Difference between revisions of "Personality assessment" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Psychology]]
 
[[Category:Psychology]]
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[[Image:Lavater1.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The four temperaments as illustrated by Johann Kaspar Lavater.]]
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A '''personality test''' aims to assess aspects of a person's character that remain stable across situations, referred to as their [[personality]]. Personality is generally understood as a collection of [[emotion]]al, [[thought]], and behavioral patterns unique to a person, that is consistent over time. Generally, personality tests assess common characteristics for large segments of the population, describing people according to a number of dimensions or traits, rather than attempting to describe every detail of any particular individual's personality.
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{{toc}}
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A variety of methods have been developed to assess personality differences and characteristics, based on various approaches to the nature of personality. While none is a complete description of human personality, many tests have proven useful in specific applications, such as interviewing prospective employees, through focusing on the attributes important for the particular situation. Through this use, a good fit can be found between an individual and what they will be called on to accomplish, thus benefiting both the individual and the whole purpose that they are serving.
  
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==Early history==
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{{readout|Greek philosopher [[Hippocrates]] recorded the first known [[personality]] model basing his four "types" on the amount of body fluids, or "humors," an individual possessed.|right}} Greek physician [[Galen]] expounded upon Hippocrates' theory based on the four basic body fluids (humors): blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. According to their relative predominance in an individual, they would produce, respectively, [[temperament]]s designated sanguine (warm, pleasant), phlegmatic (slow-moving, apathetic), melancholic (depressed, sad), and choleric (quick to react, hot tempered). German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] popularized these ideas by organizing the constructs along the two axes of '''feelings''' and '''activity'''.
  
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A '''personality test''' aims to describe aspects of a person's character that remain stable across situations.
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The advent of the field of [[psychology]] led to more formalized categories and tests. For example, [[Wilhelm Wundt]] proposed that the four temperaments fall along the axes of ''changeability'' and ''emotionality.''
  
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==History==
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==Varieties of personality assessment==
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As the field of [[psychology]] developed so did both theories of [[personality]] and the methods to assess personality differences. A wide range of personality tests are available for use, for a variety of purposes, in different situations. The first personality test was the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet first used in 1919. It was designed to help the [[United States Army]] screen out recruits who might be susceptible to shell shock.
  
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Greek philosopher/physician [[Hippocrates]] recorded the first known personality model basing his four “types” on the amount of ''[[body fluids]]'', or humors, an individual possessed. Greek physician [[Galen]] expounded upon Hippocrates' theory by tying the type of body fluid (''[[blood]]'', ''[[mucus]]'', or ''[[bile]]'') to the type of temperament.
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Some of the most commonly used personality tests are:
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*[[Personality assessment#Projective tests|Projective tests]]
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*[[Personality assessment#Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory|Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory]]
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*[[Personality assessment#MBTI|MBTI]]
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*[[Personality assessment#Keirsey Temperament Sorter|Keirsey Temperament Sorter]]
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*[[Personality assessment#Enneagram|Enneagram]]
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*[[Personality assessment#DISC Profile|DISC Profile]]
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*[[Personality assessment#Big Five Personality Traits|Big Five Personality Traits]]
  
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German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] popularized these ideas by organizing the constructs along the two axes of ''feelings'' and ''activity''. [[Wilhelm Wundt]] proposed that the [[four temperaments]] fall along the axes of ''changeability'' and ''emotionality''.
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===Projective tests===
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A projective test is one in which the person is asked to respond to ambiguous stimuli in order to reveal hidden [[emotion]]s and internal [[conflict]]s. This differs from an "objective test," in which responses are analyzed according to a universal standard, such as in a multiple choice questionnaire. The two most well-known and often used projective tests are the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
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====Rorschach inkblot test====
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{{Main|Rorschach inkblot test}}
  
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The advent of the field of psychology led to more formalized categories and tests. Swiss psychoanalyst [[Carl Jung]] categorized mental functioning into ''[[sensing]]'', ''[[intuition]]'', ''[[thinking]]'', and ''[[feeling]]''.
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The Rorschach inkblot test, named after its inventor [[Hermann Rorschach]], was introduced in 1921, as a way to determine a person's personality by their interpretation of abstract inkblots.
  
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The first modern personality test was the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet first used in [[1919]]. It was designed to help the [[United States Army]] screen out recruits who might be susceptible to [[shell shock]].  
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====Thematic Apperception Test====
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The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was commissioned by the Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) in the 1930s, to identify personalities that might be susceptible to being turned by enemy [[military intelligence|intelligence]]. [[United States|American]] [[psychologist]]s [[Henry Murray]] and Christiana D. Morgan at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] were responsible for developing the TAT test. They explored the underlying dynamics of [[personality]], such as internal conflicts, dominant drives and interests, and motives. Specifically, the test assesses motives, including needs for achievement, power, intimacy, and problem-solving abilities.  
  
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The [[Rorschach inkblot test]] was introduced in [[1921]] as a way to determine a person's personality by their interpretation of abstract inkblots.
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The TAT uses a standard series of 31 provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject must tell a story. A subject is asked questions such as:
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* What dialogue might be carried on between characters?
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* How might the "story" continue after the picture shown?
  
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==Thematic Apperception Test==
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For this reason, the TAT is also known as the "picture interpretation technique."
  
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The Thematic Apperception Test was commissioned by the Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) in the 1930s to identify personalities that might be susceptible to being turned by enemy intelligence.  
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Each story created by a subject is carefully analyzed to uncover underlying needs, [[attitude]]s, and patterns of reaction. Subjects can respond orally or in writing and there are specific subsets of pictures for boys, girls, men, and women. The TAT is a projective test in that, like the [[Rorschach inkblot test]], its assessment of the subject is based on what he or she projects onto the ambiguous images.
  
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The '''Thematic Apperception Test''' or '''TAT'' is amongst the most widely used, researched, and taught [[psychological test]]s. It uses a standard series of 31 provocative yet [[Ambiguity|ambiguous]] [[Picture|pictures]] about which the subject must tell a [[story]]. A subject is asked questions such as:
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After [[World War II]], the TAT was adopted more broadly by [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalysts]] and [[clinical psychology|clinicians]] to evaluate emotionally disturbed patients. Later, in the 1970s, the Human Potential Movement encouraged psychologists to use the TAT to help their clients understand themselves better and stimulate personal growth.
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* ''What dialogue might be carried on between characters?''
 
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* ''How might the "story" continue after the picture shown?''
 
  
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For this reason, the TAT is also known as the 'picture interpretation technique'.
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Today, the TAT is widely used as a tool for research in areas of psychology such as [[dream]]s, fantasies, mate selection, and what motivates people to choose their occupation. Sometimes it is used in a psychiatric context to assess disordered thinking, in forensic examinations to evaluate [[crime]] suspects or to screen candidates for high-stress occupations.  
  
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Each story created by a subject is carefully analyzed to uncover underlying [[Need|needs]], [[Attitude (psychology)|attitudes]], and patterns of reaction. Subjects can respond orally or in writing and there are specific subsets of pictures for boys, girls, men, and women. The TAT is a [[projective test]] in that, like the [[Rorschach test]], its assessment of the subject is based on what he or she [[Psychological projection|projects]] onto the ambiguous images.
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The TAT has been criticized for a number of reasons. It is not administered in a standardized way, and because it is challenging to standardize interpretation of the stories it produces. A scoring system for analysis was created by [[David McClelland]] in an attempt to introduce more rigor.
  
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===History===
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The 31 standard pictures have been criticized as negative in tone and therefore tending to limit the range of personality characteristics that the TAT can explore. Research has shown that factors including race, gender, and [[social class]] of both examiners and subjects influence the stories told and how they are interpreted.
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TAT was developed by the [[United States|American]] [[psychology|psychologist]]s [[Henry A. Murray]] and [[Christiana D. Morgan]] at [[Harvard]] during the [[1930s]] to explore the underlying dynamics of [[Personality psychology|personality]], such as internal [[Conflict|conflicts]], dominant drives and interests and [[Motivation|motives]]. Specifically, TAT assesses motives including needs for [[Goal (management)|achievement]], [[Power (sociology)|power]], [[Intimacy|intimacy]], and [[Problem solving|problem-solving]] abilities.  
 
  
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After [[World War II]], the TAT was adopted more broadly by [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalysts]] and [[Clinician|clinicians]] to evaluate emotionally disturbed [[Patient|patients]]. Later, in the [[1970s]], the [[Human Potential Movement]] encouraged psychologists to use the TAT to help their clients understand themselves better and stimulate [[Personal development|personal growth]].
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===Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory===
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The [[Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory]] (MMPI) was published in 1942 as a way to aid in assessing [[psychopathology]] in a [[clinical psychology|clinical]] setting. It is the most frequently used personality test in the mental health field.  This assessment was designed to help identify personal, social, and behavioral problems in [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] patients. The results from this test provide relevant information to aid in problem identification, diagnosis, and treatment planning for patients.
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Today, the TAT is widely used as a tool for [[Research|research]] around areas of pschology such as [[Dream|dreams]], [[Fantasy (psychology)|fantasies]], [[Marriage|mate selection]] and what motivates people to choose their [[occupation]]. Sometimes it is used in a psychiatric context to assess [[Personality disorder|disordered thinking]], in [[Forensic psychology|forensic examinations]] to evaluate crime suspects or to screen candidates for [[Stress (medicine)|high-stress]] occupations. It is widely used in France and Argentina following the "French School" concepts. There is also a British and a Roman School.
 
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===Criticisms===
 
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The TAT has been criticized because:
 
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* It is not administered in a [[Standardization|standardized]] way, and because it is challenging to standardise interpretation of the stories it produces. A scoring system for analysis was created by [[psychologist]] [[David McClelland]] in an attempt to introduce more rigour.
 
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* Research has shown that factors including [[race]], [[sex]], and [[Social class|social class]] of both examiners and subjects influence the stories told and how they are interpreted.
 
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* The 31 standard pictures have been criticized as negative in tone and therefore tending to limit the range of personality characteristics that the TAT can explore.
 
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* '''Arguably''', Murray's concept of latent needs (similar to the [[Freudian]] theory of [[repression]]) that underlies the TAT has fallen out of favor in mainstream [[Western world|Western]] psychology and so its use is likely to decline.
 
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==Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory==
 
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The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was published in 1942 as a way to aid in assessing [[psychopathology]] in a clinical setting.
 
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The '''Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory''' ('''MMPI''') is the most frequently used [[personality test]] in the mental health fields.  This assessment or test was designed to help identify personal, social, and behavioral problems in [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] patients. This test helps provide relevant information to aid in problem identification, diagnosis, and treatment planning for the patient.
 
  
 
The test has also been used for job screening and other non-clinical assessments, which is considered controversial and is in some cases illegal.
 
The test has also been used for job screening and other non-clinical assessments, which is considered controversial and is in some cases illegal.
  
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===History and use===
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====History and use====
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The original MMPI was developed at the [[University of Minnesota]] Hospitals and first published in [[1942]]. The original authors of the MMPI were Starke R. Hathaway, PhD, and J. C. McKinley, MD. The MMPI is copyrighted and is a [[trademark]] of the [[University of Minnesota]] [http://tess2.uspto.gov/bin/showfield?f=doc&state=j12j9b.10.8]: Clinicians must pay a fee each time it is administered.
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The original MMPI was developed at the [[University of Minnesota]] Hospitals and first published in 1942. The original authors of the MMPI were Starke R. Hathaway, PhD, and J. C. McKinley, MD. The MMPI is [[copyright]]ed and is a [[trademark]] of the University of Minnesota. Clinicians must pay a fee each time it is administered.
  
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The current standardized version for adults 18 and over, the MMPI-2, was released in [[1989]], with a subsequent revision of certain test elements in early [[2001]]. The MMPI-2 has 567 items, or questions, and takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete. There is a short form of the test that is comprised of the first 370 items on the long-form MMPI-2. There is also a version of the inventory for adolescents age 14 to 18, the MMPI-A.
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The standardized version for adults 18 and over, the MMPI-2, was released in 1989, with a subsequent revision of certain test elements in early 2001. The MMPI-2 has 567 items, or questions, and takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete. There is a short form of the test that is comprised of the first 370 items on the long-form MMPI-2. There is also a version of the inventory for [[adolescence|adolescents]] aged 14 to 18, the MMPI-A.
  
 
The MMPI has been used for a range of assessments:
 
The MMPI has been used for a range of assessments:
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*Criminal Justice and Corrections  
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*[[Criminal Justice]] and [[Corrections]]
 
 
*Evaluation of disorders such as [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], [[clinical depression]] and [[schizophrenia]]
 
*Evaluation of disorders such as [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], [[clinical depression]] and [[schizophrenia]]
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*Identification of suitable candidates for high-risk public safety positions such as [[nuclear power]] plant workers, [[police officer|police officers]], airline pilots, medical and psychology students, firefighters and seminary students  
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*Identification of suitable candidates for high-risk public safety positions such as [[nuclear power]] plant workers, [[law enforcement|police officers]], airline pilots, medical and psychology students, firefighters, and [[seminary]] students  
 
*Assessment of medical patients and design of effective treatment strategies, including chronic pain management
 
*Assessment of medical patients and design of effective treatment strategies, including chronic pain management
 
*Evaluation of participants in [[substance abuse]] programs
 
*Evaluation of participants in [[substance abuse]] programs
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*Support for college and career counseling
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*Support for college and [[guidance counseling|career counseling]]
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*Marriage and family counseling
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*[[marital counseling|Marriage]] and [[family counseling]]
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===Criticism and controversy===
 
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[[Personality test]]s like [[graphology]], [[Rorschach inkblot test]], and [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator]] have come under fire more often than MMPI, but critics have raised issues about the ethics and validity of administering MMPI, especially for non-clinical uses.
 
