Difference between revisions of "Timbuktu" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{Infobox World Heritage Site
 
{{Infobox World Heritage Site
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| WHS         = Timbuktu
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| WHS     = Timbuktu
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| Image       = [[Image:Djingareiber cour.jpg|200px|Djinguereber Mosque]]
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| Image   = [[Image:Djingareiber cour.jpg|200px|Djinguereber Mosque]]
 
| State Party = {{MLI}}
 
| State Party = {{MLI}}
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| Type       = Cultural
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| Type   = Cultural
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| Criteria   = ii, iv, v
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| Criteria = ii, iv, v
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| ID         = 119
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| ID     = 119
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| Region     = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Africa|Africa]]
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| Region   = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Africa|Africa]]
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| Year       = 1988
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| Year   = 1988
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| Session     = 12th
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| Session   = 12th
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| Danger     = 1990-2005
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| Danger   = 1990-2005
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| Link       = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/119
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| Link   = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/119
 
}}
 
}}
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'''Timbuktu''' ([[English language|Archaic English]]: ''Timbuctoo''; [[Koyra Chiini language|Koyra Chiini]]: ''Tumbutu''; [[French language|French]]: ''Tombouctou'') is a city in [[Tombouctou Region]] of modern day [[Mali]] that was founded over 800 years ago. Geographically, the location of Timbuktu served as a convenient meeting place for neighboring African civilizations, [[nomadic]] [[Berber people|Berber]] and [[Arab]] peoples from the north. This led to the establishment of Timbuktu as a premier trading center for West Africa that often attracted European traders. It was important historically (and still is today) as an ''[[entrepot]]'' for [[rock-salt]] from [[Taoudenni]]. Due to the extensive trade through Timbuktu the city acquired a mythical status, especially in Europe. In the West it was for long a metaphor for exotic, distant lands, e.g. "from here to Timbuktu."
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Founded perhaps as early as the tenth century, '''Timbuktu''' is an [[Africa]]n city in the modern day nation of [[Mali]]. Occupying a strategic location in the [[Sahara]], it served as a convenient meeting place for neighboring civilizations, [[nomad]]ic [[Berber]] and [[Arab]] peoples from the north. A premier trading center for [[West Africa]] that often attracted European traders, it continues to serve as an ''entrepot'' for rock-salt from Taoudenni.  
  
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Timbuktu is also remembered for its long-lasting contribution to Islamic and world civilization is scholarship.<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20061110/sc_nm/mali_manuscripts_dc_1</ref> By the fourteenth century, important books were written and copied in Timbuktu, establishing the city as the centre of a significant written tradition in Africa.<ref>http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20061110/sc_nm/mali_manuscripts_dc_1</ref>
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Timbuktu was the center of significant written tradition on the African continent, when by the fourteenth century they had established a system for the writing and copying of important books. It is remembered as well for its contributions to Islamic scholarship and is home to the prestigious [[Qur'an]]ic [[Sankore University]] and other [[madrasas]], reminiscent of its heritage as an intellectual and spiritual capital of Islamic West Africa in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Its three great mosques&mdash;[[Djinguereber Mosque|Djingareyber]], [[Sankore]] and [[Sidi Yahya]]&mdash;recall Timbuktu's golden age.  
  
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In contemporary times, Timbuktu is populated by [[Songhay]], [[Tuareg]], [[Fula people|Fulani]], and [[Mandé]] people. and is located about 15 km north of the [[River Niger]]. It is home to the prestigious [[Qur'an]]ic [[Sankore University]] and other [[madrasas]], reminiscent of Timbuktu's heritage as an intellectual and spiritual capital of Islamic West Africa in the 15th and 16th  centuries.  
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The city had acquired a mythical status in the West due to its extensive trade in gold and other commodities; it is still believed by some to be a mythical place, rather than an actual city. In contemporary times, Timbuktu is populated by [[Songhai]], [[Tuareg]], [[Fulani]], and [[Mandé]] people.  
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{{toc}}
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Timbuktu's historical monuments are being threatened by a process called [[desertification]], wherein the harsh winds off the Sahara drive sand against them. Although continuously restored, the sands continue to wreak a devastating effect; efforts to maintain the monuments have proven ineffectual.<ref> ''UNESCO World Heritage Site''. [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=119 Timbuktu] Retrieved July 8, 2007. </ref>
  
