of '''feelings''' and '''activity'''.
  
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A '''personality test''' aims to describe aspects of a person's character that remain stable across situations.
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The advent of the field of [[psychology]] led to more formalized categories and tests. For example, [[Wilhelm Wundt]] proposed that the four temperaments fall along the axes of ''changeability'' and ''emotionality.''
  
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==History==
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==Varieties of personality assessment==
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As the field of [[psychology]] developed so did both theories of [[personality]] and the methods to assess personality differences. A wide range of personality tests are available for use, for a variety of purposes, in different situations. The first personality test was the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet first used in 1919. It was designed to help the [[United States Army]] screen out recruits who might be susceptible to shell shock.
  
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Greek philosopher/physician [[Hippocrates]] recorded the first known personality model basing his four “types” on the amount of ''[[body fluids]]'', or humors, an individual possessed. Greek physician [[Galen]] expounded upon Hippocrates' theory based on the four basic body fluids (humours): blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. According to their relative predominance in an individual, they would produce, respectively, temperaments designated sanguine (warm, pleasant), phlegmatic (slow-moving, apathetic), melancholic (depressed, sad), and choleric (quick to react, hot tempered).
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Some of the most commonly used personality tests are:
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*[[Personality assessment#Projective tests|Projective tests]]
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*[[Personality assessment#Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory|Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory]]
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*[[Personality assessment#MBTI|MBTI]]
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*[[Personality assessment#Keirsey Temperament Sorter|Keirsey Temperament Sorter]]
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*[[Personality assessment#Enneagram|Enneagram]]
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*[[Personality assessment#DISC Profile|DISC Profile]]
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*[[Personality assessment#Big Five Personality Traits|Big Five Personality Traits]]
  
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German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] popularized these ideas by organizing the constructs along the two axes of ''feelings'' and ''activity''. [[Wilhelm Wundt]] proposed that the [[four temperaments]] fall along the axes of ''changeability'' and ''emotionality''.
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===Projective tests===
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A projective test is one in which the person is asked to respond to ambiguous stimuli in order to reveal hidden [[emotion]]s and internal [[conflict]]s. This differs from an "objective test," in which responses are analyzed according to a universal standard, such as in a multiple choice questionnaire. The two most well-known and often used projective tests are the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
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The advent of the field of psychology led to more formalized categories and tests. Swiss psychoanalyst [[Carl Jung]] categorized two personality types of introversion and extroversion, which combine with four mental functions called ''[[sensing]]'', ''[[intuition]]'', ''[[thinking]]'', and ''[[feeling]]''.
 
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The first modern personality test was the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet first used in [[1919]]. It was designed to help the [[United States Army]] screen out recruits who might be susceptible to [[shell shock]].
 
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==Projective tests==
 
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A projective test is a personality test in which the person is asked to respond to ambiguous stimuli in order to reveal hidden emotions and internal conflicts. This is different from an "objective test" in which responses are analyzed according to a universal standard, such as in a multiple choice questionnaire.
 
 
   
 
   
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===Rorschach Inkblot Test===
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====Rorschach inkblot test====
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{{Main|Rorschach inkblot test}}
 
{{Main|Rorschach inkblot test}}
  
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The Rorschach inkblot test, named after its inventor Hermann Rorschach, was introduced in 1921 as a way to determine a person's personality by their interpretation of abstract inkblots.
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The Rorschach inkblot test, named after its inventor [[Hermann Rorschach]], was introduced in 1921, as a way to determine a person's personality by their interpretation of abstract inkblots.
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===Thematic Apperception Test===
 
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The Thematic Apperception Test was commissioned by the Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) in the 1930s to identify personalities that might be susceptible to being turned by enemy intelligence.
 
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The '''Thematic Apperception Test''' or '''TAT'' is amongst the most widely used, researched, and taught [[psychological test]]s. It uses a standard series of 31 provocative yet [[Ambiguity|ambiguous]] [[Picture|pictures]] about which the subject must tell a [[story]]. A subject is asked questions such as:
 
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* ''What dialogue might be carried on between characters?''
 
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* ''How might the "story" continue after the picture shown?''
 
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For this reason, the TAT is also known as the 'picture interpretation technique'.
 
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Each story created by a subject is carefully analyzed to uncover underlying [[Need|needs]], [[Attitude (psychology)|attitudes]], and patterns of reaction. Subjects can respond orally or in writing and there are specific subsets of pictures for boys, girls, men, and women. The TAT is a [[projective test]] in that, like the [[Rorschach test]], its assessment of the subject is based on what he or she [[Psychological projection|projects]] onto the ambiguous images.
 
  
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====History====
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====Thematic Apperception Test====
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TAT was developed by the [[United States|American]] [[psychology|psychologist]]s [[Henry A. Murray]] and [[Christiana D. Morgan]] at [[Harvard]] during the [[1930s]] to explore the underlying dynamics of [[Personality psychology|personality]], such as internal [[Conflict|conflicts]], dominant drives and interests and [[Motivation|motives]]. Specifically, TAT assesses motives including needs for [[Goal (management)|achievement]], [[Power (sociology)|power]], [[Intimacy|intimacy]], and [[Problem solving|problem-solving]] abilities.  
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The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was commissioned by the Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) in the 1930s, to identify personalities that might be susceptible to being turned by enemy [[military intelligence|intelligence]]. [[United States|American]] [[psychologist]]s [[Henry Murray]] and Christiana D. Morgan at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] were responsible for developing the TAT test. They explored the underlying dynamics of [[personality]], such as internal conflicts, dominant drives and interests, and motives. Specifically, the test assesses motives, including needs for achievement, power, intimacy, and problem-solving abilities.  
  
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After [[World War II]], the TAT was adopted more broadly by [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalysts]] and [[Clinician|clinicians]] to evaluate emotionally disturbed [[Patient|patients]]. Later, in the [[1970s]], the [[Human Potential Movement]] encouraged psychologists to use the TAT to help their clients understand themselves better and stimulate [[Personal development|personal growth]].
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The TAT uses a standard series of 31 provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject must tell a story. A subject is asked questions such as:
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* What dialogue might be carried on between characters?
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* How might the "story" continue after the picture shown?
  
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Today, the TAT is widely used as a tool for [[Research|research]] around areas of pschology such as [[Dream|dreams]], [[Fantasy (psychology)|fantasies]], [[Marriage|mate selection]] and what motivates people to choose their [[occupation]]. Sometimes it is used in a psychiatric context to assess [[Personality disorder|disordered thinking]], in [[Forensic psychology|forensic examinations]] to evaluate crime suspects or to screen candidates for [[Stress (medicine)|high-stress]] occupations. It is widely used in France and Argentina following the "French School" concepts. There is also a British and a Roman School.
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For this reason, the TAT is also known as the "picture interpretation technique."
  
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====Criticisms====
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Each story created by a subject is carefully analyzed to uncover underlying needs, [[attitude]]s, and patterns of reaction. Subjects can respond orally or in writing and there are specific subsets of pictures for boys, girls, men, and women. The TAT is a projective test in that, like the [[Rorschach inkblot test]], its assessment of the subject is based on what he or she projects onto the ambiguous images.
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The TAT has been criticized because:
 
  
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* It is not administered in a [[Standardization|standardized]] way, and because it is challenging to standardise interpretation of the stories it produces. A scoring system for analysis was created by [[psychologist]] [[David McClelland]] in an attempt to introduce more rigour.
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After [[World War II]], the TAT was adopted more broadly by [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalysts]] and [[clinical psychology|clinicians]] to evaluate emotionally disturbed patients. Later, in the 1970s, the Human Potential Movement encouraged psychologists to use the TAT to help their clients understand themselves better and stimulate personal growth.
  
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* Research has shown that factors including [[race]], [[sex]], and [[Social class|social class]] of both examiners and subjects influence the stories told and how they are interpreted.  
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Today, the TAT is widely used as a tool for research in areas of psychology such as [[dream]]s, fantasies, mate selection, and what motivates people to choose their occupation. Sometimes it is used in a psychiatric context to assess disordered thinking, in forensic examinations to evaluate [[crime]] suspects or to screen candidates for high-stress occupations.  
  
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* The 31 standard pictures have been criticized as negative in tone and therefore tending to limit the range of personality characteristics that the TAT can explore.
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The TAT has been criticized for a number of reasons. It is not administered in a standardized way, and because it is challenging to standardize interpretation of the stories it produces. A scoring system for analysis was created by [[David McClelland]] in an attempt to introduce more rigor.
  
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* '''Arguably''', Murray's concept of latent needs (similar to the [[Freudian]] theory of [[repression]]) that underlies the TAT has fallen out of favor in mainstream [[Western world|Western]] psychology and so its use is likely to decline.
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The 31 standard pictures have been criticized as negative in tone and therefore tending to limit the range of personality characteristics that the TAT can explore. Research has shown that factors including race, gender, and [[social class]] of both examiners and subjects influence the stories told and how they are interpreted.
  
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==Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory==
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===Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory===
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The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was published in 1942 as a way to aid in assessing [[psychopathology]] in a clinical setting.
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The [[Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory]] (MMPI) was published in 1942 as a way to aid in assessing [[psychopathology]] in a [[clinical psychology|clinical]] setting. It is the most frequently used personality test in the mental health field.  This assessment was designed to help identify personal, social, and behavioral problems in [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] patients. The results from this test provide relevant information to aid in problem identification, diagnosis, and treatment planning for patients.
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The '''Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory''' ('''MMPI''') is the most frequently used [[personality test]] in the mental health fields.  This assessment or test was designed to help identify personal, social, and behavioral problems in [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] patients. This test helps provide relevant information to aid in problem identification, diagnosis, and treatment planning for the patient.
 
  
 
The test has also been used for job screening and other non-clinical assessments, which is considered controversial and is in some cases illegal.
 
The test has also been used for job screening and other non-clinical assessments, which is considered controversial and is in some cases illegal.
  
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===History and use===
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====History and use====
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The original MMPI was developed at the [[University of Minnesota]] Hospitals and first published in [[1942]]. The original authors of the MMPI were Starke R. Hathaway, PhD, and J. C. McKinley, MD. The MMPI is copyrighted and is a [[trademark]] of the [[University of Minnesota]]. Clinicians must pay a fee each time it is administered.
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The original MMPI was developed at the [[University of Minnesota]] Hospitals and first published in 1942. The original authors of the MMPI were Starke R. Hathaway, PhD, and J. C. McKinley, MD. The MMPI is [[copyright]]ed and is a [[trademark]] of the University of Minnesota. Clinicians must pay a fee each time it is administered.
  
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The current standardized version for adults 18 and over, the MMPI-2, was released in [[1989]], with a subsequent revision of certain test elements in early [[2001]]. The MMPI-2 has 567 items, or questions, and takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete. There is a short form of the test that is comprised of the first 370 items on the long-form MMPI-2. There is also a version of the inventory for adolescents age 14 to 18, the MMPI-A.
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The standardized version for adults 18 and over, the MMPI-2, was released in 1989, with a subsequent revision of certain test elements in early 2001. The MMPI-2 has 567 items, or questions, and takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete. There is a short form of the test that is comprised of the first 370 items on the long-form MMPI-2. There is also a version of the inventory for [[adolescence|adolescents]] aged 14 to 18, the MMPI-A.
  
 
The MMPI has been used for a range of assessments:
 
The MMPI has been used for a range of assessments:
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*Criminal Justice and Corrections  
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*[[Criminal Justice]] and [[Corrections]]
 
 
*Evaluation of disorders such as [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], [[clinical depression]] and [[schizophrenia]]
 
*Evaluation of disorders such as [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], [[clinical depression]] and [[schizophrenia]]
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*Identification of suitable candidates for high-risk public safety positions such as [[nuclear power]] plant workers, [[police officer|police officers]], airline pilots, medical and psychology students, firefighters and seminary students  
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*Identification of suitable candidates for high-risk public safety positions such as [[nuclear power]] plant workers, [[law enforcement|police officers]], airline pilots, medical and psychology students, firefighters, and [[seminary]] students  
 
*Assessment of medical patients and design of effective treatment strategies, including chronic pain management
 
*Assessment of medical patients and design of effective treatment strategies, including chronic pain management
 
*Evaluation of participants in [[substance abuse]] programs
 
*Evaluation of participants in [[substance abuse]] programs
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*Support for college and career counseling
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*Support for college and [[guidance counseling|career counseling]]
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*Marriage and family counseling
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*[[marital counseling|Marriage]] and [[family counseling]]
  
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===Criticism and controversy===
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====Criticism and controversy====
  
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[[Personality test]]s like [[graphology]], [[Rorschach inkblot test]], and [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator]] have come under fire more often than MMPI, but critics have raised issues about the ethics and validity of administering MMPI, especially for non-clinical uses.
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Other personality tests, like the [[Rorschach inkblot test]] and [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator]], have come under fire more often than MMPI. Still, critics have raised issues about the [[ethics]] and validity of administering MMPI, especially for non-clinical uses.
  