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By the 1960s, the MMPI was being given by companies to employees and applicants as often as to psychiatric patients. Sociologist [[William H. Whyte]] was among many who saw the tests as helping to create and perpetuate the oppressive [[groupthink]] of mid-century [[corporate capitalism]].
 
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A 1990 [[Office of Technology Assessment]] report noted:
 
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<blockquote>In 1965 the Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, chaired by Senator [[Sam Ervin]], and the House Special Subcommittee on Invasion of Privacy of the Committee on Government Operations, chaired by Representative [[Cornelius Edward Gallagher|Cornelius E. Gallagher]], held hearings to determine whether the questions asked on psychological tests used by the Federal Government were an unjustified invasion of the respondent’s psyche and private life. The Subcommittees also investigated the validity of these tests and the due process issues involved in test administration. The reactions of the press and public were very critical of the types of questions asked on these psychological tests.</blockquote>
 
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In [[1966]], Senator Ervin introduced a bill to sharply curtail the government's use of the MMPI and similar tests, comparing them to [[McCarthyism]]. Ervin's bill failed.
 
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Annie Murphy Paul, a former senior editor of ''[[Psychology Today]]'', charges that personality tests "are often invalid, unreliable, and unfair." Others have accused that MMPI can "overpathologize" certain demographic groups, notably teenagers and non-white test takers.
 
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Numerous successful lawsuits have argued that giving the test to job applicants is an invasion of privacy, and that there is no evidence linking test results to job performance.
 
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==Myers-Briggs Type Indicator==
 
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[[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator]] is a 16-type indicator of Jung's ''Psychological Types'' developed during [[World War II]].
 
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The '''Myers-Briggs Type Indicator''' ('''MBTI''') is a [[personality test]] designed to assist a person in identifying their [[personality]] preferences. It was developed by [[Katharine Cook Briggs]] and her daughter [[Isabel Briggs Myers]] during [[World War II]], and follows from the theories of [[Carl Jung]] as laid out in his work ''Psychological Types''. The registered [[trademark]] rights in the phrase and its acronym have been assigned from the publisher of the test, Consulting Psychologists Press Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator [[Trust]]. The test is frequently used in the areas of [[pedagogy]], [[group dynamics]], employee training, [[leadership|leadership training]], [[marriage counseling]], and [[personal development]], although [[scientific skepticism|scientific skeptics]] and academic psychologists have subjected it to considerable criticism in research literature.
 
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=== Historical development ===
 
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C. G. Jung first spoke on typology at the Munich Psychological Congress in [[1913]]. Katharine Cook Briggs began her research into personality in [[1917]], developing a four-type framework: Social; Thoughtful; Executive; Spontaneous. In [[1923]] Jung's ''Psychological Types'' was published in English translation (having first been published in German in 1921). Katharine Briggs' first publications are two articles describing Jung's theory, in the journal ''New Republic'' in [[1926]] (''Meet Yourself Using the Personality Paint Box'') and [[1928]] (''Up From Barbarism''). Katharine Briggs' daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, wrote a prize-winning mystery novel ''[[Murder Yet to Come]]'' in [[1929]], using typological ideas. She joins her mother's research, which she would progressively take over entirely. In [[1942]], the "Briggs-Myers Type Indicator®" is created, and the ''Briggs Myers Type Indicator Handbook'' published in [[1944]]. The indicator changes its name to the modern form (''Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®'') in [[1956]].
 
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=== About the indicator ===
 
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The indicator differs from [[standardized tests]] and others measuring [[Trait (biological)|traits]], such as [[Intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], instead identifying preferred types. While types and traits are both inborn, traits can be improved akin to [[skills]], whereas types, if supported by a healthy environment, naturally [[wikt:differentiate|differentiate]] over time.  The indicator attempts to tell the order in which this occurs in each person, and it is that information, combined with interviews done with others who have indicated having the same preferences, that the complete descriptions are based on.  The indicator then, is akin to an arrow which attempts to point in the direction of the proper description.  The facet of the theory which posits that the features being sorted for are in fact types, and not traits which can be improved with practice, is hotly debated, lacking definitive [[proof]].
 
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The types the MBTI sorts for, known as [[wikt:dichotomy|dichotomies]], are extraversion/introversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling and judging/perceiving. Participants are given one of 16 four-letter acronyms, such as ESTJ or INFP, indicating what they prefer. The term ''best-fit types'' refers to the [[#Ethics|ethical code]] that facilitators are required to follow.  It states that the person taking the indicator is always the best judge of what their preferences are, and the indicator alone should never be used to make this decision.
 
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=== The preferences ===
 
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{| style="border: 1px solid #000000; text-align: center; margin: 0 0 0 2em; clear: right; width: 20%;" align="right"
 
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|-
 
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| colspan="2" | '''Dichotomies'''
 
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|-
 
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| style="background: #FFDDFE" | '''E'''xtroversion
 
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| style="background: #FFDDFE" | '''I'''ntroversion
 
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|-
 
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| style="background: #EDDDBB" | '''S'''ensing
 
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| style="background: #EDDDBB" | i'''N'''tuition
 
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|-
 
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| style="background: #DDDDFF" | '''T'''hinking
 
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| style="background: #DDDDFF" | '''F'''eeling
 
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|-
 
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| style="background: #DDFFDE" | '''J'''udging
 
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| style="background: #DDFFDE" | '''P'''erceiving
 
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|-
 
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| colspan="2" | A dichotomy is a division of two mutually exclusive groups, or in this case, type preferences.
 
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|}
 
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* The terms [[Introversion and extroversion|'''Introversion''' and '''Extroversion''']] (originally spelled ‘extravert’ by Jung, who first used the terms in the context of psychology, although 'extrovert' is now by far the more common spelling) are referred to as attitudes and show how a person orients and receives their energy. In the extroverted attitude the energy flow is outward, and the preferred focus is on other people and things, whereas in the introverted attitude the energy flow is inward, and the preferred focus is on one's own thoughts and ideas.
 
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* '''Sensing''' and '''Intuition''' are the perceiving functions. They indicate how a person prefers to receive data.  These are the nonrational functions, as a person does not necessarily have control over receiving data, but only how to process it once they have it.  Sensing prefers to receive data primarily from the five senses, and intuition prefers to receive data from the unconscious, or seeing relationships via insights.
 
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* '''Thinking''' and '''Feeling''' are the judging functions.  They both strive to make rational judgments and decisions using the data received from their perceiving functions, above.  Thinking uses logical "true or false, if-then" logical connections. Feeling uses "more or less, better-worse" evaluations. When Thinking or Feeling is extroverted, judgments tend to rely on external sources and the generally accepted rules and procedures. When introverted, Thinking and Feeling judgments tend to be subjective, relying on internally generated ideas for logical organization and evaluation.
 
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* '''Judging''' and '''Perceiving''' reveals the specific attitudes of the functions. In J-types, the judging function (T or F) is dominant, and will be directed inward or outward in accordance with the I/E preference. J-types tend to prefer a step-by-step (left brain: parts to whole) approach to life, relying on external rules and procedures, and preferring quick closure. The perceiving function (S or N) is the direct opposite to the judging function. On the other hand, in P-types the perceiving function is the stronger, and follows the I/E preference, whereas the judging function is auxiliary. This can result in a "bouncing around" approach to life (right brain: whole to parts), relying on subjective judgments, and a desire to leave all options open. (The terminology may be misleading for some&mdash;the term "Judging" does not imply "judgmental", and "Perceiving" does not imply "perceptive".)
 
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* Although the above explanation of Judgement and Perception is logically sound and is closer to Jung's definition of J and P, MBTI definition of J and P is different. The MBTI Judging type is not the type with the dominant Judging function and MBTI Perceiving type is not the type with the dominant Perceiving function. MBTI definition of J and P reads like this: "The Judging type is the type that has their strongest Judging function extroverted and the Perceiving type is the type that has their strongest Perceiving function extroverted". So MBTI INTP for example should be Judging type according to Jung, because it has dominant introverted Thinking (Ti), which is Judging function, but it is actually Perceiving type in MBTI because the strongest Perceiving function of MBTI INTP is extroverted iNtuition (Ne), which is obviously extroverted, hence P at the end of the acronym. The only other personality theory similar to MBTI theory is [[Socionics]], which tries to resolve this inconsistency in MBTI theory and stay close to Jung's original definitions.
 
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=== Type dynamics ===
 
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[[Image:theSixteenTypesMBTI.jpg|right|frame|170px|The table organizing the sixteen types was created by Isabel Myers, who preferred INFP (To find the opposite type of the one you are looking at, jump over one type diagonally.)]][[Image:PopulationBreakdownMBTI.jpg|right|frame|170px|By using [[inferential statistics]] an estimate of the preferences found in the US population has been gathered]]The interaction of two, three, or four preferences are known as type dynamics, and when dealing with a four-preference combination it is called a '''type'''.  In total, there are 16 unique types, and many more possible two and three letter combinations, which each have their own descriptive name.  Additionally, it is sometimes possible to observe the interactions that each preference combination will have with another combination, although this is more unorthodox. Complete descriptions will contain the unique interactions of all four preferences in that person, and these are typically written by licensed psychologists based on data gathered from thousands of interviews and studies. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type has released short descriptions on the internet.  The most in-depth descriptions, including statistics, can be found in ''The Manual''.
 
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==== The type table ====
 
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The type table is a visualization tool which is useful for discussing the dynamic qualities and interactions of preference combinations.  It will typically be divided by selecting any pair of preferences and comparing or contrasting.  One of the most common and basic has been used to the right.  It is the grouping of the mental functions, ST, SF, NF and NT, and focuses on the combination of perception and judgment.  Alternatively, if we group by the rows we will have the four attitudes which are IJ, IP, EP and EJ.  There are also more complex groupings, such as combinations of perception and orientations to the outer world, which are SJ, SP, NP and NJ, or combinations of judgement and orientations to the outer world, which are TJ, TP, FP, and FJ.
 
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==== Descriptions of the function-attitudes ====
 
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In addition to a person's general preference for introversion or extraversion (''attitudes''), each function can be introverted or extraverted as well (''function-attitudes''), and the same function will have different qualities depending on its attitude .
 
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* '''Extraverted Sensing''' is perceiving information from the five senses and being drawn to focus on the moment and the experience of the here and now.
 
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Extraverted sensation strives for intensity of experience derived from concrete objects and physical activities. Consciousness is therefore directed outward to those objects and activities that may be expected to arouse the strongest sensations.
 
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The extraverted sensation type is a realist who seeks to experience as many concrete sensations as possible - preferably, but not necessarily, ones that are pleasurable. These experiences are seen as ends in themselves and are rarely utilized for any other purpose. If normal, such persons are sensualists or aesthetes who are attracted by the physical characteristics of objects and people. They dress, eat and entertain well, and can be very good company. Not at all reflective nor introspective, they have no ideals except sensory enjoyment. They generally mistrust inner psychological processes and prefer to account for such things in terms of external events (e.g., they may blame their moods on the weather). ''If extreme'', they are often crudely sensual and may exploit situations or others in order to increase their own personal pleasure. ''When neurotic'', repressed intuition may be projected onto other people, so that they may become irrationally suspicious or jealous. Alternatively, they may develop a range of compulsive superstitions.
 
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* '''Introverted Sensing''' involves recalling previous events, situations, or data.  It compares the present situation with things that happened earlier and notices similarities and differences.
 
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Introverted sensation is subjectively filtered. Perception is not based directly on the object, but is merely suggested by it. Instead, layers of subjective impressions are superimposed upon the image so that it becomes impossible to determine what will be perceived from a knowledge only of the object. Perception thus depends crucially upon internal psychological processes that will differ from one person to the next. At its most positive, introverted sensation is found in the creative artist. At its most extreme, it produces psychotic hallucinations and a total alienation from reality.
 
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The introverted sensation type reacts subjectively to events in a way that is unrelated to objective criteria. Often this is seen as an inappropriate and uncalled-for overreaction. Because objects generally fail to penetrate directly the veil of subjective impressions, this type may seem neutral or indifferent to objective reality. Alternatively, the person may perceive the world as illusory or amusing. ''In extreme'' (psychotic) cases, this may result in an inability to distinguish illusion from reality. The subjective world of archaic images may then come to dominate consciousness completely, so that the person lives in a private, mythological realm of fantasy. Repressed intuition may also be expressed in vaguely imagined threats or an apprehension of sinister possibilities.
 
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* '''Extraverted Intuition''' involves seeing possibilities and connections or threads between ideas.  When presented with data, it looks for possible patterns and meanings.
 
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Extraverted intuition attempts to envisage all the possibilities that are inherent in an objective situation. Ordinary events are seen as providing a cipher or set of clues from which underlying processes and hidden potentialities can be determined. Yet once these possibilities are apprehended, objects and events lose their meaning and import. There is therefore a constant need for new situations and experiences to provide a fresh stimulus for the intuitive process.
 
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The extraverted intuition type is an excellent diagnostician and exploiter of situations. Such people see exciting possibilities in every new venture and are excellent at perceiving latent abilities in other people. They get carried away with the enthusiasm of their vision and often inspire others with the courage of their conviction. As such, they do well in occupations where these qualities are at a premium - for example in initiating new projects, in business, politics or the stock market. They are, however, easily bored and stifled by unchanging conditions. As a result they often waste their life and talents jumping from one activity to another in the search for fresh possibilities, failing to stick at any one project long enough to bring it to fruition. Furthermore, in their commitment to their own vision, they often show little regard for the needs, views or convictions of others. ''When neurotic'', repressed sensation may cause this type to become compulsively tied to people, objects or activities that stir in them primitive sensations such as pleasure, pain or fear. The consequence of this can be phobias, hypochondriacal beliefs and a range of other compulsions.
 
−
 
 
−
* '''Introverted Intuition''' looks to what will be and what the deep significance of something is.  This process often tunes in to aspects of universal human experience and [[archetype|archetypal]] symbols.
 