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Timbuktu's physical history is being threatened by a process called [[desertification]], where the harsh winds off the Sahara drive sand against historical monuments. <ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=119 Timbuktu — World Heritage (Unesco.org)]</ref> Its three great mosques, [[Djinguereber Mosque|Djingareyber]], [[Sankore]] and [[Sidi Yahya]], recall Timbuktu's golden age and are most threatened by the process. Although continuously restored, the sands continue to wreck a devastating effect and effects to maintain the monuments have proven ineffectual.
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==Rise of Timbuktu==
  
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==Rise of Timbuktu==
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[[Image:ML-Tombouctou.png|right|thumb|250px|Location of Timbuktu in Mali]]
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{{islam}}
 
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[[Image:ML-Tombouctou.png|right|225px|Location of Timbuktu in Mali]]
 
  
 
===Origins===
 
===Origins===
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Timbuktu was established by the nomadic [[Tuareg]] perhaps as early as the tenth century along the caravan routes that connected the southern coast of [[West Africa]] with the trans-Saharan trade. While conveniently located for trade, the geographic location of Timbuktu left it vulnerable to attacks from Tuareg raiders from the Sahara. The constant attacks and threats of invasion prevented Timbuktu from growing into a political center, hindrances that were not shared by neighboring [[Gao]]. While Gao grew into a political capital, Timbuktu was never considered safe enough to establish it as a stable community.
  
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Timbuktu was established by the nomadic [[Tuareg]] perhaps as early as the [[10th century]].  According to a popular [[etymology]] its name is made up of: ''tin'' which means « place » and ''buktu'', the name of an old Malian woman known for her honesty and who once upon a time lived in the region. [[Tuareg]] and other travelers would entrust this woman with any belongings for which they had no use on their return trip to the north. Thus, when a Tuareg, upon returning to his home, was asked where he had left his belongings, he would answer: «I left them at Tin Buktu », meaning the place where dame [[Buktu]] lived. The two terms ended up fusing into one word, thus giving the city the name of ''Tinbuktu'' which later became ''Timbuktu''. However, the French orientalist René Basset forwarded a more plausible translation: in the Berber languages "buqt" means ""far away", so "Tin-Buqt(u)" means a place almost at the other end of the world, resp. the Sahara.
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Over the long history of Timbuktu the geographical weakness of the city led it to be conquered by the [[Mali Empire]], the [[Songhai Empire]], the Tuareg, and the [[Fulani]] before being subdued by French colonial invaders in 1893.  
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[http://www.isesco.org.ma/Capitales2006/Tombouktu/ENG/P1.htm]
 
  
 
===Timbuktu as a Trading Center===
 
===Timbuktu as a Trading Center===
  
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Like its predecessor, [[Tiraqqa]], a neighboring trading city of the [[Wangara]], Timbuktu grew to great wealth because of its key role in [[trans-Saharan trade]] in [[gold]], [[ivory]], [[Islamic slave trade|slave]]s, [[salt]] and other goods by the Tuareg, [[Mandé]] and [[Fula people|Fulani]] merchants, transferring goods from [[Caravan (travelers)|caravan]]s coming from the Islamic north to boats on the Niger. Thus if the Sahara functioned as a sea, Timbuktu was a major port. It became a key city in several successive empires: the [[Ghana Empire]], the [[Mali Empire]] from [[1324]], and the [[Songhai Empire]] from [[1468]], the second occupations beginning when the empires overthrew Tuareg leaders who had regained control. It reached its peak in the early [[16th century]], but its capture in 1591 by a band of Moroccan adventurers was not the start so much as a symptom of the crumbling of the ancient economy with [[Portugal|Portuguese]] goods that came instead from the river's mouth (Braudel pp 434&ndash;35).
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Like its predecessor, [[Tiraqqa]] (a neighboring trading city of the [[Wangara]]), Timbuktu became immensely wealthy due to its role in the traffic of [[gold]], [[ivory]], [[slave]]s, and [[salt]]. These goods originated mainly from the Tuareg, [[Mandé]] and [[Fulani]] merchants in the north who used Timbuktu as a stepping stone to connect to the southern coast of West Africa. After stopping in Timbuktu and trading with other merchants, traders would transfer their [[Sahara]]n goods to boats on the [[Niger River]]. Eventually these boats were destined for larger ports, including major coastal trading ports where European traders purchased goods to take back to their home countries.  
  