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By the 1960s, the MMPI was being given by companies to employees and applicants as often as to psychiatric patients. Sociologist [[William H. Whyte]] was among many who saw the tests as helping to create and perpetuate the oppressive [[groupthink]] of mid-century [[corporate capitalism]].
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By the 1960s, the MMPI was being given by companies to employees and applicants as often as to psychiatric patients. [[Sociology|Sociologist]] William H. Whyte was among many who saw the tests as helping to create and perpetuate the oppressive "groupthink" of mid-twentieth century corporate [[capitalism]].
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A 1990 [[Office of Technology Assessment]] report noted:
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In 1966, Senator Sam Ervin introduced a bill to sharply curtail the government's use of the MMPI and similar tests, comparing them to [[McCarthyism]]. Ervin's bill failed. A 1990 Office of Technology Assessment report noted:
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<blockquote>In 1965 the Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, chaired by Senator [[Sam Ervin]], and the House Special Subcommittee on Invasion of Privacy of the Committee on Government Operations, chaired by Representative [[Cornelius Edward Gallagher|Cornelius E. Gallagher]], held hearings to determine whether the questions asked on psychological tests used by the Federal Government were an unjustified invasion of the respondent’s psyche and private life. The Subcommittees also investigated the validity of these tests and the due process issues involved in test administration. The reactions of the press and public were very critical of the types of questions asked on these psychological tests.</blockquote>
 
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In [[1966]], Senator Ervin introduced a bill to sharply curtail the government's use of the MMPI and similar tests, comparing them to [[McCarthyism]]. Ervin's bill failed.
 
  
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Annie Murphy Paul, a former senior editor of ''[[Psychology Today]]'', charges that personality tests "are often invalid, unreliable, and unfair." Others have accused that MMPI can "overpathologize" certain demographic groups, notably teenagers and non-white test takers.
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<blockquote>In 1965 the Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, chaired by Senator Sam Ervin, and the House Special Subcommittee on Invasion of Privacy of the Committee on Government Operations, chaired by Representative Cornelius E. Gallagher, held hearings to determine whether the questions asked on psychological tests used by the Federal Government were an unjustified invasion of the respondent’s psyche and private life. The Subcommittees also investigated the validity of these tests and the due process issues involved in test administration. The reactions of the press and public were very critical of the types of questions asked on these psychological tests.</blockquote>
  
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Numerous successful lawsuits have argued that giving the test to job applicants is an invasion of privacy, and that there is no evidence linking test results to job performance.
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Numerous successful lawsuits have argued that giving the test to job applicants is an invasion of privacy, and that there is no evidence linking test results to job performance. Others have accused that MMPI can "overpathologize" certain demographic groups, notably teenagers and non-white test takers.
  
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===Myers-Briggs Type Indicator===
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==Myers-Briggs Type Indicator==
 
 
{{Main|Myers-Briggs Type Indicator}}
 
{{Main|Myers-Briggs Type Indicator}}
  
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[[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator]] is a 16-type indicator of Jung's ''Psychological Types'' developed during [[World War II]].
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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was designed to assist a person in identifying their [[personality]] preferences. It was developed by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers during [[World War II]], and follows from the theories of [[Carl Jung]] as laid out in his work ''Psychological Types.'' The registered [[trademark]] rights in the phrase and its acronym have been assigned from the publisher of the test, Consulting Psychologists Press Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust. The test is frequently used in the areas of [[pedagogy]], [[group dynamics]], employee training, leadership training, [[marriage counseling]], and personal development, although scientific skeptics and academic psychologists have subjected it to considerable criticism in research literature.
  
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The '''Myers-Briggs Type Indicator''' ('''MBTI''') is a [[personality test]] designed to assist a person in identifying their [[personality]] preferences. It was developed by [[Katharine Cook Briggs]] and her daughter [[Isabel Briggs Myers]] during [[World War II]], and follows from the theories of [[Carl Jung]] as laid out in his work ''Psychological Types''. The registered [[trademark]] rights in the phrase and its acronym have been assigned from the publisher of the test, Consulting Psychologists Press Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator [[Trust]]. The test is frequently used in the areas of [[pedagogy]], [[group dynamics]], employee training, [[leadership|leadership training]], [[marriage counseling]], and [[personal development]], although [[scientific skepticism|scientific skeptics]] and academic psychologists have subjected it to considerable criticism in research literature.
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===Keirsey Temperament Sorter===
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The '''Keirsey Temperament Sorter''' is a personality instrument which attempts to identify which of four [[temperament]]s, and which of 16 types, a person prefers. [[Hippocrates]] proposed the four "humors," which are related to the four temperaments. These were sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, and melancholic. In 1978, [[David Keirsey]] and Marilyn Bates, in the book ''Please Understand Me,'' reintroduced temperament theory in modern form. Keirsey renamed the four temperaments in the book ''Portraits of Temperament'' (1987) as "Guardian," "Artisan," "Idealist," and "Rational." As he was developing modern temperament theory, Keirsey found that by combining the [[MBTI]] functions "intuition" with "judging," NT and NF, and combining "sensing" with the "perceiving" function, SJ and SP, that these groupings of types correlated to his four temperaments:
  
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=== Historical development ===
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'''Artisans (SPs)''' seek freedom to act and are concerned with their ability to make an impact on people or situations. Their greatest strength is tactical intelligence, which means that they excel at acting, composing, producing, and motivating.
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C. G. Jung first spoke on typology at the Munich Psychological Congress in [[1913]]. Katharine Cook Briggs began her research into personality in [[1917]], developing a four-type framework: Social; Thoughtful; Executive; Spontaneous. In [[1923]] Jung's ''Psychological Types'' was published in English translation (having first been published in German in 1921). Katharine Briggs' first publications are two articles describing Jung's theory, in the journal ''New Republic'' in [[1926]] (''Meet Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box'') and [[1928]] (''Up From Barbarism''). Katharine Briggs' daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, wrote a prize-winning mystery novel ''[[Murder Yet to Come]]'' in [[1929]], using typological ideas. She joins her mother's research, which she would progressively take over entirely. In [[1942]], the "Briggs-Myers Type Indicator®" was created, and the ''Briggs Myers Type Indicator Handbook'' published in [[1944]]. The indicator changes its name to the modern form (''Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®'') in [[1956]].
 
  
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=== About the indicator ===
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'''Guardians (SJs)''' seek membership or belonging and are concerned with responsibility and duty. Their greatest strength is logistical intelligence, which means that they excel at organizing, facilitating, checking, and supporting.
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The indicator differs from [[standardized tests]] and others measuring [[Trait (biological)|traits]], such as [[Intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], instead identifying preferred types. While types and traits are both inborn, traits can be improved akin to [[skills]], whereas types, if supported by a healthy environment, naturally [[wikt:differentiate|differentiate]] over time. The indicator attempts to tell the order in which this occurs in each person, and it is that information, combined with interviews done with others who have indicated having the same preferences, that the complete descriptions are based on.  The indicator then, is akin to an arrow which attempts to point in the direction of the proper description.  The facet of the theory which posits that the features being sorted for are in fact types, and not traits which can be improved with practice, is hotly debated, lacking definitive [[proof]].
 
  
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The types the MBTI sorts for, known as [[wikt:dichotomy|dichotomies]], are extraversion/introversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling and judging/perceiving. Participants are given one of 16 four-letter acronyms, such as ESTJ or INFP, indicating what they prefer. The term ''best-fit types'' refers to the [[#Ethics|ethical code]] that facilitators are required to follow. It states that the person taking the indicator is always the best judge of what their preferences are, and the indicator alone should never be used to make this decision.
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'''Idealists (NFs)''' seek meaning and significance and are concerned with finding their own unique identity. Their greatest strength is diplomatic intelligence, which means that they excel at clarifying, unifying, individualizing, and inspiring.
  
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=== Criticism ===
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'''Rationals (NTs)''' seek mastery and self-control and are concerned with their own knowledge and competence. Their greatest strength is strategic intelligence, which means that they excel at engineering, conceptualizing, theorizing, and coordinating.
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[[scientific skepticism|Scientific skeptics]] such as Robert Todd Carroll, author of [[The Skeptic's Dictionary]], have presented several potential problems with the MBTI. The foremost issue is that the way the MBTI is designed makes it difficult to validate any of the claims it makes about types using [[scientific method]]s. Carroll says, "no matter what your preferences, your behavior will still sometimes indicate contrasting behavior. Thus, no behavior can ever be used to falsify the type, and any behavior can be used to verify it."
 
  
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The basic skeptical claim against the MBTI is that any conclusions made from the types lack [[falsifiability]], which can cause [[confirmation bias]] in the interpretation of the results. It has also been argued that the terminology of the MBTI is so vague and complicated that it allows any kind of behavior to fit any personality type, resulting in the [[Forer effect]], where an individual gives a high rating to a positive description that supposedly applies specifically to them.
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The chart below compares modern and ancient aspects of the model: 
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{{Temperament2}}
  
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Carroll also notes that the theory of psychological types created by [[Carl Jung]] was not based on any controlled studies&mdash;the only scientific study Jung performed was in the field of [[astrology]]. Carroll argues that Jung may not even have approved of the MBTI, quoting, "My scheme of typology is only a scheme of orientation. There is such a factor as introversion, there is such a factor as extraversion. The classification of individuals means nothing, nothing at all. It is only the instrumentarium for the practical psychologist to explain for instance, the husband to a wife or vice versa."
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===Enneagram ===
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[[File:Enneagram integration.JPG|thumb|250px|'''The Enneagram Figure''']]
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Another personality assessment similar to the MBTI is called the Enneagram.
  
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Further, Jung's methods primarily included [[introspection]] and [[anecdote]], methods largely rejected by the modern field of [[cognitive psychology]]. Further, the MBTI has not been validated by [[double-blind]] tests, in which participants accept reports written for other participants, and are asked whether or not the report suits them, and thus may not qualify as a [[Scientific method|scientific assessment]]. Still others have argued that, while the MBTI may be useful for self-understanding, it is commonly used for [[pigeonholing]] people or for self-pigeonholing.
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The term "enneagram" derives from the Greek words ''ennea'' (nine) and ''gramma'' (something written or drawn). The figure can also be called an "enneagon." The usual form of the Enneagram figure consists of a circle with nine points on its circumference equally spaced with one at the top and numbered clockwise from 1 to 9 starting with 1 at the point one position clockwise from the top-most point and ending with 9 at the top-most point.
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The Enneagram figure's most well-known use is in indicating a dynamic model of nine distinct yet interconnected psychological types (usually called "personality types" or "character types"). These types can be understood as unconsciously developing from nine distinct archetypal patterns.  
  
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==Enneagram ==
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It is sometimes speculated that forms of the Enneagram typology can be found in ancient sources, especially within the [[Sufism|Sufi]] spiritual tradition, or that the Enneagram figure is possibly a variant of the Chaldean Seal from the times of [[Pythagoras]]. The Enneagram figure's first definitely established use (at least in its most common form of the triangle and hexagon) is found in the writings of the Greek-Armenian spiritual teacher [[G.I. Gurdjieff]] and his Russian-born student, P. D. Ouspensky. The teaching tradition established by Gurdjieff and Ouspensky is called "the Fourth Way."
  
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Another personality assessment similar to the MBTI is called the Enneagram. There is research that shows the correlation between the MBTI and The Enneagrams: http://tap3x.net/EMBTI/journal.html
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The figure's use for a typological model is first clearly found in the teachings of Bolivian-born Oscar Ichazo and his system called "Protoanalysis." Much of popular Enneagram teaching has, however, been principally developed from the teachings of the Chilean-born psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo who first learned the basics of the Enneagram from Ichazo. It was principally from Naranjo that the Enneagram became established in the United States. His Enneagram teaching was further developed by many others teachers including a number of [[Jesuit]] [[priest]]s and seminarians at Loyola University in Chicago.
  