−
 
 
−
Introverted intuition is directed inward to the contents of the unconscious. It attempts to fathom internal events by relating them to universal psychological processes or to other archetypal images. Consequently it generally has a mythical, symbolic or prophetic quality.
 
−
 
 
−
According to Jung, the introverted intuition type can be either an artist, seer or crank. Such a person has a visionary ideal that reveals strange, mysterious things. These are enigmatic, 'unearthly' people who stand aloof from ordinary society. They have little interest in explaining or rationalizing their personal vision, but are content merely to proclaim it. Partly as a result of this, they are often misunderstood. Although the vision of the artist among this type generally remains on the purely perceptual level, mystical dreamers or cranks may become caught up in theirs. The person's life then becomes symbolic, taking on the nature of a Great Work, mission or spiritual-moral quest. ''If neurotic'', repressed sensation may express itself in primitive, instinctual ways and, like their extraverted counterparts, introverted intuitives often suffer from hypochondria and compulsions.
 
−
 
 
−
* '''Extraverted Thinking''' is concerned with organizing and structuring the outer world based on logical principles.  It sorts things into hierarchies and judges on objective criteria.
 
−
 
 
−
Extraverted thinking is driven by the objective evidence of the senses or by objective (collective) ideas that derive from tradition or learning. Its purpose is to abstract conceptual relationships from objective experience, linking ideas together in a rational, logical fashion. Furthermore, any conclusions that are drawn are always directed outward to some objective product or practical outcome. Thinking is never carried out for its own sake, merely as some private, subjective enterprise.
 
−
 
 
−
The extraverted thinking type bases all actions on the intellectual analysis of objective data. Such people live by a general intellectual formula or universal moral code, founded upon abstract notions of truth or justice. They also expect other people to recognize and obey this formula. This type represses the feeling function (e.g., sentimental attachments, friendships, religious devotion) and may also neglect personal interests such as their own health or financial well-being. ''If extreme or neurotic'', they may become petty, bigoted, tyrannical or hostile towards those who would threaten their formula. Alternatively, repressed tendencies may burst out in various kinds of personal 'immorality' (e.g., self-seeking, sexual misdemeanours, fraud or deception).
 
−
 
 
−
* '''Introverted Thinking''' is the process of analyzing things and testing them against principles.  It looks for inconsistency in models and is concerned with precision.
 
−
 
 
−
Introverted thinking is contemplative, involving an inner play of ideas. It is thinking for its own sake and is always directed inward to subjective ideas and personal convictions rather than outward to practical outcomes. The main concern of such thinking is to elaborate as fully as possible all the ramifications and implications of a seminal idea. As a consequence, introverted thinking can be complex, turgid and overly scrupulous. To the extent that it withdraws from objective reality, it may also become totally abstract, symbolic or mystical.
 
−
 
 
−
The introverted thinking type tends to be impractical and indifferent to objective concerns. These persons usually avoid notice and may seem cold, arrogant and taciturn. Alternatively, the repressed feeling function may express itself in displays of childish naivety. Generally people of this type appear caught up in their own ideas which they aim to think through as fully and deeply as possible. ''If extreme or neurotic'' they can become rigid, withdrawn, surly or brusque. They may also confuse their subjectively apprehended truth with their own personality so that any criticism of their ideas is seen as a personal attack. This may lead to bitterness or to vicious counterattacks against their critics.
 
−
 
 
−
* '''Extraverted Feeling''' is concerned with the likes and dislikes of others and what is socially appropriate.  It organizes the external world according to interpersonal relationships.
 
−
 
 
−
Extraverted feeling is based upon accepted or traditional social values and opinions. It involves a conforming, adjusting response to objective circumstances that strives for harmonious relations with the world. Because it depends so much on external stimuli rather than upon true subjective preferences, such feeling can sometimes seem cold, 'unfeeling', artificial or put on for effect.
 
−
 
 
−
The extraverted feeling type follows fashion and seeks to harmonize personal feelings with general social values. Thinking is always subordinate to feeling and is ignored or repressed if intellectual conclusions fail to confirm the convictions of the heart. When this type is ''extreme or neurotic'', feeling may become gushing or extravagant and dependent upon momentary enthusiasms that may quickly turn about with changing circumstances. Such a person may therefore seem hysterical, fickle, moody or even to be suffering from multiple personality. Repressed thinking may also erupt in infantile, negative, obsessive ways. This can lead to the attribution of dreaded characteristics to the very objects or people that are most loved and valued.
 
−
 
 
−
* '''Introverted Feeling''' evaluates things based on one's own preferences and values.  It sees things in terms of like and dislike or good and bad, and it is concerned with harmony and congruence.
 
−
 
 
−
Introverted feeling strives for an inner intensity that is unrelated to any external object. It devalues objective reality and is rarely displayed openly. When it does appear on the surface, it generally seems negative or indifferent. The focus of such feeling is upon inner processes and latent, primordial images. At its extreme, it may develop into mystical ecstasy.
 
  
−
The introverted feeling type is brooding and inaccessible, although may also hide behind a childish mask. Such a person aims to be inconspicuous, makes little attempt to impress and generally fails to respond to the feelings of others. The outer, surface appearance is often neutral, cold and dismissive. Inwardly, however, feelings are deep, passionately intense, and may accompany secret religious or poetic tendencies. The effect of all this on other people can be stifling and oppressive. ''When extreme or neurotic'', this type may become domineering and vain. Negative repressed thinking may also be projected so that these persons may imagine they can know what others are thinking. This may develop into paranoia and into secret scheming rivalries.
+
====Criticism and controversy====
  
−
=== Cognitive function dynamics in each type ===
+
Other personality tests, like the [[Rorschach inkblot test]] and [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator]], have come under fire more often than MMPI. Still, critics have raised issues about the [[ethics]] and validity of administering MMPI, especially for non-clinical uses.
−
In each type, all four of the cognitive, or mental functions, which are sensing, intuition, thinking and feeling, are present and arranged in a different order. The type acronym is used as a quick way to figure out this order, which is slightly different in introverts and extroverts. An important point to remember is that the first and last letter of the type are used as guides to figure out the order of the middle two letters, which are the main priority.  The chart below this section has the dynamics worked out for each type.
 
  
−
==== Introverts ====
+
By the 1960s, the MMPI was being given by companies to employees and applicants as often as to psychiatric patients. [[Sociology|Sociologist]] William H. Whyte was among many who saw the tests as helping to create and perpetuate the oppressive "groupthink" of mid-twentieth century corporate [[capitalism]].
−
If the first letter of the type is an I, such as in INFP, then the dominant is introverted.  The next step is to figure out which of the middle two letters this applies to, which is done by looking to the last letter. (The last letter represents the extraverted function). If it is a P, then the dominant will be the third letter, which is the judging function (the process is backwards and slightly confusing for introverts). If it is a J, then it will be the second letter, which is the perceiving function.  Already it is possible to tell that the INFP has an introverted dominant, and that it is feeling, which is called introverted feeling. Also evident is that the auxiliary is intuition.
+
   
 +
In 1966, Senator Sam Ervin introduced a bill to sharply curtail the government's use of the MMPI and similar tests, comparing them to [[McCarthyism]]. Ervin's bill failed. A 1990 Office of Technology Assessment report noted:
  
−
'''There are two theories on the extraverted/introverted orientation of the functions.'''  One states:
+
<blockquote>In 1965 the Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, chaired by Senator Sam Ervin, and the House Special Subcommittee on Invasion of Privacy of the Committee on Government Operations, chaired by Representative Cornelius E. Gallagher, held hearings to determine whether the questions asked on psychological tests used by the Federal Government were an unjustified invasion of the respondent’s psyche and private life. The Subcommittees also investigated the validity of these tests and the due process issues involved in test administration. The reactions of the press and public were very critical of the types of questions asked on these psychological tests.</blockquote>
−
A [[rule of thumb]] is that the last three functions are always extraverted in introverts, and introverted in extraverts, so it is extraverted intuition.
 
−
The third function of the introverted personality will be the opposite of the second. For the INFP, the second is extraverted intuition, so the third is extraverted sensing. The fourth will be the opposite of the first, which ends up as extraverted thinking.
 
  
−
The second states the functions ''alternate every other'' in orientation.  For introverts, it would proceed introverted, extraverted, introverted, extraverted.
+
Numerous successful lawsuits have argued that giving the test to job applicants is an invasion of privacy, and that there is no evidence linking test results to job performance. Others have accused that MMPI can "overpathologize" certain demographic groups, notably teenagers and non-white test takers.
−
The third function of the introverted personality will be the opposite of the second.  For the INFP, the second is extraverted intuition, so the third is introverted sensing. The fourth will be the opposite of the first, which ends up as extraverted thinking.
 
  
−
==== Extroverts ====
+
===Myers-Briggs Type Indicator===
−
If the first letter of the type is an E, such as ESTJ, then the dominant is extroverted.  The next step, which is slightly different than in introverts, is to figure out to which of the middle two letters this applies.  If the last letter is a P, then the dominant will be the second letter, and if it is a J, then it will be the third letter.  Thus, we can tell from this that the first or dominant in the ESTJ is extraverted thinking, and the second is introverted sensing.  The third, which is the opposite of the second, is introverted/extraverted (see above) intuition, and the fourth is introverted feeling.
+
{{Main|Myers-Briggs Type Indicator}}
  
−
==== Function table ====
+
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was designed to assist a person in identifying their [[personality]] preferences. It was developed by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers during [[World War II]], and follows from the theories of [[Carl Jung]] as laid out in his work ''Psychological Types.'' The registered [[trademark]] rights in the phrase and its acronym have been assigned from the publisher of the test, Consulting Psychologists Press Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust. The test is frequently used in the areas of [[pedagogy]], [[group dynamics]], employee training, leadership training, [[marriage counseling]], and personal development, although scientific skeptics and academic psychologists have subjected it to considerable criticism in research literature.
−
{{MBTI table}}
 
  
−
Below, the MBTI personality archetypes, after David West Keirsey [http://users.viawest.net/~keirsey/]. Keirsey adds four "Temperaments": SP - Artisan; SJ - Guardian; NF - Idealist; and NT - Rational.
+
===Keirsey Temperament Sorter===
 +
The '''Keirsey Temperament Sorter''' is a personality instrument which attempts to identify which of four [[temperament]]s, and which of 16 types, a person prefers. [[Hippocrates]] proposed the four "humors," which are related to the four temperaments. These were sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, and melancholic. In 1978, [[David Keirsey]] and Marilyn Bates, in the book ''Please Understand Me,'' reintroduced temperament theory in modern form. Keirsey renamed the four temperaments in the book ''Portraits of Temperament'' (1987) as "Guardian," "Artisan," "Idealist," and "Rational." As he was developing modern temperament theory, Keirsey found that by combining the [[MBTI]] functions "intuition" with "judging," NT and NF, and combining "sensing" with the "perceiving" function, SJ and SP, that these groupings of types correlated to his four temperaments:
  
−
{{MBTI Archetypes}}
+
'''Artisans (SPs)''' seek freedom to act and are concerned with their ability to make an impact on people or situations. Their greatest strength is tactical intelligence, which means that they excel at acting, composing, producing, and motivating.
  
−
==== Controversy surrounding the cognitive functions ====
+
'''Guardians (SJs)''' seek membership or belonging and are concerned with responsibility and duty. Their greatest strength is logistical intelligence, which means that they excel at organizing, facilitating, checking, and supporting.
−
{{Main|Cognitive functions}}
 
−
Isabel Myers interpreted Jung's writing as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant.  Many, however, have found Jung's writing to be ambiguous, and those who study and follow Jung's theories (Jungians) are typically adamant that Myers is incorrect. Jungians posit that Jung made explicit the point that the tertiary function is actually in the same attitude as the dominant, providing balance.  More recently, typologists have examined the relationships all four functions in both attitudes—introverted or extraverted. Whether looking at the four functions, or eight "function attitudes," the inferior function remains most unconscious (least developed).
 
  
−
=== Temperament ===
+
'''Idealists (NFs)''' seek meaning and significance and are concerned with finding their own unique identity. Their greatest strength is diplomatic intelligence, which means that they excel at clarifying, unifying, individualizing, and inspiring.
−
{{Main|Keirsey Temperament Sorter}}
 
−
[[Image:MBTITemperament.png|right|frame|Keirsey's four temperaments within the MBTI.]][[Hippocrates]], a Greek philosopher who lived from 460-377 B.C.E., proposed [[four humours]] in his writings.  These were blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. In 1978, [[David Keirsey]] and Marilyn Bates reintroduced temperament theory in modern form and identified them as [[Keirsey_Temperament_Sorter#Describing_the_temperaments|Guardian]] (SJ temperament), [[Keirsey_Temperament_Sorter#Describing_the_temperaments|Artisan]] (SP), [[Keirsey_Temperament_Sorter#Describing_the_temperaments|Idealist]] (NF), and [[Keirsey_Temperament_Sorter#Describing_the_temperaments|Rationalist]] (NT). After developing modern temperament theory, Keirsey discovered the MBTI, and found that by combining intuition with the judging functions, NT and NF, and sensing with the perceiving functions, SJ and SP, he had descriptions similar to his four temperaments.<sup>-</sup> 
 
  
−
''The Manual'' states on page 59 that, "It is important to recognize that temperament theory is not a variant of type theory, nor is type theory a variant of temperament theory." Keirsey later went on to develop the [[Keirsey Temperament Sorter]], which was first included in his book ''Please Understand Me''.
+
'''Rationals (NTs)''' seek mastery and self-control and are concerned with their own knowledge and competence. Their greatest strength is strategic intelligence, which means that they excel at engineering, conceptualizing, theorizing, and coordinating.
  