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The leaders of the Songhai kingdom (also spelled [[Songhay]]) began expanding their domain along the Niger River. Like the kingdoms of Ghana and Mali that flourished in the region in earlier centuries, Songhai grew powerful because of its control of local trade routes. Timbuktu would soon become the heart of the mighty Songhai Empire. It became wealthy because many merchants traveled trade routes that went through it.
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Timbuktu's prime trade position made it an obvious target for West African empires seeking to expand their wealth or control over the trade routes. While Timbuktu's history is punctuated by repeated attacks, and it often fell victim to conquering armies, it maintained its position as a trading center despite the political entity that held it in thrall. For example, it retained its status as a key city in the [[Ghana Empire]], the [[Mali Empire]] from 1324, and the [[Songhai Empire]] from 1468. Under Songhai rule Timbuktu dramatically increased its wealth, and set itself on the road toward reaching its height in the sixteenth century. The eventual decline of the city, while due in some part to its military losses at the hands of [[Morocco|Moroccan]] adventurers in 1591, can be primarily traced to the influx of Portuguese goods into the West African trading system. By choosing to send goods to the Niger River's mouth instead of up the river, Portuguese traders bypassed Timbuktu leading to the deterioration of the city's economic authority.  
  
 
===Timbuktu as an Intellectual Center===
 
===Timbuktu as an Intellectual Center===
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[[Image:Timbuktu Mosque Sankore.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Sankore Mosque]]]]
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[[Image:Medersa Sankore.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Sankore Madrasah]]]]
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[[Image:Timbuktu map 1855.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Map from 1855]]
  
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[[Image:Timbuktu Mosque Sankore.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Sankore Mosque]]]]
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Timbuktu, while a prominent trading center, also gained recognition in the early fifteenth century as a center for intellectual and religious study. The physical history of the intellectual past of Timbuktu is found in the many [[mosque]]s and other Islamic institutions that can be found throughout the city. The most famous of these is the Sankore Mosque, also known as the University of Sankore. While [[Islam]] was the prominent [[religion]] in the city, the majority of the rural population were non-Muslim traditionalists.
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During the early 15th century, a number of Islamic institutions were erected. The most famous of these is the Sankore mosque, also known as the University of Sankore.
 
  
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While Islam was practiced in the cities, the local rural majority were non-Muslim traditionalists. Often the leaders were nominal Muslims in the interest of economic advancement while the masses were traditionalists.
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===== University of Sankore =====
  