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Contemporary ways of understanding and describing the "Enneagram of Personality," as it is sometimes called, have developed from various traditions of spiritual wisdom and modern psychological insight. While many people understand the Enneagram principally in spiritual or [[mysticism|mystical]] ways others understand it primarily in [[psychology|psychological]] terms.
  
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[[Image:Enneagram.gif|thumb|200px|'''The Enneagram Figure''']]
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The nine Enneagram types are often given names that indicate some distinctive behavioral aspect, though these labels are insufficient to capture the nuances of the type concerned. Some examples are as follows. The corresponding unhealthy aspect is indicated in square brackets.
  
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The '''Enneagram''' (or '''Enneagon''') is a nine-pointed diametric figure which is used to indicate the dynamic ways that aspects of things and processes are connected and change. These days the Enneagram figure's most well-known use is in indicating a dynamic model of nine distinct yet interconnected psychological types (usually called 'personality types' or 'character types'). These types can be understood as unconsciously developing from nine distinct archetypal patterns.  
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*'''One''': ''Reformer, Critic, Perfectionist'' ''[Anger].'' This type focuses on integrity. Ones can be wise, discerning, and inspiring in their quest for the truth. They also tend to dissociate themselves from their flaws and can become hypocritical and hyper-critical, seeking the illusion of virtue to hide their own vices. The One's greatest fear is to be flawed and their ultimate goal is perfection.
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*'''Two''': ''Helper, Giver, Caretaker'' ''[Pride].'' Twos, at their best, are compassionate, thoughtful and astonishingly generous; they can also be prone to passive-aggressive behavior, clinginess, and manipulation. Twos want, above all, to be loved and needed and fear being unworthy of [[love]].
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*'''Three''': ''Achiever, Performer, Succeeder'' ''[Deceit].'' Highly adaptable and changeable. Some walk the world with confidence and unstinting authenticity; others wear a series of public masks, acting the way they think will bring them approval and losing track of their true self. Threes fear being worthless and strive to be worthwhile.
 +
*'''Four''': ''Romantic, Individualist, Artist'' ''[Envy].'' Driven by a fear that they have no identity or personal significance, Fours embrace individualism and are often profoundly creative. However, they have a habit of withdrawing to internalize, searching desperately inside themselves for something they never find and creating a spiral of depression. The stereotypical [[angst]]-ridden [[music]]ian or tortured [[art]]ist is often a stereotypical Four.
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*'''Five''': ''Observer, Thinker, Investigator'' ''[Avarice].'' Believing they are only worth what they contribute, Fives have learned to withdraw, to watch with keen eyes and speak only when they can shake the world with their observations. Sometimes they do just that. Sometimes, instead, they withdraw from the world, becoming reclusive hermits and fending off social contact with abrasive cynicism. Fives fear incompetence or uselessness and want to be capable above all else.
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*'''Six''': ''Loyalist, Devil's Advocate, Defender'' ''[Fear].'' Sixes long for stability above all else. They exhibit unwavering loyalty and responsibility, but are prone to extreme [[anxiety]] and passive-aggressive behavior. Their greatest fear is to lack support and guidance. 
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*'''Seven''': ''Enthusiast, Adventurer, Materialist'' ''[Gluttony].'' Eternal "Peter Pans," Sevens flit from one activity to another. Above all they fear being unable to provide for themselves. At their best they embrace life for its varied joys and wonders and truly live in the moment; but at their worst they dash frantically from one new experience to another, being too scared of disappointment to enjoy what they have.
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*'''Eight''': ''Leader, Protector, Challenger'' ''[Lust].'' Eights worry about self-protection and control. Natural leaders, capable and passionate, but also manipulative, ruthless, and willing to destroy anything and everything in their way. Eights seek control over their own life and their own destiny and fear being harmed or controlled by others.
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*'''Nine''': ''Mediator, Peacemaker, Preservationist'' ''[Sloth].'' Nines are ruled by their [[empathy]]. At their best they are perceptive, receptive, gentle, calming, and at peace with the world. On the other hand, they prefer to dissociate from conflicts and indifferently go along with others' wishes or simply withdraw, acting via inaction. They fear the conflict caused by their ability to simultaneously understand opposing points of view and seek peace of mind above all else.
  
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As a typology model it is often called the '''Enneagram of Personality''' but it is usually only called the '''Enneagram'''.  This can cause confusion with the other ways in which the Enneagram figure is used. Although usually understood as being a '''personality''' typology others understand it  as a model of archetype-based '''character''' types. 
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===DISC Profile===
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The DISC Profile is a [[Psychometrics|psychometric test]], using a four-dimensional model of normal behavior. The DISC Profile is based on the work of psychologist, [[William Moulton Marston]], who published his work on measurements of mental energy in ''Emotions of Normal People'' in 1928, and ''Integrative Psychology'' in 1931. Its name comes from the initials each describing a behavioral pattern:
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Contemporary ways of understanding and describing the Enneagram of Personality have developed from various traditions of spiritual wisdom and modern psychological insight.  While many people understand the Enneagram principally in spiritual or mystical ways others understand it primarily in psychological terms.
 
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===The diametric figure===
 
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The term 'enneagram' derives from the Greek words 'ennea' (nine) and 'gramma' (something written or drawn).  The figure can also be called an 'enneagon'.  The usual form of the Enneagram figure consists of a circle with nine points on its circumference equally spaced with one at the top and numbered clockwise from 1 to 9 starting with 1 at the point one position clockwise from the top-most point and ending with 9 at the top-most point.  An  equilateral triangle joins points 3, 6, and 9, and an irregular hexagon joins the remaining six points. The lines forming the sides of the hexagon join the points numbered, in sequence, 1, 4, 2, 8, 5, 7, 1, which are the sequence of digits in the decimal representation of the fraction 1/7.
 
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===Historical development===
 
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It is sometimes speculated that forms of the Enneagram typology can be found in ancient sources, especially within the [[Sufi]] spiritual tradition, or that the Enneagram figure is possibly a variant of the [[Chaldean Seal]] from the times of [[Pythagoras]].  Although there may be some truth to this, there does not appear to be any hard evidence to support such speculations.
 
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It seems that the Enneagram figure's first definitely established use (at least in its most common form of the triangle and hexagon) is found in the writings of the Greek-Armenian spiritual teacher [[G.I. Gurdjieff]] (died 1949) and his Russian-born student [[P. D. Ouspensky]].  The teaching tradition established by Gurdjieff and Ouspensky (which is still continued by various other teachers and schools) is called [[the Fourth Way]].
 
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Gurdjieff's teachings were heavily influenced by his personal experience with [[Sufism]] as well as Orthodox Christianity and Buddhism.  Even though some of the principal ways of understanding the Enneagram have come from the Fourth Way tradition  there does not seem to be any clear evidence that he used the Enneagram figure as a typological model (at least not in the popular contemporary form).  One student of Fourth Way teachings, [[John G. Bennett]], developed the idea of the Enneagram as part of a wider study that he named [[Systematics]]. This  can be applied to transformative processes and to understanding and improving the functioning of groups, particularly in a business context (see Richard N. Knowles' book, ''The Leadership Dance'').
 
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The figure's use for a typological model is first clearly found in the teachings of Bolivian-born [[Oscar Ichazo]] (born 1931) and his system called 'Protoanalysis'.  Ichazo first taught his understanding of the Enneagram (or the 'Enneagon' as it is usually called in his teachings) to students in [[Arica, Chile|Arica]], [[Chile]] in the 1960s and later in the United States through his [[Arica School|Arica Institute]].
 
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Much of popular Enneagram teaching has, however, been principally developed - directly or indirectly - from the teachings of the Chilean-born psychiatrist [[Claudio Naranjo]] who first learned the basics of the Enneagram from Ichazo in Arica. It was principally from Naranjo that the Enneagram became established in the United States.  His Enneagram teaching was further developed by many  others teachers including a number of Jesuit priests and seminarians at Loyola University in Chicago.
 
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===The nine types===
 
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The nine Enneagram types are often given names that indicate some distinctive behavioral aspect, though these labels are insufficient to capture the nuances of the type concerned.
 
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Some examples are as follows.  (For convenience, the corresponding ''deadly sin'' is indicated in square brackets: see [[#Ego-fixations_&_deadly_sins|below]]).
 
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*'''[[One (Enneagram)|One]]''': ''Reformer, Critic, Perfectionist'' ''[Anger]''.  This type focuses on integrity.  Ones can be wise, discerning and inspiring in their quest for the truth.  They also tend to dissociate themselves from their flaws and can become hypocritical and hyper-critical, seeking the illusion of virtue to hide their own vices.  The One's greatest fear is to be flawed and their ultimate goal is perfection. '''[[One (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative One description)]]'''
 
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*'''[[Two (Enneagram)|Two]]''': ''Helper, Giver, Caretaker'' ''[Pride]''.  Twos, at their best, are compassionate, thoughtful and astonishingly generous; they can also be prone to [[passive-aggressive]] behavior, clinginess and manipulation.  Twos want, above all, to be loved and needed and fear being unworthy of love. '''[[Two (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Two description)]]'''
 
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*'''[[Three (Enneagram)|Three]]''': ''Achiever, Performer, Succeeder'' ''[Deceit]''.  Highly adaptable and changeable.  Some walk the world with confidence and unstinting authenticity; others wear a series of public masks, acting the way they think will bring them approval and losing track of their true self.  Threes fear being worthless and strive to be worthwhile. '''[[Three (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Three description)]]'''
 
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*'''[[Four (Enneagram)|Four]]''': ''Romantic, Individualist, Artist'' ''[Envy]''.  Driven by a fear that they have no identity or personal significance, Fours embrace individualism and are often profoundly creative.  However, they have a habit of withdrawing to internalize, searching desperately inside themselves for something they never find and creating a spiral of depression.  The stereotypical [[angst]]y [[musician]] or tortured [[artist]] is often a stereotypical Four. '''[[Four (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Four description)]]'''
 
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*'''[[Five (Enneagram)|Five]]''': ''Observer, Thinker, Investigator'' ''[Avarice]''.  Believing they are only worth what they contribute, Fives have learned to withdraw, to watch with keen eyes and speak only when they can shake the world with their observations.  Sometimes they do just that.  Sometimes, instead, they withdraw from the world, becoming reclusive hermits and fending off social contact with abrasive cynicism.  Fives fear incompetence or uselessness and want to be capable above all else. '''[[Five (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Five description)]]'''
 
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*'''[[Six (Enneagram)|Six]]''':  ''Loyalist, Devil's Advocate, Defender'' ''[Fear]''.  Sixes long for stability above all else.  They exhibit unwavering loyalty and responsibility but are prone to extreme anxiety and [[passive-aggressive]] behavior.  Their greatest fear is to lack support and guidance.  '''[[Six (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Six description)]]'''
 
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*'''[[Seven (Enneagram)|Seven]]''': ''Enthusiast, Adventurer, Materialist'' ''[Gluttony]''.  Eternal [[Peter Pan]]s, Sevens flit from one activity to another.  Above all they fear being unable to provide for themselves.  At their best they embrace life for its varied joys and wonders and  truly live in the moment; but at their worst they dash frantically from one new experience to another being too scared of disappointment to enjoy what they have. '''[[Seven (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Seven description)]]'''
 
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*'''[[Eight (Enneagram)|Eight]]''': ''Leader, Protector, Challenger'' ''[Lust]''.  Eights worry about self-protection and control.  Natural leaders, capable and passionate but also manipulative, ruthless and willing to destroy anything and everything in their way.  Eights seek control over their own life and their own destiny  and fear being harmed or controlled by others. '''[[Eight (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Eight description)]]'''
 
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*'''[[Nine (Enneagram)|Nine]]''': ''Mediator, Peacemaker, Preservationist'' ''[Sloth]''.  Nines are ruled by their empathy.  At their best they are perceptive, receptive, gentle, calming and at peace with the world.  On the other hand they prefer to dissociate from conflicts and  indifferently go along with others' wishes or simply withdraw, acting via inaction.  They fear the conflict caused by their ability to simultaneously understand opposing points of view and seek peace of mind above all else.  '''[[Nine (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Nine description)]]'''
 
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==Keirsey Temperament Sorter==
 
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[[Image:MBTITemperament.png|right|frame|The location of Keirsey's four temperaments within the MBTI.]]The '''Keirsey Temperament Sorter''' is a personality instrument which attempts to identify which of four temperaments, and which of sixteen types, a person prefers.  [[Hippocrates]], a Greek medic who lived from 460-377 B.C.E., proposed the [[four humours]], which are related to the four temperaments. These were [[sanguine]], [[choleric]], [[phlegmatic]], and [[melancholic]]. In 1978, [[David Keirsey]] and Marilyn Bates in the book Please Understand Me reintroduced temperament theory in modern form and Keirsey renamed the four temperaments in the book Portraits of Temperament (1987) as [[Guardian]], [[Artisan]], [[Idealist]], and [[Rational]]. As he was developing modern temperament theory, Keirsey discovered the [[MBTI]] in 1956, and found that by combining intuition with the judging functions, NT and NF, and sensing with the perceiving functions, SJ and SP, he found that grouping those Myers types correlated to his four temperaments.  The chart below compares modern and ancient aspects of the theory: 
 
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{{Temperament2}}
 
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=== Describing the temperaments ===
 
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'''Artisans (SPs)''' seek freedom to act and are concerned with their ability to make an impact on people or situations.  Their greatest strength is tactical intelligence, which means that they excel at acting, composing, producing, and motivating.
 