−
=== About the test, scoring and psychometrics ===
+
The chart below compares modern and ancient aspects of the model:  
−
The current test asks 93 forced-choice questions, which means there are only two options. Participants may skip questions if they feel they are unable to choose. Using [[psychometrics|psychometric]] techniques, such as [[item response theory]], the test will then be scored and will attempt to identify which dichotomy the participant prefers. After taking the test, participants are given a readout of their score, which will include a bar graph and number of how many points they received on a certain scale. Confusion over the meaning of these numbers often causes them to be related to trait theory, and people mistakenly believe, for example, that their intuition is "more developed" than their sensing, or vice versa.
+
{{Temperament2}}
  
−
During construction of the test, thousands of items are used, and most are thrown out because they do not have high midpoint discrimination, meaning the results of that one item do not, on average, move an individual score ''away'' from the midpoint. Using only items with high midpoint discrimination allows the test to have fewer items on it but still provide as much statistical information as a test with many more items with lower midpoint discrimination. The test requires five points one way or another before it is nearly as sure it can statistically be concerning a preference.
+
===Enneagram ===
 +
[[File:Enneagram integration.JPG|thumb|250px|'''The Enneagram Figure''']]
 +
Another personality assessment similar to the MBTI is called the Enneagram.
  
−
==== Statistical studies ====
+
The term "enneagram" derives from the Greek words ''ennea'' (nine) and ''gramma'' (something written or drawn). The figure can also be called an "enneagon." The usual form of the Enneagram figure consists of a circle with nine points on its circumference equally spaced with one at the top and numbered clockwise from 1 to 9 starting with 1 at the point one position clockwise from the top-most point and ending with 9 at the top-most point.
−
The ''[[16PF]] Fifth Edition Technical Manual''{{fn|11}} presents  [[correlation|correlations]] between the MBTI scales and the [[Big five personality traits|Big Five]] personality construct, which is a conglomeration of characteristics found in nearly all personality and psychological tests.  The five personality characteristics are extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and emotional stability. The following study is based on a sample of 119 graduate and undergraduate students.
+
The Enneagram figure's most well-known use is in indicating a dynamic model of nine distinct yet interconnected psychological types (usually called "personality types" or "character types"). These types can be understood as unconsciously developing from nine distinct archetypal patterns.  
  
−
{{MBTI study}}
+
It is sometimes speculated that forms of the Enneagram typology can be found in ancient sources, especially within the [[Sufism|Sufi]] spiritual tradition, or that the Enneagram figure is possibly a variant of the Chaldean Seal from the times of [[Pythagoras]]. The Enneagram figure's first definitely established use (at least in its most common form of the triangle and hexagon) is found in the writings of the Greek-Armenian spiritual teacher [[G.I. Gurdjieff]] and his Russian-born student, P. D. Ouspensky. The teaching tradition established by Gurdjieff and Ouspensky is called "the Fourth Way."
  
−
These data suggest that three of the MBTI scales are related to three of the [[Big five personality traits|Big Five]] personality traits. According to this study, there is fairly strong evidence that E-I is extraversion, that S-N is the opposite of openness, and that J-P is conscientiousness.  The T-F scale of the MBTI is less clearly related to the Big Five, and the emotional stability dimension of the Big Five is largely absent.
+
The figure's use for a typological model is first clearly found in the teachings of Bolivian-born Oscar Ichazo and his system called "Protoanalysis." Much of popular Enneagram teaching has, however, been principally developed from the teachings of the Chilean-born psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo who first learned the basics of the Enneagram from Ichazo. It was principally from Naranjo that the Enneagram became established in the United States. His Enneagram teaching was further developed by many others teachers including a number of [[Jesuit]] [[priest]]s and seminarians at Loyola University in Chicago.
  
−
==== Ethics ====
+
Contemporary ways of understanding and describing the "Enneagram of Personality," as it is sometimes called, have developed from various traditions of spiritual wisdom and modern psychological insight. While many people understand the Enneagram principally in spiritual or [[mysticism|mystical]] ways others understand it primarily in [[psychology|psychological]] terms.
−
Before purchasing the test, practitioners are required to consent to an [[ethical code]], in addition to meeting the educational requirements of class B and C psychological tests and assessments. After consenting to this code the usage of the indicator is largely unmonitored, which sometimes leads to abuses of the instrument.  The ethical code contains, but is not limited to, the following points<sup>-</sup>:
 
  
−
# Results should be given directly to respondents and are strictly confidential, including from employers.
+
The nine Enneagram types are often given names that indicate some distinctive behavioral aspect, though these labels are insufficient to capture the nuances of the type concerned. Some examples are as follows. The corresponding unhealthy aspect is indicated in square brackets.
−
# Respondents should be informed of the nature of the test before taking it, and must choose to take it voluntarily.
 
−
# Allow respondents to clarify their results.  They are always the last word as to which type is truly theirs. They should then be provided a written description of their preferences.
 
−
# The test must be used in accordance with ''The Manual''.
 
  
−
=== Skeptical view ===
+
*'''One''': ''Reformer, Critic, Perfectionist'' ''[Anger].'' This type focuses on integrity. Ones can be wise, discerning, and inspiring in their quest for the truth. They also tend to dissociate themselves from their flaws and can become hypocritical and hyper-critical, seeking the illusion of virtue to hide their own vices. The One's greatest fear is to be flawed and their ultimate goal is perfection.
−
[[scientific skepticism|Scientific skeptics]] such as Robert Todd Carroll, author of [[The Skeptic's Dictionary]], have presented several potential problems with the MBTI. The foremost issue is that the way the MBTI is designed makes it difficult to validate any of the claims it makes about types using [[scientific method]]s. Carroll says, "no matter what your preferences, your behavior will still sometimes indicate contrasting behavior. Thus, no behavior can ever be used to falsify the type, and any behavior can be used to verify it."
+
*'''Two''': ''Helper, Giver, Caretaker'' ''[Pride].'' Twos, at their best, are compassionate, thoughtful and astonishingly generous; they can also be prone to passive-aggressive behavior, clinginess, and manipulation. Twos want, above all, to be loved and needed and fear being unworthy of [[love]].
 +
*'''Three''': ''Achiever, Performer, Succeeder'' ''[Deceit].'' Highly adaptable and changeable. Some walk the world with confidence and unstinting authenticity; others wear a series of public masks, acting the way they think will bring them approval and losing track of their true self. Threes fear being worthless and strive to be worthwhile.
 +
*'''Four''': ''Romantic, Individualist, Artist'' ''[Envy].'' Driven by a fear that they have no identity or personal significance, Fours embrace individualism and are often profoundly creative. However, they have a habit of withdrawing to internalize, searching desperately inside themselves for something they never find and creating a spiral of depression. The stereotypical [[angst]]-ridden [[music]]ian or tortured [[art]]ist is often a stereotypical Four.
 +
*'''Five''': ''Observer, Thinker, Investigator'' ''[Avarice].'' Believing they are only worth what they contribute, Fives have learned to withdraw, to watch with keen eyes and speak only when they can shake the world with their observations. Sometimes they do just that. Sometimes, instead, they withdraw from the world, becoming reclusive hermits and fending off social contact with abrasive cynicism. Fives fear incompetence or uselessness and want to be capable above all else.
 +
*'''Six''': ''Loyalist, Devil's Advocate, Defender'' ''[Fear].'' Sixes long for stability above all else. They exhibit unwavering loyalty and responsibility, but are prone to extreme [[anxiety]] and passive-aggressive behavior. Their greatest fear is to lack support and guidance. 
 +
*'''Seven''': ''Enthusiast, Adventurer, Materialist'' ''[Gluttony].'' Eternal "Peter Pans," Sevens flit from one activity to another. Above all they fear being unable to provide for themselves. At their best they embrace life for its varied joys and wonders and truly live in the moment; but at their worst they dash frantically from one new experience to another, being too scared of disappointment to enjoy what they have.
 +
*'''Eight''': ''Leader, Protector, Challenger'' ''[Lust].'' Eights worry about self-protection and control. Natural leaders, capable and passionate, but also manipulative, ruthless, and willing to destroy anything and everything in their way. Eights seek control over their own life and their own destiny and fear being harmed or controlled by others.
 +
*'''Nine''': ''Mediator, Peacemaker, Preservationist'' ''[Sloth].'' Nines are ruled by their [[empathy]]. At their best they are perceptive, receptive, gentle, calming, and at peace with the world. On the other hand, they prefer to dissociate from conflicts and indifferently go along with others' wishes or simply withdraw, acting via inaction. They fear the conflict caused by their ability to simultaneously understand opposing points of view and seek peace of mind above all else.
  
−
The basic skeptical claim against the MBTI is that any conclusions made from the types lack [[falsifiability]], which can cause [[confirmation bias]] in the interpretation of the results. It has also been argued that the terminology of the MBTI is so vague and complicated that it allows any kind of behavior to fit any personality type, resulting in the [[Forer effect]], where an individual gives a high rating to a positive description that supposedly applies specifically to them.
+
===DISC Profile===
 +
The DISC Profile is a [[Psychometrics|psychometric test]], using a four-dimensional model of normal behavior. The DISC Profile is based on the work of psychologist, [[William Moulton Marston]], who published his work on measurements of mental energy in ''Emotions of Normal People'' in 1928, and ''Integrative Psychology'' in 1931. Its name comes from the initials each describing a behavioral pattern:
  
−
Carroll also notes that the theory of psychological types created by [[Carl Jung]] was not based on any controlled studies&mdash;the only scientific study Jung performed was in the field of [[astrology]]. Carroll argues that Jung may not even have approved of the MBTI, quoting, "My scheme of typology is only a scheme of orientation. There is such a factor as introversion, there is such a factor as extraversion. The classification of individuals means nothing, nothing at all. It is only the instrumentarium for the practical psychologist to explain for instance, the husband to a wife or vice versa."
+
* '''D'''ominance produces activity in an antagonistic environment
 +
* '''I'''nducement produces activity in a favorable environment
 +
* '''S'''teadiness produces passivity in a favorable environment
 +
* '''C'''ompliance produces passivity in an antagonistic environment.
  
−
Further, Jung's methods primarily included [[introspection]] and [[anecdote]], methods largely rejected by the modern field of [[cognitive psychology]]. Further, the MBTI has not been validated by [[double-blind]] tests, in which participants accept reports written for other participants, and are asked whether or not the report suits them, and thus may not qualify as a [[Scientific method|scientific assessment]]. Still others have argued that, while the MBTI may be useful for self-understanding, it is commonly used for [[pigeonholing]] people or for self-pigeonholing.
+
These four dimensions can be grouped in a grid with D and I sharing the top row and representing [[extrovert]]ed aspects of the [[personality]], and C and S below representing [[introvert]]ed aspects. D and C then share the left column and represent task-focused aspects, and I and S share the right column and represent social aspects. In this matrix, the vertical dimension represents a factor of "Assertive" or "Passive", while the horizontal dimension represents "Open" vs. "Guarded".
  
−
==Other tests==
+
The DISC Profile is a self-scored assessment, available in a traditional paper workbook format and online versions.
  
−
Other tests include [[Oxford Capacity Analysis]], Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory, [[Eysenck Personality Questionnaire]], and the [[Abika Test]].
+
===Big Five personality traits===
  
−
More recently, cognitive psychologists have dismissed the idea of personality, because most behavior is context specific. Theorists developed the concept of cognitive styles or [[Meta program]]s to deal with this, which in turn lead to metaprogram tests such as [http://www.jobEQ.com/iwam.php iWAM].
+
In 1981, at a symposium in Honolulu, four prominent researchers (Lewis Goldberg, Naomi Takamoto-Chock, Andrew Comrey, and John M. Digman) reviewed the available personality tests of the day, and decided that most of the tests which held any promise seemed to measure a subset of five common factors. These five factors correspond to those generated in 1963 by W.T. Norman, based on lexical analysis of the English language by [[Gordon Allport]] and H. S. Odbert in 1936.  
  
−
==Enneagram character archetypes==
+
A model was developed which states that personality can be described in terms of five aggregate-level trait descriptors&mdash;The Big Five Personality Traits. These are measured by self-report questionnaires, known as International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) tests. The five factors and some typical questions that define them are as follows:
  
−
Archetypes can be understood through character via the [[Enneagram|Enneagram]]. Proponents of this view state that this can help people define archetypes in their interactions with others. There is research that shows the correlation between the MBTI and The Enneagrams: http://tap3x.net/EMBTI/journal.html
+
'''Neuroticism''': A tendency to easily experience unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, anger, or depression.
 +
* I am easily disturbed.
 +
* I change my mood a lot.
 +
* I get irritated easily.
 +
* I get stressed out easily.
 +
* I get upset easily.
 +
* I have frequent mood swings.
 +
* I often feel blue.
 +
* I worry about things.
  
 +
* I am relaxed most of the time. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I seldom feel blue. ''(reversed)''
  
−
[[Image:Enneagram.gif|thumb|200px|'''The Enneagram Figure''']]
+
'''Extroversion''': Energy and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others.
 +
* I am the life of the party.
 +
* I don't mind being the center of attention.
 +
* I feel comfortable around people.
 +
* I start conversations.
 +
* I talk to a lot of different people at parties.
  
−
The '''Enneagram''' (or '''Enneagon''') is a nine-pointed diametric figure which is used to indicate the dynamic ways that aspects of things and  processes are connected and change. These days the Enneagram figure's most well-known use is in indicating a dynamic model of nine distinct yet interconnected psychological types (usually called 'personality types' or 'character types').  These types can be understood as unconsciously developing from nine distinct archetypal patterns. 
+
* I am quiet around strangers. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I don't like to draw attention to myself. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I don't talk a lot. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I have little to say. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I keep in the background. ''(reversed)''
  
−
As a typology model it is often called the '''Enneagram of Personality''' but it is usually only called the '''Enneagram'''. This can cause confusion with the other ways in which the Enneagram figure is used. Although usually understood as being a '''personality''' typology others understand it  as a model of archetype-based '''character''' types.
+
'''Agreeableness''': A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
 +
* I am interested in people.
 +
* I feel others' emotions.
 +
* I have a soft heart.
 +
* I make people feel at ease.
 +
* I sympathize with others' feelings.
 +
* I take time out for others.
  