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'''Guardians (SJs)''' seek membership or belonging and are concerned with responsibility and duty.  Their greatest strength is logistical intelligence, which means that they excel at organizing, facilitating, checking, and supporting.
 
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'''Idealists (NFs)''' seek meaning and significance and are concerned with finding their own unique identity.  Their greatest strength is diplomatic intelligence, which means that they excel at clarifying, unifying, individualizing, and inspiring.
 
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'''Rationals (NTs)''' seek mastery and self-control and are concerned with their own knowledge and competence.  Their greatest strength is strategic intelligence, which means that they excel at engineering, conceptualizing, theorizing, and coordinating.
 
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==DISC Profile==
 
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'''DISC''' is a [[Psychometrics|Psychometric test]].
 
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Its name comes from the initials each describing a behavioral pattern:
 
  
 
* '''D'''ominance produces activity in an antagonistic environment
 
* '''D'''ominance produces activity in an antagonistic environment
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* '''I'''nducement produces activity in a favourable environment
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* '''I'''nducement produces activity in a favorable environment
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* '''S'''teadiness produces passivity in a favourable environment
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* '''S'''teadiness produces passivity in a favorable environment
 
* '''C'''ompliance produces passivity in an antagonistic environment.
 
* '''C'''ompliance produces passivity in an antagonistic environment.
  
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===Author===
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These four dimensions can be grouped in a grid with D and I sharing the top row and representing [[extrovert]]ed aspects of the [[personality]], and C and S below representing [[introvert]]ed aspects. D and C then share the left column and represent task-focused aspects, and I and S share the right column and represent social aspects. In this matrix, the vertical dimension represents a factor of "Assertive" or "Passive", while the horizontal dimension represents "Open" vs. "Guarded".
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Based on the 1928 work of psychologist William Moulton Marston. 
 
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===Personal Profile System===
 
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The DISC Personal Profile System is personality behavioral testing profiling using a 4 dimensional model of normal behavior in an assessment, inventory, survey format in both self-scored paper or online versions.
 
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==Big Five Personality Traits==
 
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===Overview===
 
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The big five personality traits can be summarized as follows:
 
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'''[[Neuroticism]]''' - A tendency to easily experience unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, anger, or depression.
 
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[[Introversion and extroversion|'''Extroversion''']] - Energy, surgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others.
 
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[[N-Affil | '''Agreeableness''']] - A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
 
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'''[[Conscientiousness]]''' - A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement.
 
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[[Neophilia|'''Openness to experience''']] - Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, and unusual ideas; imaginative and curious.
 
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These traits are usually measured as percentile scores, with the average mark at 50%; so for example, a Conscientiousness rating in the 80th percentile indicates a greater than average sense of responsibility and orderliness, while an Extroversion rating in the 5th percentile indicates an exceptional need for solitude and quiet.
 
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===Origins===
 
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In [[1936]] [[Gordon Allport]] and [[H. S. Odbert]] hypothesized that:
 
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<blockquote>
 
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''Those individual differences that are most salient and socially relevant in people’s lives will eventually become encoded into their language; the more important such a difference, the more likely is it to become expressed as a single word.''
 
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</blockquote>
 
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This statement has become known as the '''Lexical Hypothesis'''.
 
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Allport and Odbert had worked through two of the most comprehensive [[dictionary|dictionaries]] of the English language available at the time, and extracted 18,000 personality-describing words. From this gigantic list they extracted 4500 personality-describing adjectives which they considered to describe observable and relatively permanent traits.
 
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In [[1946]] [[Raymond Cattell]] used the emerging technology of [[computer]]s to analyse the Allport-Odbert list. He organized the list into 181 clusters and asked subjects to rate people whom they knew by the adjectives on the list. Using [[factor analysis]] Cattell generated twelve factors, and then included four factors which he thought ought to appear. The result was the hypothesis that individuals describe themselves and each other according to sixteen different, independent factors.
 
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With these sixteen factors as a basis, Cattell went on to construct the [[16 Personality Factors|16PF Personality Questionnaire]], which remains in use by universities and businesses for research, personnel selection and the like. Although subsequent research has failed to replicate his results, and it has been shown that he retained too many factors, the current 16PF takes these findings into account and is considered to be a very good test. In [[1963]], [[W.T. Norman]] replicated Cattell’s work and suggested that five factors would be sufficient.
 
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In [[1981]] in a symposium in [[Honolulu]], four prominent researchers ([[Lewis Goldberg]], [[Naomi Takamoto-Chock]], [[Andrew Comrey]], and [[John M. Digman]]) reviewed the available personality tests of the day, and decided that most of the tests which held any promise seemed to measure a subset of five common factors, just as Norman had discovered in [[1963]].
 
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===The Factors===
 
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(The following descriptions of the five factors were adapted from the [http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/j/5/j5j/IPIP/ writings of Dr. John A. Johnson].)
 
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====Extroversion====
 
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Extroversion (also sometimes "Extraversion") is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extroverts enjoy being with people, are full of energy, and often experience positive emotions. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented, individuals who are likely to say "Yes!" or "Let's go!" to opportunities for excitement. In groups they like to talk, assert themselves, and draw attention to themselves.
 
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Introverts lack the exuberance, energy, and activity levels of extroverts. They tend to be quiet, low-key, deliberate, and disengaged from the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; the introvert simply needs less stimulation than an extrovert and prefers to be alone.
 
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====Agreeableness====
 
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Agreeableness reflects individual differences in concern with cooperation and social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are therefore considerate, friendly, generous, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others'. Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature. They believe people are basically honest, decent, and trustworthy.
 
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Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others' well-being, and therefore are unlikely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others' motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative.
 
  
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Agreeableness is obviously advantageous for attaining and maintaining popularity. Agreeable people are better liked than disagreeable people. On the other hand, agreeableness is not useful in situations that require tough or absolute objective decisions. Disagreeable people can make excellent scientists, critics, or soldiers.
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The DISC Profile is a self-scored assessment, available in a traditional paper workbook format and online versions.
  
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====Conscientiousness====
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===Big Five personality traits===
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Conscientiousness concerns the way in which we control, regulate, and direct our impulses. Impulses are not inherently bad; occasionally time constraints require a snap decision, and acting on our first impulse can be an effective response. Also, in times of play rather than work, acting spontaneously and impulsively can be fun. Impulsive individuals can be seen by others as colorful, fun-to-be-with, and zany. Conscientiousness includes the factor known as [[Need for Achievement]] (NAch).
 
  
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The benefits of high conscientiousness are obvious. Conscientious individuals avoid trouble and achieve high levels of success through purposeful planning and persistence. They are also positively regarded by others as intelligent and reliable. On the negative side, they can be compulsive perfectionists and workaholics. Furthermore, extremely conscientious individuals might be regarded as stuffy and boring. Unconscientious people may be criticized for their unreliability, lack of ambition, and failure to stay within the lines, but they will experience many short-lived pleasures and they will never be called stuffy.
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In 1981, at a symposium in Honolulu, four prominent researchers (Lewis Goldberg, Naomi Takamoto-Chock, Andrew Comrey, and John M. Digman) reviewed the available personality tests of the day, and decided that most of the tests which held any promise seemed to measure a subset of five common factors. These five factors correspond to those generated in 1963 by W.T. Norman, based on lexical analysis of the English language by [[Gordon Allport]] and H. S. Odbert in 1936.  
  
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====Neuroticism or (inversely) Emotional Stability====
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A model was developed which states that personality can be described in terms of five aggregate-level trait descriptors&mdash;The Big Five Personality Traits. These are measured by self-report questionnaires, known as International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) tests. The five factors and some typical questions that define them are as follows:
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Neuroticism refers to the tendency to experience negative feelings. Those who score high on Neuroticism may experience primarily one specific negative feeling such as anxiety, anger, or depression, but are likely to experience several of these emotions. People high in Neuroticism are emotionally reactive. They respond emotionally to events that would not affect most people, and their reactions tend to be more intense than normal. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish a neurotic's ability to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress.
 
  
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At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in Neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low scorers experience a lot of positive feelings; frequency of positive emotions is a component of the Extroversion domain.
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'''Neuroticism''': A tendency to easily experience unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, anger, or depression.
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* I am easily disturbed.
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* I change my mood a lot.
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* I get irritated easily.
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* I get stressed out easily.
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* I get upset easily.
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* I have frequent mood swings.
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* I often feel blue.
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* I worry about things.
  
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====Openness to Experience====
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* I am relaxed most of the time. ''(reversed)''
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Openness to Experience describes a dimension of cognitive style that distinguishes imaginative, creative people from down-to-earth, conventional people. Open people are intellectually curious, appreciative of art, and sensitive to beauty. They tend to be, compared to closed people, more aware of their feelings. They tend to think and act in individualistic and nonconforming ways. People with low scores on openness to experience tend to have narrow, common interests. They prefer the plain, straightforward, and obvious over the complex, ambiguous, and subtle. They may regard the arts and sciences with suspicion, regarding these endeavors as abstruse or of no practical use. Closed people prefer familiarity over novelty; they are conservative and resistant to change.
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* I seldom feel blue. ''(reversed)''
  
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Openness is often presented as healthier or more mature by psychologists, who are often themselves open to experience. However, open and closed styles of thinking are useful in different environments. The intellectual style of the open person may serve a professor well, but research has shown that closed thinking is related to superior job performance in police work, sales, and a number of service occupations.
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'''Extroversion''': Energy and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others.
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* I am the life of the party.
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* I don't mind being the center of attention.
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* I feel comfortable around people.
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* I start conversations.
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* I talk to a lot of different people at parties.
  
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===Significance===
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* I am quiet around strangers. ''(reversed)''
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* I don't like to draw attention to myself. ''(reversed)''
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* I don't talk a lot. ''(reversed)''
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* I have little to say. ''(reversed)''
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* I keep in the background. ''(reversed)''
  
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One of the most significant advances of the five factor model was the establishment of a taxonomy that demonstrates order in a previously scattered and disorganized field. For example, as an extremely heterogeneous collection of traits, research had found that "personality" (i.e., any of a large number of hypothesized personality traits) was not predictive of important criteria. However, using the five-factor model as a taxonomy to group the vast numbers of unlike personality traits, psychologists Barrick and Mount used meta-analysis of previous research to show that in fact there were many significant correlations between the personality traits of the five-factor model and job performance in many jobs. Their strongest finding was that psychometric Conscientiousness was predictive of performance in all the job families studied. This makes perfect sense, insofar as it is very difficult to imagine any job where, all other things equal, being high in Conscientiousness is ''not'' an advantage.
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'''Agreeableness''': A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
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* I am interested in people.
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* I feel others' emotions.
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* I have a soft heart.
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* I make people feel at ease.
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* I sympathize with others' feelings.
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* I take time out for others.
  
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* I am not interested in other people's problems. ''(reversed)''
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* I am not really interested in others. ''(reversed)''
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* I feel little concern for others. ''(reversed)''
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* I insult people. ''(reversed)''
  
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===Weaknesses===
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'''Conscientiousness''': A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement.
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* I am always prepared.
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* I am exacting in my work.
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* I follow a schedule.
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* I get chores done right away.
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* I like order.
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* I pay attention to details.
  
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There are several weaknesses to the Big Five. The first of these is that the five factors are not fully "orthogonal" to one another; that is, the five factors are not independent. Negative correlations often appear between Neuroticism and Extroversion, for instance, indicating that those who are more prone to experiencing negative emotions tend to be less talkative and outgoing.
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* I leave my belongings around. ''(reversed)''
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* I make a mess of things. ''(reversed)''
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* I often forget to put things back in their proper place. ''(reversed)''
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* I shirk my duties. ''(reversed)''
  
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Another weakness is that the Big Five do not explain all of human personality. Some psychologists have dissented from the model precisely because they feel it neglects other personality traits, such as:
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'''Openness to experience''': Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, and unusual ideas; imaginative and curious.
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* I am full of ideas.
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* I am quick to understand things.
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* I have a rich vocabulary.
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* I have a vivid imagination.
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* I have excellent ideas.
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* I spend time reflecting on things.
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* I use difficult words.
  
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*[[Religion|Religiosity]]
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* I am not interested in abstract ideas. ''(reversed)''
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*[[Manipulation|Manipulativeness]]
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* I do not have a good imagination. ''(reversed)''
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*[[Honesty]]
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* I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. ''(reversed)''
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*[[Sexual attraction|Sexiness]]
 
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*[[Thrift|Thriftiness]]
 
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*[[Conservatism|Conservativeness]]
 
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*[[Gender role|Masculinity/Femininity]]
 
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*[[Snob|Snobbishness]]
 
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*[[Humour|Sense of humour]]
 
  
−
Correlations have been found between these factors and the Big Five, such as the well known inverse relationship between political conservatism and Openness, although variation in these traits is not entirely explained by the Five Factors themselves.
+
===Other tests===
 +
[[Image:HollandHexagon.png|thumb|290px|right|The Holland hexagon]]
 +
[[John L. Holland]]'s ''RIASEC'' vocational model, commonly referred to as the '''Holland Codes''', suggests that there are six personality traits that lead people to choose their career paths:
 +
* '''Realistic''' - practical, physical, hands-on, tool-oriented
 +
* '''Investigative''' - analytical, intellectual, scientific
 +
* '''Artistic''' - creative, original, independent, chaotic
 +
* '''Social''' - cooperative, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing
 +
* '''Enterprising''' - competitive environments, leadership, persuading
 +
* '''Conventional''' - detail-oriented, organizing, clerical
 +
This model is widely used in [[vocational counseling]] and is a circumplex model where the six types are represented as a [[hexagon]] in which adjacent types are more closely related than those more distant.
  
−
==Other tests==
+
Some cognitive psychologists have dismissed the idea of personality, believing most behavior is context specific. These theorists developed the concept of cognitive styles or "Meta-programs" to deal with this, which in turn lead to meta-program tests such as the Inventory for Work Attitude & Motivation (iWAM).
  
−
Other tests include [[Oxford Capacity Analysis]], Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory, [[Eysenck Personality Questionnaire]], and the [[Abika Test]].
+
Other tests include the Oxford Capacity Analysis, Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory, [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]]'s three-factor Personality Questionnaire, and the Abika Test.
−
 
 
−
More recently, cognitive psychologists have dismissed the idea of personality, because most behavior is context specific.  Theorists developed the concept of cognitive styles or [[Meta program]]s to deal with this, which in turn lead to metaprogram tests such as [http://www.jobEQ.com/iwam.php iWAM].
 
−
 
 
−
==Criticism and controversy==
 
−
 
 
−
Critics have raised issues about the ethics of administering personality tests, especially for non-clinical uses. By the 1960s, tests like the MMPI was being given by companies to employees and applicants as often as to psychiatric patients. Sociologist [[William H. Whyte]] was among many who saw the tests as helping to create and perpetuate the oppressive [[groupthink]] of the "organization man" mid-century [[corporate capitalism]]. In [[1966]]
 
  
 
==Benefits of Personality Testing==
 
==Benefits of Personality Testing==
  
−
Research published  by David Dunning of Cornell University, Chip Heath of Stanford University and Jerry M. Suls of the University of Iowa reveal that other people who are not involved in any type of relationship with an individual are better judges of an individual's relationships and abilities. These researchers have been studying a large body of research into self-evaluation, and much of it reveals that most of us have flawed views about us and our relationships. That can have very serious consequences, because if we don't know about our relationships and who we are, we could be endangering others as well as ourselves. People deceive themselves because they lack the necessary information to make an accurate assessment; and they often ignore or undervalue the information they do have.
+
A significant number of businesses use personality testing as part of their hiring process. More and more people are also using personality testing to evaluate their business partners and potential spouses. Salespeople use personality testing to better understand the needs of their customers and gain a competitive edge in closing sales. [[Guidance counseling|Guidance counselors]] use personality tests to help students make appropriate career choices. [[Lawyer]]s use personality testing for [[crime|criminal]] behavior analysis, litigation profiling, witness examination and [[jury]] selection.
  
−
Psychology also has a great influence on the Stock Market.  Investors are people and like most people react emotionally to news and other facts. And a person's perception of fundamental and technical factors can be influenced by many things including money. Markets are all about perceptions of the future. If investors expect things to get better, stocks go up and if investors think things will get worse, stocks go down.  And these expectations are constantly being adjusted, as investors digest every possible detail — such as economic news, earnings reports, economic data, political events and news and any other factor that might give them a clue about what the future holds. More important than the details themselves is how investors perceive those details and react to them. Facts do matter, but the only thing that really counts is how investors react to the facts. This perception of the details and facts depends a great deal on the individual psychological profile of investors and the total market is the collective psychological profile of all the investors.
+
While none of the tests available may give complete assessments, it has been possible to tailor particular tests to the specific needs of employers, the military, lawyers, and so forth. This can be beneficial by providing a better fit between the person and what they will be called on to accomplish.  
−
 
 
−
Donald trump's how-to-get-rich strategies also include comments on the importance of Personality in making deals. He discusses how knowing the personality of people involved in his deals has contributed to his success as a dealmaker. His interest in psychology came late, after dismissing it in college. Now Trump says Jung the renowned Psychologist's work is "important to financial success." Jung has been a big "help in my business as well as in my personal life ... Reading Jung will give you insights into yourself and the ways in which you and other people operate." And when he says that he's talking to all of us.
 
−
 
 
−
A study by American Management Association (AMA) reveals that 39 percent of companies surveyed use personality testing as part of their hiring process. More and more people are also using personality testing to evaluate their business partners, dates and spouses. Salespeople use personality testing to better understand the needs of their customers and gain a competitive edge in closing sales. Even college students have started using personality testing to evaluate their roommates. Lawyers use personality testing for Criminal behavior analysis, Litigation profiling, Witness examination and Jury selection
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*Bennett, D. Against types. ''Boston Globe'', 12 September 2004.
 
−
* Berens, Linda V. ''[http://www.16types.com/Request.jsp?lView=DynamicPage&Content=CognitiveProcesses Jung's Cognitive Processes].'' Retrieved December 21, 2004.
 
−
* Carroll, Robert Todd (January 9, 2004). ''[http://skepdic.com/myersb.html Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®]''.  The Skeptic's Dictionary.  Retrieved January 8, 2004.
 
−
* The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. ''[http://www.capt.org/The_MBTI_Instrument/Ethical_Use.cfm MBTI® Code of Ethics].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
 
−
*Congress of the United States Office of Technology Assessment. [http://www.blackvault.com/documents/ota/Ota_2/DATA/1990/9042.PDF. The Use of Integrity Tests for Pre-Employment Screening]. ([[PDF]]) September 1990. OTA-SET-442 NTIS order #PB91-107011.
 
−
* Conn, Steven R (1994) ''Sixteen Pf Fifth Edition Technical Manual.'' Institute for Personality & Ability Testing. ISBN 0918296226
 
−
* Consulting Psychologists Press (2004). ''[https://online.cpp-db.com/Inc/Trademark_Guidelines.pdf Trademark Guidelines]''. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
 
−
*Geyer, Peter (1998) [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~alchymia/library/dates.html ''Some Significant Dates'']. Retrieved [[December 5]], [[2005]].
 
−
* Jung, Carl Gustav (August 1, 1971). ''Psychological Types (Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 6).'' Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691097704.
 
−
* Keirsey, David (1998). ''Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence.'' Prometheus Nemesis Book Co Inc; 1st ed edition. ISBN 1885705026.
 
−
* Keirsey, David (2001). ''[http://users.viawest.net/~keirsey/difference.html Keirsey Temperament versus Myers-Briggs Types].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
 
−
* Martin, Charles Dr. (2004) ''[http://www.capt.org/The_MBTI_Instrument/Type_Descriptions.cfm The Sixteen Types at a Glance]''. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
 
−
* Myers, Isabel Briggs; McCaulley Mary H.; Quenk, Naomi L.; Hammer, Allen L. (1998). ''MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator).'' Consulting Psychologists Press; 3rd ed edition. ISBN 0891061304.
 
−
* The Myers & Briggs Foundation.'' [http://www.myersbriggs.org/myers%5Fand%5Fbriggs%5Ffoundation/ethical%5Fuse%5Fof%5Fthe%5Fmbti%5Finstrument/ Ethical Use of the MBTI® Instrument].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
 
−
*Paul, A.M. (20040. ''The Cult of Personality: How Personality Tests Are Leading Us to Miseducate Our Children, Mismanage Our Companies, and Misunderstand Ourselves.'' Free Press . ISBN: 0743243560.
 
−
* University of Florida (2003) [http://web.uflib.ufl.edu/spec/manuscript/guides/Myers.htm ''Guide to the Isabel Briggs Myers Papers 1885-1992''], George A. Smathers Libraries, Department of Special and Area Studies Collections, Gainesville, FL. Retrieved [[December 5]], [[2005]].
 
  
−
==Further reading==
+
*1990. "Congress of the United States Office of Technology Assessment" in ''The Use of Integrity Tests for Pre-Employment Screening.'' OTA-SET-442 NTIS order #PB91-107011.  
−
 
+
*Almaas, A. H. 2000. ''Facets Of Unity: The Enneagram Of Holy Ideas.'' Shambhala Books. ISBN 0936713143.
−
* Berens, Linda V. and  Nardi, Dario. ''[http://www.bestfittype.com/personality.html What Is Personality "Type?"]''.  "The 16 Personality Types: Descriptions for Self-Discovery" (Fountain Valley CA: Telos Publications, 1999), 2.
+
*Baron, Renee, and Elizabeth Wagele. 1994, ''The Enneagram Made Easy.'' ISBN 0062510266.
−
*Berens, Linda V. and  Nardi, Dario. ''[http://www.bestfittype.com/bestfittype.html What Is Best-Fit Type?]''. "The 16 Personality Types: Descriptions for Self-Discovery" (Fountain Valley CA: Telos Publications, 1999), 6.
+
*Berens, Linda V., Cooper, Sue A., Ernst, Linda K., Martin, Charles R., Myers, Steve, Nardi, Dario, Pearman, Roger R., Segal, Marci, and Smith, Melissa A. 2002. ''Quick Guide to the 16 Personality Types in Organizations: Understanding Personality Differences in the Workplace''. Telos Publications. ISBN 978-0971214415.
−
*Berens, Linda V. and  Nardi, Dario. ''[http://www.bestfittype.com/describingpersonality.html Ways to Describe Personality]''. "The 16 Personality Types: Descriptions for Self-Discovery" (Fountain Valley CA: Telos Publications, 1999), 2
+
*Berens, Linda V., and Dario Nardi. 1999. ''The 16 Personality Types: Descriptions for Self-Discovery'' Radiance House. ISBN 978-0979868429.
−
* Berens,Linda V., Cooper,Sue A., Ernst,Linda K., Martin,Charles R., Myers,Steve, Nardi, Dario, Pearman,Roger R., Segal, Marci, Smith ,Melissa A. ''[http://www.bestfittype.com/organizations.html Applications of Type in Organizations]''.  "Quick Guide to the 16 Personality Types in Organizations: Understanding Personality Differences in the Workplace" (Fountain Valley CA: Telos Publications, 2001), 1
+
*Carroll, Robert Todd. 2004. "[http://skepdic.com/myersb.html Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®]" in ''The Skeptic's Dictionary.'' Retrieved March 4, 2019.
−
*Bourne, Dana. ''[http://www.webdotgal.com/main/html/m-b.html Personality Types and the Transgender Community]''. Retrieved November 14, 2005.
+
*Conn, Steven R. 1994. ''Sixteen Pf Fifth Edition Technical Manual''. Institute for Personality & Ability Testing. ISBN 0918296226.
−
 