−
Contemporary ways of understanding and describing the Enneagram of Personality have developed from various traditions of spiritual wisdom and modern psychological insight. While many people understand the Enneagram principally in spiritual or mystical ways others understand it primarily in psychological terms.
+
* I am not interested in other people's problems. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I am not really interested in others. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I feel little concern for others. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I insult people. ''(reversed)''
  
−
===The diametric figure===
+
'''Conscientiousness''': A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement.
 +
* I am always prepared.
 +
* I am exacting in my work.
 +
* I follow a schedule.
 +
* I get chores done right away.
 +
* I like order.
 +
* I pay attention to details.
  
−
The term 'enneagram' derives from the Greek words 'ennea' (nine) and 'gramma' (something written or drawn). The figure can also be called an 'enneagon'.  The usual form of the Enneagram figure consists of a circle with nine points on its circumference equally spaced with one at the top and numbered clockwise from 1 to 9 starting with 1 at the point one position clockwise from the top-most point and ending with 9 at the top-most point.  An  equilateral triangle joins points 3, 6, and 9, and an irregular hexagon joins the remaining six points. The lines forming the sides of the hexagon join the points numbered, in sequence, 1, 4, 2, 8, 5, 7, 1, which are the sequence of digits in the decimal representation of the fraction 1/7.
+
* I leave my belongings around. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I make a mess of things. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I often forget to put things back in their proper place. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I shirk my duties. ''(reversed)''
  
−
===Historical development===
+
'''Openness to experience''': Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, and unusual ideas; imaginative and curious.
 +
* I am full of ideas.
 +
* I am quick to understand things.
 +
* I have a rich vocabulary.
 +
* I have a vivid imagination.
 +
* I have excellent ideas.
 +
* I spend time reflecting on things.
 +
* I use difficult words.
  
−
It is sometimes speculated that forms of the Enneagram typology can be found in ancient sources, especially within the [[Sufi]] spiritual tradition, or that the Enneagram figure is possibly a variant of the [[Chaldean Seal]] from the times of [[Pythagoras]]. Although there may be some truth to this, there does not appear to be any hard evidence to support such speculations.
+
* I am not interested in abstract ideas. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I do not have a good imagination. ''(reversed)''
 +
* I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. ''(reversed)''
  
−
It seems that the Enneagram figure's first definitely established use (at least in its most common form of the triangle and hexagon) is found in the writings of the Greek-Armenian spiritual teacher [[G.I. Gurdjieff]] (died 1949) and his Russian-born student [[P. D. Ouspensky]].  The teaching tradition established by Gurdjieff and Ouspensky (which is still continued by various other teachers and schools) is called [[the Fourth Way]].
+
===Other tests===
 +
[[Image:HollandHexagon.png|thumb|290px|right|The Holland hexagon]]
 +
[[John L. Holland]]'s ''RIASEC'' vocational model, commonly referred to as the '''Holland Codes''', suggests that there are six personality traits that lead people to choose their career paths:
 +
* '''Realistic''' - practical, physical, hands-on, tool-oriented
 +
* '''Investigative''' - analytical, intellectual, scientific
 +
* '''Artistic''' - creative, original, independent, chaotic
 +
* '''Social''' - cooperative, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing
 +
* '''Enterprising''' - competitive environments, leadership, persuading
 +
* '''Conventional''' - detail-oriented, organizing, clerical
 +
This model is widely used in [[vocational counseling]] and is a circumplex model where the six types are represented as a [[hexagon]] in which adjacent types are more closely related than those more distant.
  
−
Gurdjieff's teachings were heavily influenced by his personal experience with [[Sufism]] as well as Orthodox Christianity and Buddhism.  Even though some of the principal ways of understanding the Enneagram have come from the Fourth Way tradition  there does not seem to be any clear evidence that he used the Enneagram figure as a typological model (at least not in the popular contemporary form).  One student of Fourth Way teachings, [[John G. Bennett]], developed the idea of the Enneagram as part of a wider study that he named [[Systematics]]. This  can be applied to transformative processes and to understanding and improving the functioning of groups, particularly in a business context (see Richard N. Knowles' book, ''The Leadership Dance'').  
+
Some cognitive psychologists have dismissed the idea of personality, believing most behavior is context specific. These theorists developed the concept of cognitive styles or "Meta-programs" to deal with this, which in turn lead to meta-program tests such as the Inventory for Work Attitude & Motivation (iWAM).
  
−
The figure's use for a typological model is first clearly found in the teachings of Bolivian-born [[Oscar Ichazo]] (born 1931) and his system called 'Protoanalysis'.  Ichazo first taught his understanding of the Enneagram (or the 'Enneagon' as it is usually called in his teachings) to students in [[Arica, Chile|Arica]], [[Chile]] in the 1960s and later in the United States through his [[Arica School|Arica Institute]].
+
Other tests include the Oxford Capacity Analysis, Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory, [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]]'s three-factor Personality Questionnaire, and the Abika Test.
−
 
 
−
Much of popular Enneagram teaching has, however,  been principally developed - directly or indirectly - from the teachings of the Chilean-born psychiatrist [[Claudio Naranjo]] who first learned the basics of the Enneagram from Ichazo in Arica. It was principally from Naranjo that the Enneagram became established in the United States.  His Enneagram teaching was further developed by many  others teachers including a number of Jesuit priests and seminarians at Loyola University in Chicago.
 
−
 
 
−
===The nine types===
 
−
 
 
−
The nine Enneagram types are often given names that indicate some distinctive behavioral aspect, though these labels are insufficient to capture the nuances of the type concerned.
 
−
 
 
−
Some examples are as follows.  (For convenience, the corresponding ''deadly sin'' is indicated in square brackets: see [[#Ego-fixations_&_deadly_sins|below]]).
 
−
 
 
−
*'''[[One (Enneagram)|One]]''': ''Reformer, Critic, Perfectionist'' ''[Anger]''.  This type focuses on integrity.  Ones can be wise, discerning and inspiring in their quest for the truth.  They also tend to dissociate themselves from their flaws and can become hypocritical and hyper-critical, seeking the illusion of virtue to hide their own vices.  The One's greatest fear is to be flawed and their ultimate goal is perfection. '''[[One (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative One description)]]'''
 
−
 
 
−
*'''[[Two (Enneagram)|Two]]''': ''Helper, Giver, Caretaker'' ''[Pride]''.  Twos, at their best, are compassionate, thoughtful and astonishingly generous; they can also be prone to [[passive-aggressive]] behavior, clinginess and manipulation.  Twos want, above all, to be loved and needed and fear being unworthy of love. '''[[Two (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Two description)]]'''
 
−
*'''[[Three (Enneagram)|Three]]''': ''Achiever, Performer, Succeeder'' ''[Deceit]''.  Highly adaptable and changeable.  Some walk the world with confidence and unstinting authenticity; others wear a series of public masks, acting the way they think will bring them approval and losing track of their true self.  Threes fear being worthless and strive to be worthwhile. '''[[Three (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Three description)]]'''
 
−
 
 
−
*'''[[Four (Enneagram)|Four]]''': ''Romantic, Individualist, Artist'' ''[Envy]''.  Driven by a fear that they have no identity or personal significance, Fours embrace individualism and are often profoundly creative.  However, they have a habit of withdrawing to internalize, searching desperately inside themselves for something they never find and creating a spiral of depression.  The stereotypical [[angst]]y [[musician]] or tortured [[artist]] is often a stereotypical Four. '''[[Four (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Four description)]]'''
 
−
 
 
−
*'''[[Five (Enneagram)|Five]]''': ''Observer, Thinker, Investigator'' ''[Avarice]''.  Believing they are only worth what they contribute, Fives have learned to withdraw, to watch with keen eyes and speak only when they can shake the world with their observations.  Sometimes they do just that.  Sometimes, instead, they withdraw from the world, becoming reclusive hermits and fending off social contact with abrasive cynicism.  Fives fear incompetence or uselessness and want to be capable above all else. '''[[Five (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Five description)]]'''
 
−
 
 
−
*'''[[Six (Enneagram)|Six]]''':  ''Loyalist, Devil's Advocate, Defender'' ''[Fear]''.  Sixes long for stability above all else.  They exhibit unwavering loyalty and responsibility but are prone to extreme anxiety and [[passive-aggressive]] behavior.  Their greatest fear is to lack support and guidance.  '''[[Six (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Six description)]]'''
 
−
 
 
−
*'''[[Seven (Enneagram)|Seven]]''': ''Enthusiast, Adventurer, Materialist'' ''[Gluttony]''.  Eternal [[Peter Pan]]s, Sevens flit from one activity to another.  Above all they fear being unable to provide for themselves.  At their best they embrace life for its varied joys and wonders and  truly live in the moment; but at their worst they dash frantically from one new experience to another being too scared of disappointment to enjoy what they have. '''[[Seven (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Seven description)]]'''
 
−
 
 
−
*'''[[Eight (Enneagram)|Eight]]''': ''Leader, Protector, Challenger'' ''[Lust]''.  Eights worry about self-protection and control.  Natural leaders, capable and passionate but also manipulative, ruthless and willing to destroy anything and everything in their way.  Eights seek control over their own life and their own destiny  and fear being harmed or controlled by others. '''[[Eight (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Eight description)]]'''
 
−
 
 
−
*'''[[Nine (Enneagram)|Nine]]''': ''Mediator, Peacemaker, Preservationist'' ''[Sloth]''.  Nines are ruled by their empathy.  At their best they are perceptive, receptive, gentle, calming and at peace with the world.  On the other hand they prefer to dissociate from conflicts and  indifferently go along with others' wishes or simply withdraw, acting via inaction.  They fear the conflict caused by their ability to simultaneously understand opposing points of view and seek peace of mind above all else.  '''[[Nine (Enneagram) (Alt. Description) | (Alternative Nine description)]]'''
 
−
 
 
−
==Criticism and controversy==
 
−
 
 
−
Critics have raised issues about the ethics of administering personality tests, especially for non-clinical uses. By the 1960s, tests like the MMPI was being given by companies to employees and applicants as often as to psychiatric patients. Sociologist [[William H. Whyte]] was among many who saw the tests as helping to create and perpetuate the oppressive [[groupthink]] of the "organization man" mid-century [[corporate capitalism]]. In [[1966]]
 
  
 
==Benefits of Personality Testing==
 
==Benefits of Personality Testing==
  
−
Research published  by David Dunning of Cornell University, Chip Heath of Stanford University and Jerry M. Suls of the University of Iowa reveal that other people who are not involved in any type of relationship with an individual are better judges of an individual's relationships and abilities. These researchers have been studying a large body of research into self-evaluation, and much of it reveals that most of us have flawed views about us and our relationships. That can have very serious consequences, because if we don't know about our relationships and who we are, we could be endangering others as well as ourselves. People deceive themselves because they lack the necessary information to make an accurate assessment; and they often ignore or undervalue the information they do have.
+
A significant number of businesses use personality testing as part of their hiring process. More and more people are also using personality testing to evaluate their business partners and potential spouses. Salespeople use personality testing to better understand the needs of their customers and gain a competitive edge in closing sales. [[Guidance counseling|Guidance counselors]] use personality tests to help students make appropriate career choices. [[Lawyer]]s use personality testing for [[crime|criminal]] behavior analysis, litigation profiling, witness examination and [[jury]] selection.
  
−
Psychology also has a great influence on the Stock Market.  Investors are people and like most people react emotionally to news and other facts. And a person's perception of fundamental and technical factors can be influenced by many things including money. Markets are all about perceptions of the future. If investors expect things to get better, stocks go up and if investors think things will get worse, stocks go down.  And these expectations are constantly being adjusted, as investors digest every possible detail — such as economic news, earnings reports, economic data, political events and news and any other factor that might give them a clue about what the future holds. More important than the details themselves is how investors perceive those details and react to them. Facts do matter, but the only thing that really counts is how investors react to the facts. This perception of the details and facts depends a great deal on the individual psychological profile of investors and the total market is the collective psychological profile of all the investors.
+
While none of the tests available may give complete assessments, it has been possible to tailor particular tests to the specific needs of employers, the military, lawyers, and so forth. This can be beneficial by providing a better fit between the person and what they will be called on to accomplish.  
−
 
 
−
Donald trump's how-to-get-rich strategies also include comments on the importance of Personality in making deals. He discusses how knowing the personality of people involved in his deals has contributed to his success as a dealmaker. His interest in psychology came late, after dismissing it in college. Now Trump says Jung the renowned Psychologist's work is "important to financial success." Jung has been a big "help in my business as well as in my personal life ... Reading Jung will give you insights into yourself and the ways in which you and other people operate." And when he says that he's talking to all of us.
 
−
 
 
−
A study by American Management Association (AMA) reveals that 39 percent of companies surveyed use personality testing as part of their hiring process. More and more people are also using personality testing to evaluate their business partners, dates and spouses. Salespeople use personality testing to better understand the needs of their customers and gain a competitive edge in closing sales. Even college students have started using personality testing to evaluate their roommates. Lawyers use personality testing for Criminal behavior analysis, Litigation profiling, Witness examination and Jury selection
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
*Bennett, D. Against types. ''Boston Globe'', 12 September 2004.
 
−
* Berens, Linda V. ''[http://www.16types.com/Request.jsp?lView=DynamicPage&Content=CognitiveProcesses Jung's Cognitive Processes].'' Retrieved December 21, 2004.
 