+
*Georgia State University. [http://www2.gsu.edu/~dschjb/wwwmbti.html GSU Master Teacher Program: On Learning Styles]. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
−
*Falt, Jack. ''[http://www.trytel.com/~jfalt/topics.html Bibliography of MBTI/Temperament Books by Author]''. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
+
*Holland, John L. 1997. ''Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments''. Psychological Assessment Resources Inc. ISBN 978-0911907278.
−
*Geyer, Peter (1988). ''[http://members.ozemail.com.au/~alchymia/library/history.html An MBTI® History].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
+
*Jung, Carl Gustav. 1971. ''Psychological Types (Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 6).'' Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691097704.
−
*Georgia State University. ''[http://www2.gsu.edu/~dschjb/wwwmbti.html GSU Master Teacher Program: On Learning Styles]''. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
+
*Jung, Carl Gustav. 1989. ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections.'' New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0679723950.
−
*Jung, Carl Gustav. ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections.'' Vintage Books: New York, 1965. p. 207.
+
*Keirsey, David. 1998. ''Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence.'' Prometheus Nemesis Book Co. Inc. ISBN 1885705026.
−
* Martin., Charles R. ''[http://www.bestfittype.com/careermastery.html Role of Type in Career Mastery]''. "Quick Guide to the 16 Personality Types and Career Mastery:  Living with Purpose and Working Effectively"  (Fountain Valley CA: Telos Publications, 2001), 3
+
*Marston, William Moulton. [1928] 2007. ''Emotions of Normal People''. Cooper Press. ISBN 978-1406701166.
−
*Matthews, Paul (2004). ''[http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/328/7450/1244 The MBTI is a flawed measure of personality].'' bmj.com Rapid Responses. Retrieved February 9, 2005.
+
*Martin, Charles. 2004. ''[http://www.capt.org/The_MBTI_Instrument/Type_Descriptions.cfm The Sixteen Types at a Glance]''. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Retrieved April 2, 2011.
−
*Myers, Isabel Briggs (1970). ''Personal letter to Mary McCaulley''.  The MBTI Qualifying Program: The Center for Applications of Psychological Type, 2004. p. 20.
+
*Myers, Isabel Briggs. 1995. ''Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type.'' Davies-Black Publishing. ISBN 089106074X.
−
* Myers, Isabel Briggs (1980). ''Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type.'' Davies-Black Publishing; Reprint edition (May 1, 1995). ISBN 089106074X.
+
*Myers, Isabel Briggs, Mary H. McCaulley, Naomi L. Quenk, and Allen L. Hammer. 1998. ''MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator),'' 3rd ed.  Consulting Psychologists Press, ISBN 0891061304.
−
* Paul, Annie Murpy (2004). ''The Cult of Personality Testing.'' Free Press. ch. 5.
+
*Palmer, Helen. 1991. ''The Enneagram: Understanding Yourself and the Others In Your Life.'' HarperOne. ISBN 0062506838.
−
*Personality Plus. ''[http://www.gladwell.com/pdf/personality.pdf Employers love personality tests.  But what do they really reveal?'']
+
*Palmer, Helen. 1996. ''The Enneagram in Love and Work: Understanding Your Intimate and Business Relationships.'' HarperOne. ISBN 0062507214.
−
*Skeptics Dictionary "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator" [http://skepdic.com/myersb.html]
+
*Paul, A.M. 2004. ''The Cult of Personality: How Personality Tests Are Leading Us to Miseducate Our Children, Mismanage Our Companies, and Misunderstand Ourselves.'' Free Press. ISBN 0743243560.
−
*The Myers & Briggs Foundation.'' [http://www.myersbriggs.org/myers%5Fand%5Fbriggs%5Ffoundation/ethical%5Fuse%5Fof%5Fthe%5Fmbti%5Finstrument/  Ethical Use of the MBTI® Instrument].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
+
*The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. 2004. ''[http://www.capt.org/The_MBTI_Instrument/Ethical_Use.cfm MBTI® Code of Ethics]''. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
−
*Virginia Tech. ''[http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/jte-v7n1/wicklein.jte-v7n1.html The Relationship Between Psychological Type and Professional Orientation Among Technology Education Teachers].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
+
*University of Florida. 2003. [http://web.uflib.ufl.edu/spec/manuscript/guides/Myers.htm ''Guide to the Isabel Briggs Myers Papers 1885-1992'']. George A. Smathers Libraries, Department of Special and Area Studies Collections, Gainesville, FL. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
−
Enneagram
 
−
* Almaas, A. H. (2000). ''Facets Of Unity: The Enneagram Of Holy Ideas''.  Shambhala Books. ISBN 0936713143.
 
−
*Baron, Renee &  Wagele, Elizabeth. 1994, '''The Enneagram Made Easy'''. ISBN 0062510266.
 
−
*Hurley, Kathleen V. (1993). ''My best self: Using the Enneagram to free the soul''.  ISBN 8572720669.
 
−
*Jaxon-Bear, Eli. (2005). ''Self-Realization and The Enneagram''. (DVD produced by the Leela Foundation). ASIN: B000B5KX10.  
 
−
*Palmer, Helen. (1991). ''The Enneagram: Understanding Yourself and the Others In Your Life'' . ISBN 0062506838.
 
−
*Palmer, Helen. (1996). ''The Enneagram in Love and Work: Understanding Your Intimate and Business Relationships''. ISBN 0062507214.
 
−
*Riso, Don Richard  & Hudson, Russ. (1999). ''The Wisdom of the Enneagram''. ISBN 0555378201.
 
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
 +
All links retrieved November 23, 2022.
  
−
* [http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de/WWW/MathNat/Ruch/Research/epq.html Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (in German, with a focus on the German version)]
+
;MMPI
−
* [http://www.colorwize.com/Personality_Test.htm Personality Test based on research since 1989.]
+
* [http://www.pearsonassessments.com/tests/mmpia.htm MMPI-A (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent)]
−
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/whatamilike/index.shtml 'What Am I Like?' personality test from the BBC]
+
* [http://www.umn.edu/mmpi/ MMPI Research Project]
−
 
 
−
* [http://www.ptypes.com/temperaments.html#kretschmer Personality Types]
 
−
 
 
−
*[http://www.abika.com/Help/Accuracy.htm Personality testing through data mining]
 
−
* [http://similarminds.com/global5.html Similar minds personality test]
 
−
* [http://similarminds.com/global-adv.html Similar minds Global Advanced Personality Test]
 
−
* [http://www.mindmedia.com/links/personality_tests.html Personality Tests in the Mind Media Guide]
 
−
* [http://ps.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/49/11/1500 Book review of Storytelling, Narrative, and the Thematic Apperception Test]
 
−
* [http://web.utk.edu/~wmorgan/tat/tattxt.htm Research into the origins of imagery used in the TAT]
 
−
*[http://www.pearsonassessments.com/assessments/tests/mmpi_2.htm Pearson Assessments: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2]
 
−
*[http://www.pearsonassessments.com/tests/mmpia.htm MMPI-A (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent)]
 
−
*[http://edtech.tph.wku.edu/~rgrieve/Personality/LectureNotes/MMPI-2Interpretation.pdf Test interpretation and description of scales] (pdf)
 
−
*[http://www.umn.edu/mmpi/ MMPI Research Project]
 
−
*[http://www.falseallegations.com/mmpi-bw.htm MMPI: All You Wanted to Know About It]
 
−
*[http://www.aaml.org/MMPI.htm INTRODUCTION: The MMPI is the most frequently used clinical test]
 
−
*[http://www.nimh.nih.gov/ National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Home Page]
 
−
*[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/minnesota_multiphasic_personality_inventory_mmpi-2.jsp MMPI article] via Health A to Z
 
−
*[http://allpsych.com/personalitysynopsis/trait.html Trait Theory]
 
−
*[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/051223.html The Straight Dope: What does Alice in Wonderland have to do with psychological testing?]
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
Authorized Myers-Briggs / Keirsey:
 
−
* [http://www.interstrength.com/mbti.html  MBTI Qualification Program]
 
−
* [http://www.paladinexec.com/ Authorized Myers-Briggs tests]
 
  
 +
;MBTI/Keirsey
 +
;;Authorized
 +
* [http://www.4temperaments.com/ 4Temperaments.com] The Web Site for Understanding the Four Temperaments.
 +
* [http://www.paladinexec.com/ Paladin Associates] Authorized Myers-Briggs tests
 
* [http://www.keirsey.com/ Keirsey Temperament and Character] The Web Site for the Keirsey Temperament Sorter and Keirsey Temperament Theory.
 
* [http://www.keirsey.com/ Keirsey Temperament and Character] The Web Site for the Keirsey Temperament Sorter and Keirsey Temperament Theory.
−
* [http://www.4temperaments.com/ 4Temperaments.com] The Web Site for Understanding the Four Temperaments.
 
  
 +
;;Unauthorized
 +
* [http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp Human Metrics]
 +
* [http://www.personalitytest.net/types/index.html Personality Test Center]
  
−
 
+
;;Additional resources
−
Unauthorized personality tests inspired by Myers-Briggs / Keirsey:
+
* [http://www.16types.com/ 16types.com] Complete resource for understanding the 16 personality types
−
* [http://www.16types.com/Request.jsp?pView=DynamicPage&Content=MajorsPTI MajorsPTI - Advanced Personality Type Inventory]
+
* [http://www.bestfittype.com/ BestFitType.com] Explore all 16 personality types
−
* [http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp humanmetrics.com]
+
* [http://www.cognitiveprocesses.com/ CognitiveProcesses.com] Explore the 16 personality types from the Jungian perspective
−
* [http://www.personalitytest.net/types/index.htm personalitytest.net]
 
−
* [http://similarminds.com/jung.html similarminds.com]
 
−
 
 
−
Additional information and essays on all 16 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Profiles:
 
−
 
 
−
* [http://www.16types.com/ 16types.com - Complete resource for understanding the 16 personality types.]
 
−
* [http://www.bestfittype.com/ BestFitType.com - Explore all 16 personality types.]
 
−
* [http://www.cognitiveprocesses.com/ CognitiveProcesses.com - Explore the 16 personality types from the Jungian perspective.]
 
 
* [http://www.typelogic.com/ Typelogic.com]
 
* [http://www.typelogic.com/ Typelogic.com]
−
* [http://www.typetango.com Links to different descriptions of the 16 Types]
 
−
* [http://www.geocities.com/lifexplore/ Life Explore - Information regarding typology (i.e. MBTI)]
 
−
 
−
Enneagram
 
  
 +
;Enneagram
 +
* [http://skepdic.com/enneagr.html 'Enneagram'] The Skeptic's Dictionary
 +
* [http://tap3x.net/EMBTI/journal.html The Enneagram and the MBTI]
 
* [http://www.enneagraminstitute.com Enneagram Insitute]
 
* [http://www.enneagraminstitute.com Enneagram Insitute]
−
* [http://p.webring.com/hub?ring=ennearing The Enneagram Webring]
 
−
* [http://www.personality-and-aptitude-career-tests.com/enneagram-personality-tests.html  Enneagram; Arguments For and Against...]
 
 
* [http://www.internationalenneagram.org  International Enneagram Association]
 
* [http://www.internationalenneagram.org  International Enneagram Association]
−
* [http://www.enneagramweb.com A Brief History of the Enneagram]
+
* [http://www.9types.com/homepage.actual.html 9Types.com] A summary of several sources
−
* [http://skepdic.com/enneagr.html 'Enneagram'] in [[The Skeptic's Dictionary]]
 
−
* [http://www.9types.com/homepage.actual.html A summary of several sources.]
 