−
* Carroll, Robert Todd (January 9, 2004). ''[http://skepdic.com/myersb.html Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®]''.  The Skeptic's Dictionary.  Retrieved January 8, 2004.
 
−
* The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. ''[http://www.capt.org/The_MBTI_Instrument/Ethical_Use.cfm MBTI® Code of Ethics].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
 
−
*Congress of the United States Office of Technology Assessment. [http://www.blackvault.com/documents/ota/Ota_2/DATA/1990/9042.PDF. The Use of Integrity Tests for Pre-Employment Screening]. ([[PDF]]) September 1990. OTA-SET-442 NTIS order #PB91-107011.
 
−
* Conn, Steven R (1994) ''Sixteen Pf Fifth Edition Technical Manual.'' Institute for Personality & Ability Testing. ISBN 0918296226
 
−
* Consulting Psychologists Press (2004). ''[https://online.cpp-db.com/Inc/Trademark_Guidelines.pdf Trademark Guidelines]''. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
 
−
*Geyer, Peter (1998) [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~alchymia/library/dates.html ''Some Significant Dates'']. Retrieved [[December 5]], [[2005]].
 
−
* Jung, Carl Gustav (August 1, 1971). ''Psychological Types (Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 6).'' Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691097704.
 
−
* Keirsey, David (1998). ''Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence.'' Prometheus Nemesis Book Co Inc; 1st ed edition. ISBN 1885705026.
 
−
* Keirsey, David (2001). ''[http://users.viawest.net/~keirsey/difference.html Keirsey Temperament versus Myers-Briggs Types].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
 
−
* Martin, Charles Dr. (2004) ''[http://www.capt.org/The_MBTI_Instrument/Type_Descriptions.cfm The Sixteen Types at a Glance]''. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
 
−
* Myers, Isabel Briggs; McCaulley Mary H.; Quenk, Naomi L.; Hammer, Allen L. (1998). ''MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator).'' Consulting Psychologists Press; 3rd ed edition. ISBN 0891061304.
 
−
* The Myers & Briggs Foundation.'' [http://www.myersbriggs.org/myers%5Fand%5Fbriggs%5Ffoundation/ethical%5Fuse%5Fof%5Fthe%5Fmbti%5Finstrument/ Ethical Use of the MBTI® Instrument].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
 
−
*Paul, A.M. (20040. ''The Cult of Personality: How Personality Tests Are Leading Us to Miseducate Our Children, Mismanage Our Companies, and Misunderstand Ourselves.'' Free Press . ISBN: 0743243560.
 
−
* University of Florida (2003) [http://web.uflib.ufl.edu/spec/manuscript/guides/Myers.htm ''Guide to the Isabel Briggs Myers Papers 1885-1992''], George A. Smathers Libraries, Department of Special and Area Studies Collections, Gainesville, FL. Retrieved [[December 5]], [[2005]].
 
  
−
==Further reading==
+
*1990. "Congress of the United States Office of Technology Assessment" in ''The Use of Integrity Tests for Pre-Employment Screening.'' OTA-SET-442 NTIS order #PB91-107011.  
−
 
+
*Almaas, A. H. 2000. ''Facets Of Unity: The Enneagram Of Holy Ideas.'' Shambhala Books. ISBN 0936713143.
−
* Berens, Linda V. and  Nardi, Dario. ''[http://www.bestfittype.com/personality.html What Is Personality "Type?"]''.  "The 16 Personality Types: Descriptions for Self-Discovery" (Fountain Valley CA: Telos Publications, 1999), 2.
+
*Baron, Renee, and Elizabeth Wagele. 1994, ''The Enneagram Made Easy.'' ISBN 0062510266.
−
*Berens, Linda V. and  Nardi, Dario. ''[http://www.bestfittype.com/bestfittype.html What Is Best-Fit Type?]''. "The 16 Personality Types: Descriptions for Self-Discovery" (Fountain Valley CA: Telos Publications, 1999), 6.
+
*Berens, Linda V., Cooper, Sue A., Ernst, Linda K., Martin, Charles R., Myers, Steve, Nardi, Dario, Pearman, Roger R., Segal, Marci, and Smith, Melissa A. 2002. ''Quick Guide to the 16 Personality Types in Organizations: Understanding Personality Differences in the Workplace''. Telos Publications. ISBN 978-0971214415.
−
*Berens, Linda V. and  Nardi, Dario. ''[http://www.bestfittype.com/describingpersonality.html Ways to Describe Personality]''. "The 16 Personality Types: Descriptions for Self-Discovery" (Fountain Valley CA: Telos Publications, 1999), 2
+
*Berens, Linda V., and Dario Nardi. 1999. ''The 16 Personality Types: Descriptions for Self-Discovery'' Radiance House. ISBN 978-0979868429.
−
* Berens,Linda V., Cooper,Sue A., Ernst,Linda K., Martin,Charles R., Myers,Steve, Nardi, Dario, Pearman,Roger R., Segal, Marci, Smith ,Melissa A. ''[http://www.bestfittype.com/organizations.html Applications of Type in Organizations]''.  "Quick Guide to the 16 Personality Types in Organizations: Understanding Personality Differences in the Workplace" (Fountain Valley CA: Telos Publications, 2001), 1
+
*Carroll, Robert Todd. 2004. "[http://skepdic.com/myersb.html Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®]" in ''The Skeptic's Dictionary.'' Retrieved March 4, 2019.
−
*Bourne, Dana. ''[http://www.webdotgal.com/main/html/m-b.html Personality Types and the Transgender Community]''. Retrieved November 14, 2005.
+
*Conn, Steven R. 1994. ''Sixteen Pf Fifth Edition Technical Manual''. Institute for Personality & Ability Testing. ISBN 0918296226.
−
 
+
*Georgia State University. [http://www2.gsu.edu/~dschjb/wwwmbti.html GSU Master Teacher Program: On Learning Styles]. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
−
*Falt, Jack. ''[http://www.trytel.com/~jfalt/topics.html Bibliography of MBTI/Temperament Books by Author]''. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
+
*Holland, John L. 1997. ''Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments''. Psychological Assessment Resources Inc. ISBN 978-0911907278.
−
*Geyer, Peter (1988). ''[http://members.ozemail.com.au/~alchymia/library/history.html An MBTI® History].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
+
*Jung, Carl Gustav. 1971. ''Psychological Types (Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 6).'' Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691097704.
−
*Georgia State University. ''[http://www2.gsu.edu/~dschjb/wwwmbti.html GSU Master Teacher Program: On Learning Styles]''. Retrieved December 20, 2004.
+
*Jung, Carl Gustav. 1989. ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections.'' New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0679723950.
−
*Jung, Carl Gustav. ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections.'' Vintage Books: New York, 1965. p. 207.
+
*Keirsey, David. 1998. ''Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence.'' Prometheus Nemesis Book Co. Inc. ISBN 1885705026.
−
* Martin., Charles R. ''[http://www.bestfittype.com/careermastery.html Role of Type in Career Mastery]''. "Quick Guide to the 16 Personality Types and Career Mastery:  Living with Purpose and Working Effectively"  (Fountain Valley CA: Telos Publications, 2001), 3
+
*Marston, William Moulton. [1928] 2007. ''Emotions of Normal People''. Cooper Press. ISBN 978-1406701166.
−
*Matthews, Paul (2004). ''[http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/328/7450/1244 The MBTI is a flawed measure of personality].'' bmj.com Rapid Responses. Retrieved February 9, 2005.
+
*Martin, Charles. 2004. ''[http://www.capt.org/The_MBTI_Instrument/Type_Descriptions.cfm The Sixteen Types at a Glance]''. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Retrieved April 2, 2011.
−
*Myers, Isabel Briggs (1970). ''Personal letter to Mary McCaulley''.  The MBTI Qualifying Program: The Center for Applications of Psychological Type, 2004. p. 20.
+
*Myers, Isabel Briggs. 1995. ''Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type.'' Davies-Black Publishing. ISBN 089106074X.
−
* Myers, Isabel Briggs (1980). ''Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type.'' Davies-Black Publishing; Reprint edition (May 1, 1995). ISBN 089106074X.
+
*Myers, Isabel Briggs, Mary H. McCaulley, Naomi L. Quenk, and Allen L. Hammer. 1998. ''MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator),'' 3rd ed.  Consulting Psychologists Press, ISBN 0891061304.
−
* Paul, Annie Murpy (2004). ''The Cult of Personality Testing.'' Free Press. ch. 5.
+
*Palmer, Helen. 1991. ''The Enneagram: Understanding Yourself and the Others In Your Life.'' HarperOne. ISBN 0062506838.
−
*Personality Plus. ''[http://www.gladwell.com/pdf/personality.pdf Employers love personality tests.  But what do they really reveal?'']
+
*Palmer, Helen. 1996. ''The Enneagram in Love and Work: Understanding Your Intimate and Business Relationships.'' HarperOne. ISBN 0062507214.
−
*Skeptics Dictionary "Myers-Briggs Type Indicator" [http://skepdic.com/myersb.html]
+
*Paul, A.M. 2004. ''The Cult of Personality: How Personality Tests Are Leading Us to Miseducate Our Children, Mismanage Our Companies, and Misunderstand Ourselves.'' Free Press. ISBN 0743243560.
−
*The Myers & Briggs Foundation.'' [http://www.myersbriggs.org/myers%5Fand%5Fbriggs%5Ffoundation/ethical%5Fuse%5Fof%5Fthe%5Fmbti%5Finstrument/  Ethical Use of the MBTI® Instrument].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
+
*The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. 2004. ''[http://www.capt.org/The_MBTI_Instrument/Ethical_Use.cfm MBTI® Code of Ethics]''. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
−
*Virginia Tech. ''[http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/jte-v7n1/wicklein.jte-v7n1.html The Relationship Between Psychological Type and Professional Orientation Among Technology Education Teachers].'' Retrieved December 20, 2004.
+
*University of Florida. 2003. [http://web.uflib.ufl.edu/spec/manuscript/guides/Myers.htm ''Guide to the Isabel Briggs Myers Papers 1885-1992'']. George A. Smathers Libraries, Department of Special and Area Studies Collections, Gainesville, FL. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
−
===Enneagram===
 
−
* Almaas, A. H. (2000). ''Facets Of Unity: The Enneagram Of Holy Ideas''.  Shambhala Books. ISBN 0936713143.
 
−
*Baron, Renee &  Wagele, Elizabeth. 1994, '''The Enneagram Made Easy'''. ISBN 0062510266.
 
−
*Hurley, Kathleen V. (1993). ''My best self: Using the Enneagram to free the soul''.  ISBN 8572720669.
 
−
*Jaxon-Bear, Eli. (2005). ''Self-Realization and The Enneagram''. (DVD produced by the Leela Foundation). ASIN: B000B5KX10.  
 
−
*Palmer, Helen. (1991). ''The Enneagram: Understanding Yourself and the Others In Your Life'' . ISBN 0062506838.
 
−
*Palmer, Helen. (1996). ''The Enneagram in Love and Work: Understanding Your Intimate and Business Relationships''. ISBN 0062507214.
 
−
*Riso, Don Richard  & Hudson, Russ. (1999). ''The Wisdom of the Enneagram''. ISBN 0555378201.
 
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
 +
All links retrieved November 23, 2022.
  
−
* [http://www.uni-duesseldorf.de/WWW/MathNat/Ruch/Research/epq.html Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (in German, with a focus on the German version)]
+
;MMPI
−
* [http://www.colorwize.com/Personality_Test.htm Personality Test based on research since 1989.]
+
* [http://www.pearsonassessments.com/tests/mmpia.htm MMPI-A (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent)]
−
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/whatamilike/index.shtml 'What Am I Like?' personality test from the BBC]
+
* [http://www.umn.edu/mmpi/ MMPI Research Project]
−
* [http://www.abika.com/Help/Accuracy.htm Personality testing through data mining]
 
−
* [http://similarminds.com/global5.html Similar minds personality test]
 
−
* [http://similarminds.com/global-adv.html Similar minds Global Advanced Personality Test]
 
−
* [http://www.mindmedia.com/links/personality_tests.html Personality Tests in the Mind Media Guide]
 
−
* [http://ps.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/49/11/1500 Book review of Storytelling, Narrative, and the Thematic Apperception Test]
 
−
* [http://web.utk.edu/~wmorgan/tat/tattxt.htm Research into the origins of imagery used in the TAT]
 
−
*[http://www.pearsonassessments.com/assessments/tests/mmpi_2.htm Pearson Assessments: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2]
 
−
*[http://www.pearsonassessments.com/tests/mmpia.htm MMPI-A (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-Adolescent)]
 
−
*[http://edtech.tph.wku.edu/~rgrieve/Personality/LectureNotes/MMPI-2Interpretation.pdf Test interpretation and description of scales] (pdf)
 
−
*[http://www.umn.edu/mmpi/ MMPI Research Project]
 
−
*[http://www.falseallegations.com/mmpi-bw.htm MMPI: All You Wanted to Know About It]
 
−
*[http://www.aaml.org/MMPI.htm INTRODUCTION: The MMPI is the most frequently used clinical test]
 
−
*[http://www.nimh.nih.gov/ National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Home Page]
 
−
*[http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/minnesota_multiphasic_personality_inventory_mmpi-2.jsp MMPI article] via Health A to Z
 
−
*[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/051223.html The Straight Dope: What does Alice in Wonderland have to do with psychological testing?]
 
  
 +
;MBTI/Keirsey
 +
;;Authorized
 +
* [http://www.4temperaments.com/ 4Temperaments.com] The Web Site for Understanding the Four Temperaments.
 +
* [http://www.paladinexec.com/ Paladin Associates] Authorized Myers-Briggs tests
 +
* [http://www.keirsey.com/ Keirsey Temperament and Character] The Web Site for the Keirsey Temperament Sorter and Keirsey Temperament Theory.
  
−
Authorized Myers-Briggs / Keirsey:
+
;;Unauthorized
−
* [http://www.interstrength.com/mbti.html  MBTI Qualification Program]
+
* [http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp Human Metrics]
−
* [http://www.paladinexec.com/ Authorized Myers-Briggs tests]
+
* [http://www.personalitytest.net/types/index.html Personality Test Center]
  
−
 
+
;;Additional resources
−
Unauthorized personality tests inspired by Myers-Briggs / Keirsey:
+
* [http://www.16types.com/ 16types.com] Complete resource for understanding the 16 personality types
−
* [http://www.16types.com/Request.jsp?pView=DynamicPage&Content=MajorsPTI MajorsPTI - Advanced Personality Type Inventory]
+
* [http://www.bestfittype.com/ BestFitType.com] Explore all 16 personality types
−
* [http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp humanmetrics.com]
+
* [http://www.cognitiveprocesses.com/ CognitiveProcesses.com] Explore the 16 personality types from the Jungian perspective
−
* [http://www.personalitytest.net/types/index.htm personalitytest.net]
 
−
* [http://similarminds.com/jung.html similarminds.com]
 
−
 
 
−
Additional information and essays on all 16 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Profiles:
 
−
 
 
−
* [http://www.16types.com/ 16types.com - Complete resource for understanding the 16 personality types.]
 
−
* [http://www.bestfittype.com/ BestFitType.com - Explore all 16 personality types.]
 
−
* [http://www.cognitiveprocesses.com/ CognitiveProcesses.com - Explore the 16 personality types from the Jungian perspective.]
 
 
* [http://www.typelogic.com/ Typelogic.com]
 
* [http://www.typelogic.com/ Typelogic.com]
−
* [http://www.typetango.com Links to different descriptions of the 16 Types]
 
−
* [http://www.geocities.com/lifexplore/ Life Explore - Information regarding typology (i.e. MBTI)]
 
−
 
−
Enneagram
 
  
 +
;Enneagram
 +
* [http://skepdic.com/enneagr.html 'Enneagram'] The Skeptic's Dictionary
 +
* [http://tap3x.net/EMBTI/journal.html The Enneagram and the MBTI]
 
* [http://www.enneagraminstitute.com Enneagram Insitute]
 
* [http://www.enneagraminstitute.com Enneagram Insitute]
−
* [http://p.webring.com/hub?ring=ennearing The Enneagram Webring]
 
−
* [http://www.personality-and-aptitude-career-tests.com/enneagram-personality-tests.html  Enneagram; Arguments For and Against...]
 
 
* [http://www.internationalenneagram.org  International Enneagram Association]
 
* [http://www.internationalenneagram.org  International Enneagram Association]
−
* [http://www.enneagramweb.com A Brief History of the Enneagram]
+
* [http://www.9types.com/homepage.actual.html 9Types.com] A summary of several sources
−
* [http://skepdic.com/enneagr.html 'Enneagram'] in [[The Skeptic's Dictionary]]
+
 
−
* [http://www.9types.com/homepage.actual.html A summary of several sources.]
+
;Big Five
−
* [http://www.enneagramworldwide.com/enneagram-workshops/current-schedule/index.php Enneagram Worldwide classes, workshops and events]
+
* [http://ipip.ori.org/ International Personality Item Pool]
−
* [http://www.aeongroup.com/gc.htm Superimposing the Enneagram and Zodiac ([[Patrizia Norelli-Bachelet]])]
+
* [http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~sanjay/pubs/bigfive.pdf The Big Five-Trait Taxonomy]
 +
* [http://www.personality-and-aptitude-career-tests.com/big-five-personality-tests.html Big Five Personality Tests]
 +
* [http://www.personalityresearch.org/bigfive.html Five-Factor Model] from Great Ideas in Personality
 +
* [http://www.personality-project.org/ The Personality Project] Good source of references for further reading.
  
 +
;Other
 +
* [http://www.colorwize.com/Personality_Test.htm Personality Test based on Color Signature]
 +
* [http://www.ptypes.com/temperaments.html#kretschmer The Temperaments] Ernst Kretschmer
 +
* [http://web.utk.edu/~wmorgan/tat/tattxt.htm Research into the origins of imagery used in the TAT]
 +
* [http://www.self-directed-search.com/ Self-Directed Search: A Career Interest Inventory]
 +
* [http://www.corexcel.com/html/personal.profile.desc.htm DiSC® Profile Overview]
  
  
−
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+
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Latest revision as of 14:39, 29 September 2023

The four temperaments as illustrated by Johann Kaspar Lavater.

A personality test aims to assess aspects of a person's character that remain stable across situations, referred to as their personality. Personality is generally understood as a collection of emotional, thought, and behavioral patterns unique to a person, that is consistent over time. Generally, personality tests assess common characteristics for large segments of the population, describing people according to a number of dimensions or traits, rather than attempting to describe every detail of any particular individual's personality.

A variety of methods have been developed to assess personality differences and characteristics, based on various approaches to the nature of personality. While none is a complete description of human personality, many tests have proven useful in specific applications, such as interviewing prospective employees, through focusing on the attributes important for the particular situation. Through this use, a good fit can be found between an individual and what they will be called on to accomplish, thus benefiting both the individual and the whole purpose that they are serving.

Early history

Did you know?
Greek philosopher Hippocrates recorded the first known personality model basing his four "types" on the amount of body fluids, or "humors," an individual possessed.

Greek philosopher Hippocrates recorded the first known personality model basing his four "types" on the amount of body fluids, or "humors," an individual possessed. Greek physician Galen expounded upon Hippocrates' theory based on the four basic body fluids (humors): blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. According to their relative predominance in an individual, they would produce, respectively, temperaments designated sanguine (warm, pleasant), phlegmatic (slow-moving, apathetic), melancholic (depressed, sad), and choleric (quick to react, hot tempered). German philosopher Immanuel Kant popularized these ideas by organizing the constructs along the two axes of feelings and activity.

The advent of the field of psychology led to more formalized categories and tests. For example, Wilhelm Wundt proposed that the four temperaments fall along the axes of changeability and emotionality.

Varieties of personality assessment

As the field of psychology developed so did both theories of personality and the methods to assess personality differences. A wide range of personality tests are available for use, for a variety of purposes, in different situations. The first personality test was the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet first used in 1919. It was designed to help the United States Army screen out recruits who might be susceptible to shell shock.

Some of the most commonly used personality tests are:

Projective tests

A projective test is one in which the person is asked to respond to ambiguous stimuli in order to reveal hidden emotions and internal conflicts. This differs from an "objective test," in which responses are analyzed according to a universal standard, such as in a multiple choice questionnaire. The two most well-known and often used projective tests are the Rorschach inkblot test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Rorschach inkblot test

Main article: Rorschach inkblot test

The Rorschach inkblot test, named after its inventor Hermann Rorschach, was introduced in 1921, as a way to determine a person's personality by their interpretation of abstract inkblots.

Thematic Apperception Test

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was commissioned by the Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) in the 1930s, to identify personalities that might be susceptible to being turned by enemy intelligence. American psychologists Henry Murray and Christiana D. Morgan at Harvard were responsible for developing the TAT test. They explored the underlying dynamics of personality, such as internal conflicts, dominant drives and interests, and motives. Specifically, the test assesses motives, including needs for achievement, power, intimacy, and problem-solving abilities.

The TAT uses a standard series of 31 provocative yet ambiguous pictures about which the subject must tell a story. A subject is asked questions such as:

  • What dialogue might be carried on between characters?
  • How might the "story" continue after the picture shown?

For this reason, the TAT is also known as the "picture interpretation technique."

Each story created by a subject is carefully analyzed to uncover underlying needs, attitudes, and patterns of reaction. Subjects can respond orally or in writing and there are specific subsets of pictures for boys, girls, men, and women. The TAT is a projective test in that, like the Rorschach inkblot test, its assessment of the subject is based on what he or she projects onto the ambiguous images.

After World War II, the TAT was adopted more broadly by psychoanalysts and clinicians to evaluate emotionally disturbed patients. Later, in the 1970s, the Human Potential Movement encouraged psychologists to use the TAT to help their clients understand themselves better and stimulate personal growth.

Today, the TAT is widely used as a tool for research in areas of psychology such as dreams, fantasies, mate selection, and what motivates people to choose their occupation. Sometimes it is used in a psychiatric context to assess disordered thinking, in forensic examinations to evaluate crime suspects or to screen candidates for high-stress occupations.

The TAT has been criticized for a number of reasons. It is not administered in a standardized way, and because it is challenging to standardize interpretation of the stories it produces. A scoring system for analysis was created by David McClelland in an attempt to introduce more rigor.

The 31 standard pictures have been criticized as negative in tone and therefore tending to limit the range of personality characteristics that the TAT can explore. Research has shown that factors including race, gender, and social class of both examiners and subjects influence the stories told and how they are interpreted.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was published in 1942 as a way to aid in assessing psychopathology in a clinical setting. It is the most frequently used personality test in the mental health field. This assessment was designed to help identify personal, social, and behavioral problems in psychiatric patients. The results from this test provide relevant information to aid in problem identification, diagnosis, and treatment planning for patients.

The test has also been used for job screening and other non-clinical assessments, which is considered controversial and is in some cases illegal.

History and use

The original MMPI was developed at the University of Minnesota Hospitals and first published in 1942. The original authors of the MMPI were Starke R. Hathaway, PhD, and J. C. McKinley, MD. The MMPI is copyrighted and is a trademark of the University of Minnesota. Clinicians must pay a fee each time it is administered.

The standardized version for adults 18 and over, the MMPI-2, was released in 1989, with a subsequent revision of certain test elements in early 2001. The MMPI-2 has 567 items, or questions, and takes approximately 60 to 90 minutes to complete. There is a short form of the test that is comprised of the first 370 items on the long-form MMPI-2. There is also a version of the inventory for adolescents aged 14 to 18, the MMPI-A.

The MMPI has been used for a range of assessments:

Criticism and controversy

Other personality tests, like the Rorschach inkblot test and Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, have come under fire more often than MMPI. Still, critics have raised issues about the ethics and validity of administering MMPI, especially for non-clinical uses.

By the 1960s, the MMPI was being given by companies to employees and applicants as often as to psychiatric patients. Sociologist William H. Whyte was among many who saw the tests as helping to create and perpetuate the oppressive "groupthink" of mid-twentieth century corporate capitalism.

In 1966, Senator Sam Ervin introduced a bill to sharply curtail the government's use of the MMPI and similar tests, comparing them to McCarthyism. Ervin's bill failed. A 1990 Office of Technology Assessment report noted:

In 1965 the Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights of the Committee on the Judiciary, chaired by Senator Sam Ervin, and the House Special Subcommittee on Invasion of Privacy of the Committee on Government Operations, chaired by Representative Cornelius E. Gallagher, held hearings to determine whether the questions asked on psychological tests used by the Federal Government were an unjustified invasion of the respondent’s psyche and private life. The Subcommittees also investigated the validity of these tests and the due process issues involved in test administration. The reactions of the press and public were very critical of the types of questions asked on these psychological tests.

Numerous successful lawsuits have argued that giving the test to job applicants is an invasion of privacy, and that there is no evidence linking test results to job performance. Others have accused that MMPI can "overpathologize" certain demographic groups, notably teenagers and non-white test takers.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Main article: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was designed to assist a person in identifying their personality preferences. It was developed by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs Myers during World War II, and follows from the theories of Carl Jung as laid out in his work Psychological Types. The registered trademark rights in the phrase and its acronym have been assigned from the publisher of the test, Consulting Psychologists Press Inc., to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust. The test is frequently used in the areas of pedagogy, group dynamics, employee training, leadership training, marriage counseling, and personal development, although scientific skeptics and academic psychologists have subjected it to considerable criticism in research literature.

Keirsey Temperament Sorter

The Keirsey Temperament Sorter is a personality instrument which attempts to identify which of four temperaments, and which of 16 types, a person prefers. Hippocrates proposed the four "humors," which are related to the four temperaments. These were sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, and melancholic. In 1978, David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates, in the book Please Understand Me, reintroduced temperament theory in modern form. Keirsey renamed the four temperaments in the book Portraits of Temperament (1987) as "Guardian," "Artisan," "Idealist," and "Rational." As he was developing modern temperament theory, Keirsey found that by combining the MBTI functions "intuition" with "judging," NT and NF, and combining "sensing" with the "perceiving" function, SJ and SP, that these groupings of types correlated to his four temperaments:

Artisans (SPs) seek freedom to act and are concerned with their ability to make an impact on people or situations. Their greatest strength is tactical intelligence, which means that they excel at acting, composing, producing, and motivating.

Guardians (SJs) seek membership or belonging and are concerned with responsibility and duty. Their greatest strength is logistical intelligence, which means that they excel at organizing, facilitating, checking, and supporting.

Idealists (NFs) seek meaning and significance and are concerned with finding their own unique identity. Their greatest strength is diplomatic intelligence, which means that they excel at clarifying, unifying, individualizing, and inspiring.

Rationals (NTs) seek mastery and self-control and are concerned with their own knowledge and competence. Their greatest strength is strategic intelligence, which means that they excel at engineering, conceptualizing, theorizing, and coordinating.