−
* [http://www.enneagramworldwide.com/enneagram-workshops/current-schedule/index.php Enneagram Worldwide classes, workshops and events]
 
−
* [http://www.aeongroup.com/gc.htm Superimposing the Enneagram and Zodiac ([[Patrizia Norelli-Bachelet]])]
 
  
−
ig Five
+
;Big Five
−
 
+
* [http://ipip.ori.org/ International Personality Item Pool]
−
* http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~sanjay/pubs/bigfive.pdf
+
* [http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~sanjay/pubs/bigfive.pdf The Big Five-Trait Taxonomy]
−
* [http://www.personality-and-aptitude-career-tests.com/big-five-personality-tests.html Criticism on Big Five Personality Tests]
+
* [http://www.personality-and-aptitude-career-tests.com/big-five-personality-tests.html Big Five Personality Tests]
 
* [http://www.personalityresearch.org/bigfive.html Five-Factor Model] from Great Ideas in Personality
 
* [http://www.personalityresearch.org/bigfive.html Five-Factor Model] from Great Ideas in Personality
−
* [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2005/3/25/183037/595 History of the Big 5] from Kuro5hin
 
 
* [http://www.personality-project.org/  The Personality Project] Good source of references for further reading.
 
* [http://www.personality-project.org/  The Personality Project] Good source of references for further reading.
  
 +
;Other
 +
* [http://www.colorwize.com/Personality_Test.htm Personality Test based on Color Signature]
 +
* [http://www.ptypes.com/temperaments.html#kretschmer The Temperaments] Ernst Kretschmer
 +
* [http://web.utk.edu/~wmorgan/tat/tattxt.htm Research into the origins of imagery used in the TAT]
 +
* [http://www.self-directed-search.com/ Self-Directed Search: A Career Interest Inventory]
 +
* [http://www.corexcel.com/html/personal.profile.desc.htm DiSC® Profile Overview]
  
  
−
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+
{{Credits|Personality_test|38479542|Thematic_Apperception_Test|38301110|Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory|35100665|Myers-Briggs_Type_Indicator|38218205|Enneagram|36759674|Keirsey_Temperament_Sorter|43210849|DISC_assessment|81857654|Big_Five_personality_traits|43895875|}}

Latest revision as of 14:39, 29 September 2023

The four temperaments as illustrated by Johann Kaspar Lavater.

A personality test aims to assess aspects of a person's character that remain stable across situations, referred to as their personality. Personality is generally understood as a collection of emotional, thought, and behavioral patterns unique to a person, that is consistent over time. Generally, personality tests assess common characteristics for large segments of the population, describing people according to a number of dimensions or traits, rather than attempting to describe every detail of any particular individual's personality.

A variety of methods have been developed to assess personality differences and characteristics, based on various approaches to the nature of personality. While none is a complete description of human personality, many tests have proven useful in specific applications, such as interviewing prospective employees, through focusing on the attributes important for the particular situation. Through this use, a good fit can be found between an individual and what they will be called on to accomplish, thus benefiting both the individual and the whole purpose that they are serving.

Early history

Did you know?
Greek philosopher Hippocrates recorded the first known personality model basing his four "types" on the amount of body fluids, or "humors," an individual possessed.

Greek philosopher Hippocrates recorded the first known personality model basing his four "types" on the amount of body fluids, or "humors," an individual possessed. Greek physician Galen expounded upon Hippocrates' theory based on the four basic body fluids (humors): blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. According to their relative predominance in an individual, they would produce, respectively, temperaments designated sanguine (warm, pleasant), phlegmatic (slow-moving, apathetic), melancholic (depressed, sad), and choleric (quick to react, hot tempered). German philosopher Immanuel Kant popularized these ideas by organizing the constructs along the two axes of feelings and activity.

The advent of the field of psychology led to more formalized categories and tests. For example, Wilhelm Wundt proposed that the four temperaments fall along the axes of changeability and emotionality.

Varieties of personality assessment

As the field of psychology developed so did both theories of personality and the methods to assess personality differences. A wide range of personality tests are available for use, for a variety of purposes, in different situations. The first personality test was the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet first used in 1919. It was designed to help the United States Army screen out recruits who might be susceptible to shell shock.

Some of the most commonly used personality tests are:

Projective tests

A projective test is one in which the person is asked to respond to ambiguous stimuli in order to reveal hidden emotions and internal conflicts. This differs from an "objective test," in which responses are analyzed according to a universal standard, such as in a multiple choice questionnaire. The two most well-known and often used projective tests are the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Rorschach inkblot test

Main article: Rorschach inkblot test

The Rorschach inkblot test, named after its inventor Hermann Rorschach, was introduced in 1921, as a way to determine a person's personality by their interpretation of abstract inkblots.

Thematic Apperception Test

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was commissioned by the Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) in the 1930s, to identify personalities that might be susceptible to being turned by enemy intelligence. American psychologists Henry Murray and Christiana D. Morgan at Harvard were responsible for developing the TAT test. They explored the underlying dynamics of personality, such as internal conflicts, dominant drives and interests, and motives. Specifically, the test assesses motives, including needs for achievement, power, intimacy, and problem-solving abilities.

The TAT uses a standard series of 31 provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject must tell a story. A subject is asked questions such as:

  • What dialogue might be carried on between characters?
  • How might the "story" continue after the picture shown?

For this reason, the TAT is also known as the "picture interpretation technique."

Each story created by a subject is carefully analyzed to uncover underlying needs, attitudes, and patterns of reaction. Subjects can respond orally or in writing and there are specific subsets of pictures for boys, girls, men, and women. The TAT is a projective test in that, like the Rorschach inkblot test, its assessment of the subject is based on what he or she projects onto the ambiguous images.

After World War II, the TAT was adopted more broadly by psychoanalysts and clinicians to evaluate emotionally disturbed patients. Later, in the 1970s, the Human Potential Movement encouraged psychologists to use the TAT to help their clients understand themselves better and stimulate personal growth.

Today, the TAT is widely used as a tool for research in areas of psychology such as dreams, fantasies, mate selection, and what motivates people to choose their occupation. Sometimes it is used in a psychiatric context to assess disordered thinking, in forensic examinations to evaluate crime suspects or to screen candidates for high-stress occupations.

The TAT has been criticized for a number of reasons. It is not administered in a standardized way, and because it is challenging to standardize interpretation of the stories it produces. A scoring system for analysis was created by David McClelland in an attempt to introduce more rigor.

The 31 standard pictures have been criticized as negative in tone and therefore tending to limit the range of personality characteristics that the TAT can explore. Research has shown that factors including race, gender, and social class of both examiners and subjects influence the stories told and how they are interpreted.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was published in 1942 as a way to aid in assessing psychopathology in a clinical setting. It is the most frequently used personality test in the mental health field. This assessment was designed to help identify personal, social, and behavioral problems in psychiatric patients. The results from this test provide relevant information to aid in problem identification, diagnosis, and treatment planning for patients.

The test has also been used for job screening and other non-clinical assessments, which is considered controversial and is in some cases illegal.

History and use

The original MMPI was developed at the University of Minnesota Hospitals and first published in 1942. The original authors of the MMPI were Starke R. Hathaway, PhD, and J. C. McKinley, MD. The MMPI is copyrighted and is a trademark of the University of Minnesota. Clinicians must pay a fee each time it is administered.

The standardized version for adults 18 and over, the MMPI-2, was released in 1989, with a subsequent revision of certain test elements in early 2001. The MMPI-2 has 567 items, or questions, and takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete. There is a short form of the test that is comprised of the first 370 items on the long-form MMPI-2. There is also a version of the inventory for adolescents aged 14 to 18, the MMPI-A.

The MMPI has been used for a range of assessments:

Criticism and controversy

Other personality tests, like the Rorschach inkblot test and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, have come under fire more often than MMPI. Still, critics have raised issues about the ethics and validity of administering MMPI, especially for non-clinical uses.

By the 1960s, the MMPI was being given by companies to employees and applicants as often as to psychiatric patients. Sociologist William H. Whyte was among many who saw the tests as helping to create and perpetuate the oppressive "groupthink" of mid-twentieth century corporate capitalism.

In 1966, Senator Sam Ervin introduced a bill to sharply curtail the government's use of the MMPI and similar tests, comparing them to McCarthyism. Ervin's bill failed. A 1990 Office of Technology Assessment report noted:

In 1965 the Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, chaired by Senator Sam Ervin, and the House Special Subcommittee on Invasion of Privacy of the Committee on Government Operations, chaired by Representative Cornelius E. Gallagher, held hearings to determine whether the questions asked on psychological tests used by the Federal Government were an unjustified invasion of the respondent’s psyche and private life. The Subcommittees also investigated the validity of these tests and the due process issues involved in test administration. The reactions of the press and public were very critical of the types of questions asked on these psychological tests.

Numerous successful lawsuits have argued that giving the test to job applicants is an invasion of privacy, and that there is no evidence linking test results to job performance. Others have accused that MMPI can "overpathologize" certain demographic groups, notably teenagers and non-white test takers.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Main article: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was designed to assist a person in identifying their personality preferences. It was developed by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers during World War II, and follows from the theories of Carl Jung as laid out in his work Psychological Types. The registered trademark rights in the phrase and its acronym have been assigned from the publisher of the test, Consulting Psychologists Press Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust. The test is frequently used in the areas of pedagogy, group dynamics, employee training, leadership training, marriage counseling, and personal development, although scientific skeptics and academic psychologists have subjected it to considerable criticism in research literature.

Keirsey Temperament Sorter

The Keirsey Temperament Sorter is a personality instrument which attempts to identify which of four temperaments, and which of 16 types, a person prefers. Hippocrates proposed the four "humors," which are related to the four temperaments. These were sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, and melancholic. In 1978, David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates, in the book Please Understand Me, reintroduced temperament theory in modern form. Keirsey renamed the four temperaments in the book Portraits of Temperament (1987) as "Guardian," "Artisan," "Idealist," and "Rational." As he was developing modern temperament theory, Keirsey found that by combining the MBTI functions "intuition" with "judging," NT and NF, and combining "sensing" with the "perceiving" function, SJ and SP, that these groupings of types correlated to his four temperaments:

Artisans (SPs) seek freedom to act and are concerned with their ability to make an impact on people or situations. Their greatest strength is tactical intelligence, which means that they excel at acting, composing, producing, and motivating.

Guardians (SJs) seek membership or belonging and are concerned with responsibility and duty. Their greatest strength is logistical intelligence, which means that they excel at organizing, facilitating, checking, and supporting.

Idealists (NFs) seek meaning and significance and are concerned with finding their own unique identity. Their greatest strength is diplomatic intelligence, which means that they excel at clarifying, unifying, individualizing, and inspiring.

Rationals (NTs) seek mastery and self-control and are concerned with their own knowledge and competence. Their greatest strength is strategic intelligence, which means that they excel at engineering, conceptualizing, theorizing, and coordinating.

The chart below compares modern and ancient aspects of the model:

c. 400 B.C.E. Hippocrates's four humors blood black bile yellow bile phlegm
—>
 Season: spring autumn summer winter
—>
 Element: air earth fire water
—>
 Organ: liver gall bladder spleen brain/lungs
—>
 Characteristics: courageous, amorous despondent, sleepless easily angered calm, unemotional
c. 325 B.C.E. Aristotle's four sources of happiness hedone (sensuous pleasure) propraitari (acquiring assets) ethikos (moral virtue) dialogike (logical investigation)
c. 190 C.E.' Galen's four temperaments sanguine melancholic choleric phlegmatic
c. 1550 Paracelsus's four totem spirits changeable salamanders industrious gnomes inspired nymphs curious sylphs
c. 1905 Adicke's four world views innovative traditional doctrinaire skeptical
c. 1914 Spränger's four value attitudes artistic economic religious theoretic
c. 1920 Kretchmer's four character styles hypomanic depressive hyperesthetic anesthetic
c. 1947 Erich Fromm's four orientations exploitative hoarding receptive marketing
c. 1958 Isabel Myers' cognitive function types SP - sensory perception SJ - sensory judgement NF - intuitive feeling NT - intuitive thinking
c. 1978 Keirsey's four temperaments artisan guardian idealist rational
Keirsey, David. 1998. Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence. Prometheus Nemesis Book Co. ISBN 1885705026.

Enneagram

The Enneagram Figure

Another personality assessment similar to the MBTI is called the Enneagram.

The term "enneagram" derives from the Greek words ennea (nine) and gramma (something written or drawn). The figure can also be called an "enneagon." The usual form of the Enneagram figure consists of a circle with nine points on its circumference equally spaced with one at the top and numbered clockwise from 1 to 9 starting with 1 at the point one position clockwise from the top-most point and ending with 9 at the top-most point. The Enneagram figure's most well-known use is in indicating a dynamic model of nine distinct yet interconnected psychological types (usually called "personality types" or "character types"). These types can be understood as unconsciously developing from nine distinct archetypal patterns.

It is sometimes speculated that forms of the Enneagram typology can be found in ancient sources, especially within the Sufi spiritual tradition, or that the Enneagram figure is possibly a variant of the Chaldean Seal from the times of Pythagoras. The Enneagram figure's first definitely established use (at least in its most common form of the triangle and hexagon) is found in the writings of the Greek-Armenian spiritual teacher G.I. Gurdjieff and his Russian-born student, P. D. Ouspensky. The teaching tradition established by Gurdjieff and Ouspensky is called "the Fourth Way."

The figure's use for a typological model is first clearly found in the teachings of Bolivian-born Oscar Ichazo and his system called "Protoanalysis." Much of popular Enneagram teaching has, however, been principally developed from the teachings of the Chilean-born psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo who first learned the basics of the Enneagram from Ichazo. It was principally from Naranjo that the Enneagram became established in the United States. His Enneagram teaching was further developed by many others teachers including a number of Jesuit priests and seminarians at Loyola University in Chicago.

Contemporary ways of understanding and describing the "Enneagram of Personality," as it is sometimes called, have developed from various traditions of spiritual wisdom and modern psychological insight. While many people understand the Enneagram principally in spiritual or mystical ways others understand it primarily in psychological terms.

The nine Enneagram types are often given names that indicate some distinctive behavioral aspect, though these labels are insufficient to capture the nuances of the type concerned. Some examples are as follows. The corresponding unhealthy aspect is indicated in square brackets.

  • One: Reformer, Critic, Perfectionist [Anger]. This type focuses on integrity. Ones can be wise, discerning, and inspiring in their quest for the truth. They also tend to dissociate themselves from their flaws and can become hypocritical and hyper-critical, seeking the illusion of virtue to hide their own vices. The One's greatest fear is to be flawed and their ultimate goal is perfection.
  • Two: Helper, Giver, Caretaker [Pride]. Twos, at their best, are compassionate, thoughtful and astonishingly generous; they can also be prone to passive-aggressive behavior, clinginess, and manipulation. Twos want, above all, to be loved and needed and fear being unworthy of love.
  • Three: Achiever, Performer, Succeeder [Deceit]. Highly adaptable and changeable. Some walk the world with confidence and unstinting authenticity; others wear a series of public masks, acting the way they think will bring them approval and losing track of their true self. Threes fear being worthless and strive to be worthwhile.
  • Four: Romantic, Individualist, Artist [Envy]. Driven by a fear that they have no identity or personal significance, Fours embrace individualism and are often profoundly creative. However, they have a habit of withdrawing to internalize, searching desperately inside themselves for something they never find and creating a spiral of depression. The stereotypical angst-ridden musician or tortured artist is often a stereotypical Four.
  • Five: Observer, Thinker, Investigator [Avarice]. Believing they are only worth what they contribute, Fives have learned to withdraw, to watch with keen eyes and speak only when they can shake the world with their observations. Sometimes they do just that. Sometimes, instead, they withdraw from the world, becoming reclusive hermits and fending off social contact with abrasive cynicism. Fives fear incompetence or uselessness and want to be capable above all else.
  • Six: Loyalist, Devil's Advocate, Defender [Fear]. Sixes long for stability above all else. They exhibit unwavering loyalty and responsibility, but are prone to extreme anxiety and passive-aggressive behavior. Their greatest fear is to lack support and guidance.
  • Seven: Enthusiast, Adventurer, Materialist [Gluttony]. Eternal "Peter Pans," Sevens flit from one activity to another. Above all they fear being unable to provide for themselves. At their best they embrace life for its varied joys and wonders and truly live in the moment; but at their worst they dash frantically from one new experience to another, being too scared of disappointment to enjoy what they have.
  • Eight: Leader, Protector, Challenger [Lust]. Eights worry about self-protection and control. Natural leaders, capable and passionate, but also manipulative, ruthless, and willing to destroy anything and everything in their way. Eights seek control over their own life and their own destiny and fear being harmed or controlled by others.
  • Nine: Mediator, Peacemaker, Preservationist [Sloth]. Nines are ruled by their empathy. At their best they are perceptive, receptive, gentle, calming, and at peace with the world. On the other hand, they prefer to dissociate from conflicts and indifferently go along with others' wishes or simply withdraw, acting via inaction. They fear the conflict caused by their ability to simultaneously understand opposing points of view and seek peace of mind above all else.

DISC Profile

The DISC Profile is a psychometric test, using a four-dimensional model of normal behavior. The DISC Profile is based on the work of psychologist, William Moulton Marston, who published his work on measurements of mental energy in Emotions of Normal People in 1928, and Integrative Psychology in 1931. Its name comes from the initials each describing a behavioral pattern:

  • Dominance produces activity in an antagonistic environment
  • Inducement produces activity in a favorable environment
  • Steadiness produces passivity in a favorable environment
  • Compliance produces passivity in an antagonistic environment.

These four dimensions can be grouped in a grid with D and I sharing the top row and representing extroverted aspects of the personality, and C and S below representing introverted aspects. D and C then share the left column and represent task-focused aspects, and I and S share the right column and represent social aspects. In this matrix, the vertical dimension represents a factor of "Assertive" or "Passive", while the horizontal dimension represents "Open" vs. "Guarded".

The DISC Profile is a self-scored assessment, available in a traditional paper workbook format and online versions.

Big Five personality traits

In 1981, at a symposium in Honolulu, four prominent researchers (Lewis Goldberg, Naomi Takamoto-Chock, Andrew Comrey, and John M. Digman) reviewed the available personality tests of the day, and decided that most of the tests which held any promise seemed to measure a subset of five common factors. These five factors correspond to those generated in 1963 by W.T. Norman, based on lexical analysis of the English language by Gordon Allport and H. S. Odbert in 1936.

A model was developed which states that personality can be described in terms of five aggregate-level trait descriptors—The Big Five Personality Traits. These are measured by self-report questionnaires, known as International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) tests. The five factors and some typical questions that define them are as follows:

Neuroticism: A tendency to easily experience unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, anger, or depression.

  • I am easily disturbed.
  • I change my mood a lot.
  • I get irritated easily.
  • I get stressed out easily.
  • I get upset easily.
  • I have frequent mood swings.
  • I often feel blue.
  • I worry about things.
  • I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed)
  • I seldom feel blue. (reversed)

Extroversion: Energy and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others.

  • I am the life of the party.
  • I don't mind being the center of attention.
  • I feel comfortable around people.
  • I start conversations.
  • I talk to a lot of different people at parties.
  • I am quiet around strangers. (reversed)
  • I don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed)
  • I don't talk a lot. (reversed)
  • I have little to say. (reversed)
  • I keep in the background. (reversed)

Agreeableness: A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.

  • I am interested in people.
  • I feel others' emotions.
  • I have a soft heart.
  • I make people feel at ease.
  • I sympathize with others' feelings.
  • I take time out for others.
  • I am not interested in other people's problems. (reversed)
  • I am not really interested in others. (reversed)
  • I feel little concern for others. (reversed)
  • I insult people. (reversed)

Conscientiousness: A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement.

  • I am always prepared.
  • I am exacting in my work.
  • I follow a schedule.
  • I get chores done right away.
  • I like order.
  • I pay attention to details.
  • I leave my belongings around. (reversed)
  • I make a mess of things. (reversed)
  • I often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed)
  • I shirk my duties. (reversed)

Openness to experience: Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, and unusual ideas; imaginative and curious.

  • I am full of ideas.
  • I am quick to understand things.
  • I have a rich vocabulary.
  • I have a vivid imagination.
  • I have excellent ideas.
  • I spend time reflecting on things.
  • I use difficult words.
  • I am not interested in abstract ideas. (reversed)
  • I do not have a good imagination. (reversed)
  • I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. (reversed)

Other tests

The Holland hexagon

John L. Holland's RIASEC vocational model, commonly referred to as the Holland Codes, suggests that there are six personality traits that lead people to choose their career paths:

  • Realistic - practical, physical, hands-on, tool-oriented
  • Investigative - analytical, intellectual, scientific
  • Artistic - creative, original, independent, chaotic
  • Social - cooperative, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing
  • Enterprising - competitive environments, leadership, persuading
  • Conventional - detail-oriented, organizing, clerical

This model is widely used in vocational counseling and is a circumplex model where the six types are represented as a hexagon in which adjacent types are more closely related than those more distant.

Some cognitive psychologists have dismissed the idea of personality, believing most behavior is context specific. These theorists developed the concept of cognitive styles or "Meta-programs" to deal with this, which in turn lead to meta-program tests such as the Inventory for Work Attitude & Motivation (iWAM).

Other tests include the Oxford Capacity Analysis, Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory, Eysenck's three-factor Personality Questionnaire, and the Abika Test.

Benefits of Personality Testing

A significant number of businesses use personality testing as part of their hiring process. More and more people are also using personality testing to evaluate their business partners and potential spouses. Salespeople use personality testing to better understand the needs of their customers and gain a competitive edge in closing sales. Guidance counselors use personality tests to help students make appropriate career choices. Lawyers use personality testing for criminal behavior analysis, litigation profiling, witness examination and jury selection.

While none of the tests available may give complete assessments, it has been possible to tailor particular tests to the specific needs of employers, the military, lawyers, and so forth. This can be beneficial by providing a better fit between the person and what they will be called on to accomplish.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • 1990. "Congress of the United States Office of Technology Assessment" in The Use of Integrity Tests for Pre-Employment Screening. OTA-SET-442 NTIS order #PB91-107011.
  • Almaas, A. H. 2000. Facets Of Unity: The Enneagram Of Holy Ideas. Shambhala Books. ISBN 0936713143.
  • Baron, Renee, and Elizabeth Wagele. 1994, The Enneagram Made Easy. ISBN 0062510266.
  • Berens, Linda V., Cooper, Sue A., Ernst, Linda K., Martin, Charles R., Myers, Steve, Nardi, Dario, Pearman, Roger R., Segal, Marci, and Smith, Melissa A. 2002. Quick Guide to the 16 Personality Types in Organizations: Understanding Personality Differences in the Workplace. Telos Publications. ISBN 978-0971214415.
  • Berens, Linda V., and Dario Nardi. 1999. The 16 Personality Types: Descriptions for Self-Discovery Radiance House. ISBN 978-0979868429.
  • Carroll, Robert Todd. 2004. "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®" in The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
  • Conn, Steven R. 1994. Sixteen Pf Fifth Edition Technical Manual. Institute for Personality & Ability Testing. ISBN 0918296226.
  • Georgia State University. GSU Master Teacher Program: On Learning Styles. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
  • Holland, John L. 1997. Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments. Psychological Assessment Resources Inc. ISBN 978-0911907278.
  • Jung, Carl Gustav. 1971. Psychological Types (Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 6). Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691097704.
  • Jung, Carl Gustav. 1989. Memories, Dreams, Reflections. New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0679723950.
  • Keirsey, David. 1998. Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence. Prometheus Nemesis Book Co. Inc. ISBN 1885705026.
  • Marston, William Moulton. [1928] 2007. Emotions of Normal People. Cooper Press. ISBN 978-1406701166.
  • Martin, Charles. 2004. The Sixteen Types at a Glance. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Retrieved April 2, 2011.
  • Myers, Isabel Briggs. 1995. Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type. Davies-Black Publishing. ISBN 089106074X.
  • Myers, Isabel Briggs, Mary H. McCaulley, Naomi L. Quenk, and Allen L. Hammer. 1998. MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator), 3rd ed. Consulting Psychologists Press, ISBN 0891061304.
  • Palmer, Helen. 1991. The Enneagram: Understanding Yourself and the Others In Your Life. HarperOne. ISBN 0062506838.
  • Palmer, Helen. 1996. The Enneagram in Love and Work: Understanding Your Intimate and Business Relationships. HarperOne. ISBN 0062507214.
  • Paul, A.M. 2004. The Cult of Personality: How Personality Tests Are Leading Us to Miseducate Our Children, Mismanage Our Companies, and Misunderstand Ourselves. Free Press. ISBN 0743243560.
  • The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. 2004. MBTI® Code of Ethics. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
  • University of Florida. 2003. Guide to the Isabel Briggs Myers Papers 1885-1992. George A. Smathers Libraries, Department of Special and Area Studies Collections, Gainesville, FL. Retrieved March 4, 2019.

External links

All links retrieved November 23, 2022.

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