The chart below compares modern and ancient aspects of the model:

c. 400 B.C.E. Hippocrates's four humors blood black bile yellow bile phlegm
—>
 Season: spring autumn summer winter
—>
 Element: air earth fire water
—>
 Organ: liver gall bladder spleen brain/lungs
—>
 Characteristics: courageous, amorous despondent, sleepless easily angered calm, unemotional
c. 325 B.C.E. Aristotle's four sources of happiness hedone (sensuous pleasure) propraitari (acquiring assets) ethikos (moral virtue) dialogike (logical investigation)
c. 190 C.E.' Galen's four temperaments sanguine melancholic choleric phlegmatic
c. 1550 Paracelsus's four totem spirits changeable salamanders industrious gnomes inspired nymphs curious sylphs
c. 1905 Adicke's four world views innovative traditional doctrinaire skeptical
c. 1914 Spränger's four value attitudes artistic economic religious theoretic
c. 1920 Kretchmer's four character styles hypomanic depressive hyperesthetic anesthetic
c. 1947 Erich Fromm's four orientations exploitative hoarding receptive marketing
c. 1958 Isabel Myers' cognitive function types SP - sensory perception SJ - sensory judgement NF - intuitive feeling NT - intuitive thinking
c. 1978 Keirsey's four temperaments artisan guardian idealist rational
Keirsey, David. 1998. Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence. Prometheus Nemesis Book Co. ISBN 1885705026.

Enneagram

The Enneagram Figure

Another personality assessment similar to the MBTI is called the Enneagram.

The term "enneagram" derives from the Greek words ennea (nine) and gramma (something written or drawn). The figure can also be called an "enneagon." The usual form of the Enneagram figure consists of a circle with nine points on its circumference equally spaced with one at the top and numbered clockwise from 1 to 9 starting with 1 at the point one position clockwise from the top-most point and ending with 9 at the top-most point. The Enneagram figure's most well-known use is in indicating a dynamic model of nine distinct yet interconnected psychological types (usually called "personality types" or "character types"). These types can be understood as unconsciously developing from nine distinct archetypal patterns.

It is sometimes speculated that forms of the Enneagram typology can be found in ancient sources, especially within the Sufi spiritual tradition, or that the Enneagram figure is possibly a variant of the Chaldean Seal from the times of Pythagoras. The Enneagram figure's first definitely established use (at least in its most common form of the triangle and hexagon) is found in the writings of the Greek-Armenian spiritual teacher G.I. Gurdjieff and his Russian-born student, P. D. Ouspensky. The teaching tradition established by Gurdjieff and Ouspensky is called "the Fourth Way."

The figure's use for a typological model is first clearly found in the teachings of Bolivian-born Oscar Ichazo and his system called "Protoanalysis." Much of popular Enneagram teaching has, however, been principally developed from the teachings of the Chilean-born psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo who first learned the basics of the Enneagram from Ichazo. It was principally from Naranjo that the Enneagram became established in the United States. His Enneagram teaching was further developed by many others teachers including a number of Jesuit priests and seminarians at Loyola University in Chicago.

Contemporary ways of understanding and describing the "Enneagram of Personality," as it is sometimes called, have developed from various traditions of spiritual wisdom and modern psychological insight. While many people understand the Enneagram principally in spiritual or mystical ways others understand it primarily in psychological terms.

The nine Enneagram types are often given names that indicate some distinctive behavioral aspect, though these labels are insufficient to capture the nuances of the type concerned. Some examples are as follows. The corresponding unhealthy aspect is indicated in square brackets.

  • One: Reformer, Critic, Perfectionist [Anger]. This type focuses on integrity. Ones can be wise, discerning, and inspiring in their quest for the truth. They also tend to dissociate themselves from their flaws and can become hypocritical and hyper-critical, seeking the illusion of virtue to hide their own vices. The One's greatest fear is to be flawed and their ultimate goal is perfection.
  • Two: Helper, Giver, Caretaker [Pride]. Twos, at their best, are compassionate, thoughtful and astonishingly generous; they can also be prone to passive-aggressive behavior, clinginess, and manipulation. Twos want, above all, to be loved and needed and fear being unworthy of love.
  • Three: Achiever, Performer, Succeeder [Deceit]. Highly adaptable and changeable. Some walk the world with confidence and unstinting authenticity; others wear a series of public masks, acting the way they think will bring them approval and losing track of their true self. Threes fear being worthless and strive to be worthwhile.
  • Four: Romantic, Individualist, Artist [Envy]. Driven by a fear that they have no identity or personal significance, Fours embrace individualism and are often profoundly creative. However, they have a habit of withdrawing to internalize, searching desperately inside themselves for something they never find and creating a spiral of depression. The stereotypical angst-ridden musician or tortured artist is often a stereotypical Four.
  • Five: Observer, Thinker, Investigator [Avarice]. Believing they are only worth what they contribute, Fives have learned to withdraw, to watch with keen eyes and speak only when they can shake the world with their observations. Sometimes they do just that. Sometimes, instead, they withdraw from the world, becoming reclusive hermits and fending off social contact with abrasive cynicism. Fives fear incompetence or uselessness and want to be capable above all else.
  • Six: Loyalist, Devil's Advocate, Defender [Fear]. Sixes long for stability above all else. They exhibit unwavering loyalty and responsibility, but are prone to extreme anxiety and passive-aggressive behavior. Their greatest fear is to lack support and guidance.
  • Seven: Enthusiast, Adventurer, Materialist [Gluttony]. Eternal "Peter Pans," Sevens flit from one activity to another. Above all they fear being unable to provide for themselves. At their best they embrace life for its varied joys and wonders and truly live in the moment; but at their worst they dash frantically from one new experience to another, being too scared of disappointment to enjoy what they have.
  • Eight: Leader, Protector, Challenger [Lust]. Eights worry about self-protection and control. Natural leaders, capable and passionate, but also manipulative, ruthless, and willing to destroy anything and everything in their way. Eights seek control over their own life and their own destiny and fear being harmed or controlled by others.
  • Nine: Mediator, Peacemaker, Preservationist [Sloth]. Nines are ruled by their empathy. At their best they are perceptive, receptive, gentle, calming, and at peace with the world. On the other hand, they prefer to dissociate from conflicts and indifferently go along with others' wishes or simply withdraw, acting via inaction. They fear the conflict caused by their ability to simultaneously understand opposing points of view and seek peace of mind above all else.

DISC Profile

The DISC Profile is a psychometric test, using a four-dimensional model of normal behavior. The DISC Profile is based on the work of psychologist, William Moulton Marston, who published his work on measurements of mental energy in Emotions of Normal People in 1928, and Integrative Psychology in 1931. Its name comes from the initials each describing a behavioral pattern:

  • Dominance produces activity in an antagonistic environment
  • Inducement produces activity in a favorable environment
  • Steadiness produces passivity in a favorable environment
  • Compliance produces passivity in an antagonistic environment.

These four dimensions can be grouped in a grid with D and I sharing the top row and representing extroverted aspects of the personality, and C and S below representing introverted aspects. D and C then share the left column and represent task-focused aspects, and I and S share the right column and represent social aspects. In this matrix, the vertical dimension represents a factor of "Assertive" or "Passive", while the horizontal dimension represents "Open" vs. "Guarded".

The DISC Profile is a self-scored assessment, available in a traditional paper workbook format and online versions.

Big Five personality traits

In 1981, at a symposium in Honolulu, four prominent researchers (Lewis Goldberg, Naomi Takamoto-Chock, Andrew Comrey, and John M. Digman) reviewed the available personality tests of the day, and decided that most of the tests which held any promise seemed to measure a subset of five common factors. These five factors correspond to those generated in 1963 by W.T. Norman, based on lexical analysis of the English language by Gordon Allport and H. S. Odbert in 1936.

A model was developed which states that personality can be described in terms of five aggregate-level trait descriptors—The Big Five Personality Traits. These are measured by self-report questionnaires, known as International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) tests. The five factors and some typical questions that define them are as follows:

Neuroticism: A tendency to easily experience unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, anger, or depression.

  • I am easily disturbed.
  • I change my mood a lot.
  • I get irritated easily.
  • I get stressed out easily.
  • I get upset easily.
  • I have frequent mood swings.
  • I often feel blue.
  • I worry about things.
  • I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed)
  • I seldom feel blue. (reversed)

Extroversion: Energy and the tendency to seek stimulation and the company of others.

  • I am the life of the party.
  • I don't mind being the center of attention.
  • I feel comfortable around people.
  • I start conversations.
  • I talk to a lot of different people at parties.
  • I am quiet around strangers. (reversed)
  • I don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed)
  • I don't talk a lot. (reversed)
  • I have little to say. (reversed)
  • I keep in the background. (reversed)

Agreeableness: A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.

  • I am interested in people.
  • I feel others' emotions.
  • I have a soft heart.
  • I make people feel at ease.
  • I sympathize with others' feelings.
  • I take time out for others.
  • I am not interested in other people's problems. (reversed)
  • I am not really interested in others. (reversed)
  • I feel little concern for others. (reversed)
  • I insult people. (reversed)

Conscientiousness: A tendency to show self-discipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement.

  • I am always prepared.
  • I am exacting in my work.
  • I follow a schedule.
  • I get chores done right away.
  • I like order.
  • I pay attention to details.
  • I leave my belongings around. (reversed)
  • I make a mess of things. (reversed)
  • I often forget to put things back in their proper place. (reversed)
  • I shirk my duties. (reversed)

Openness to experience: Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, and unusual ideas; imaginative and curious.

  • I am full of ideas.
  • I am quick to understand things.
  • I have a rich vocabulary.
  • I have a vivid imagination.
  • I have excellent ideas.
  • I spend time reflecting on things.
  • I use difficult words.
  • I am not interested in abstract ideas. (reversed)
  • I do not have a good imagination. (reversed)
  • I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. (reversed)

Other tests

The Holland hexagon

John L. Holland's RIASEC vocational model, commonly referred to as the Holland Codes, suggests that there are six personality traits that lead people to choose their career paths:

  • Realistic - practical, physical, hands-on, tool-oriented
  • Investigative - analytical, intellectual, scientific
  • Artistic - creative, original, independent, chaotic
  • Social - cooperative, supporting, helping, healing/nurturing
  • Enterprising - competitive environments, leadership, persuading
  • Conventional - detail-oriented, organizing, clerical

This model is widely used in vocational counseling and is a circumplex model where the six types are represented as a hexagon in which adjacent types are more closely related than those more distant.

Some cognitive psychologists have dismissed the idea of personality, believing most behavior is context specific. These theorists developed the concept of cognitive styles or "Meta-programs" to deal with this, which in turn lead to meta-program tests such as the Inventory for Work Attitude & Motivation (iWAM).

Other tests include the Oxford Capacity Analysis, Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory, Eysenck's three-factor Personality Questionnaire, and the Abika Test.

Benefits of Personality Testing

A significant number of businesses use personality testing as part of their hiring process. More and more people are also using personality testing to evaluate their business partners and potential spouses. Salespeople use personality testing to better understand the needs of their customers and gain a competitive edge in closing sales. Guidance counselors use personality tests to help students make appropriate career choices. Lawyers use personality testing for criminal behavior analysis, litigation profiling, witness examination and jury selection.

While none of the tests available may give complete assessments, it has been possible to tailor particular tests to the specific needs of employers, the military, lawyers, and so forth. This can be beneficial by providing a better fit between the person and what they will be called on to accomplish.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • 1990. "Congress of the United States Office of Technology Assessment" in The Use of Integrity Tests for Pre-Employment Screening. OTA-SET-442 NTIS order #PB91-107011.
  • Almaas, A. H. 2000. Facets Of Unity: The Enneagram Of Holy Ideas. Shambhala Books. ISBN 0936713143.
  • Baron, Renee, and Elizabeth Wagele. 1994, The Enneagram Made Easy. ISBN 0062510266.
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  • Berens, Linda V., and Dario Nardi. 1999. The 16 Personality Types: Descriptions for Self-Discovery Radiance House. ISBN 978-0979868429.
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  • Conn, Steven R. 1994. Sixteen Pf Fifth Edition Technical Manual. Institute for Personality & Ability Testing. ISBN 0918296226.
  • Georgia State University. GSU Master Teacher Program: On Learning Styles. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
  • Holland, John L. 1997. Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments. Psychological Assessment Resources Inc. ISBN 978-0911907278.
  • Jung, Carl Gustav. 1971. Psychological Types (Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Volume 6). Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691097704.
  • Jung, Carl Gustav. 1989. Memories, Dreams, Reflections. New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0679723950.
  • Keirsey, David. 1998. Please Understand Me II: Temperament, Character, Intelligence. Prometheus Nemesis Book Co. Inc. ISBN 1885705026.
  • Marston, William Moulton. [1928] 2007. Emotions of Normal People. Cooper Press. ISBN 978-1406701166.
  • Martin, Charles. 2004. The Sixteen Types at a Glance. The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. Retrieved April 2, 2011.
  • Myers, Isabel Briggs. 1995. Gifts Differing: Understanding Personality Type. Davies-Black Publishing. ISBN 089106074X.
  • Myers, Isabel Briggs, Mary H. McCaulley, Naomi L. Quenk, and Allen L. Hammer. 1998. MBTI Manual (A guide to the development and use of the Myers Briggs type indicator), 3rd ed. Consulting Psychologists Press, ISBN 0891061304.
  • Palmer, Helen. 1991. The Enneagram: Understanding Yourself and the Others In Your Life. HarperOne. ISBN 0062506838.
  • Palmer, Helen. 1996. The Enneagram in Love and Work: Understanding Your Intimate and Business Relationships. HarperOne. ISBN 0062507214.
  • Paul, A.M. 2004. The Cult of Personality: How Personality Tests Are Leading Us to Miseducate Our Children, Mismanage Our Companies, and Misunderstand Ourselves. Free Press. ISBN 0743243560.
  • The Center for Applications of Psychological Type. 2004. MBTI® Code of Ethics. Retrieved March 4, 2019.
  • University of Florida. 2003. Guide to the Isabel Briggs Myers Papers 1885-1992. George A. Smathers Libraries, Department of Special and Area Studies Collections, Gainesville, FL. Retrieved March 4, 2019.

External links

All links retrieved November 23, 2022.

MMPI
MBTI/Keirsey
Authorized
Unauthorized
Additional resources
Enneagram
Big Five
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