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===== University of Sankore =====
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The most prominent of the Islamic institutions of Timbuktu, the University of Sankore, was established in 1581 C.E. Considered Timbukto's center of Islamic study, it was built on the remains of an older site, which [[archaeology|archaeologists]] date to the thirteenth or fourteenth century. It exhibited a dramatically different structure than contemporary [[Europe]]an universities and consisted of multiple, entirely independent colleges, as opposed to the European idea of a single college at a university. Students at Sankore dedicated themselves to individualized study under one single teacher, and often attended courses in the open courtyards of mosque complexes or private residences. Due to the religious affiliation of the university, most instruction focused on teaching the [[Qur'an]], although broader instruction in fields such as [[logic]], [[astronomy]], and [[history]] also took place. As part of their education, students were expected to write books based upon their research, the profits of which were second only to the gold-salt trade. The most famous scholar of Sankore was [[Ahmed Baba]]&mdash;a highly distinguished historian frequently quoted in the [[Tarikh-es-Sudan]] and other works.
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{{main|Sankore University}}
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[[Image:Medersa Sankore.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Sankore Madrasah]]]]
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=====The Libraries of Timbuktu=====
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Sankore, as it stands now, was built in 1581 AD (= 989 A. H.) on a much older site (probably from the 13th or 14th century)and became the center of the Islamic scholarly community in Timbuktu. The "University of Sankore" was a [[madrassah]], very different in organization from the [[Medieval university|universities of medieval Europe]]. It was composed of several entirely independent schools or colleges, each run by a single master or [[imam]]. Students associated themselves with a single teacher, and courses took place in the open courtyards of mosque complexes or private residences. The primary focus of these schools was the teaching of the [[Qur'an]], although broader instruction in fields such as logic, astronomy, and history also took place. Scholars wrote their own books as part of a socioeconomic model based on scholarship. The profit made by buying and selling of books was only second to the gold-salt trade. Among the most formidable scholars, professors and lecturers was [[Ahmed Baba]] &ndash; a highly distinguished historian frequently quoted in the [[Tarikh-es-Sudan]] and other works.
 
  
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=====The Library of Timbuktu=====
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The historical importance of Timbuktu was preserved for posterity through a system of libraries that cross the city and West Africa in general. Among the libraries that play a vital role in preserving the history of Timbuktu are: Institute des Hautes Etudes et de Recherche Islamique—Ahmed Baba, Timbuktu, Mamma Haidara Library, Fondo Kati Library, Al-Wangari Library, and Mohamed Tahar Library. Considered part of the [[African Ink Road]] that connects West Africa to [[North Africa]] and [[East Africa]], these libraries are just a few of the 120 libraries that previously existed in Timbuktu and the surrounding areas.  
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[[Image:Timbuktu map 1855.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Map from 1855]]
 
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The collection of ancient manuscripts at the University of Sankore and other sites around Timbuktu document the magnificence of the institution, as well as the city itself, while enabling scholars to reconstruct the past in fairly intimate detail. Dating from the 16th to the 18th centuries, these manuscripts cover every aspect of human endeavor and are indicative of the high level of civilization attained by West Africans at the time. In testament to the glory of Timbuktu, for example, a West [[African]] Islamic proverb states that "Salt comes from the north, gold from the south, but the word of God and the treasures of wisdom come from Timbuktu." 
 
  
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Among the libraries which have been preserving these manuscripts are: Institut des Hautes Etudes et de Recherche Islamique — Ahmed Baba, Timbuktu; Mamma Haidara Library; Fondo Kati Library; Al-Wangari Library; and Mohamed Tahar Library. These libraries are considered part of the "[[African Ink Road]]" that stretched from West Africa connecting North Africa and East Africa. At one time there were 120 libraries with manuscripts in Timbuktu and surrounding areas. There are more than one million objects preserved in Mali with an additional 20 million in other parts of Africa, the largest concentration of which is in [[Sokoto]], [[Nigeria]], although the full extent of the manuscripts is unknown. During the colonial era efforts were made to conceal the documents after a number of entire libraries were taken to [[Paris]], [[London]] and other parts of Europe. Some manuscripts were buried underground, while others were hidden in the desert or in caves. Many are still hidden today. The United States [[Library of Congress]] [[microfilm]]ed a sampling of the manuscripts during an exhibition there in June 2003.
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The manuscripts housed in Timbuktu's libraries document all aspects of daily life and cover all aspects of human endeavor. As a historical source, the Timbuktu manuscripts have proven particularly valuable due to their detailed historical documents. Over one million objects have been preserved through the library system, most of which are found in Sokoto, [[Nigeria]]. The complete extent of the collections is not known, however, as many documents and artifacts were hidden after colonialists removed complete libraries to [[Paris]], [[London]] and other parts of Europe. It is believed that there are still many hidden libraries that have not been discovered.  
  
 
===Timbuktu as a Mythical City===
 
===Timbuktu as a Mythical City===
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[[Image:Tombouctou sign.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A sign in the [[Sahara]] about the distance to Timbuktu in [[Caravan (travellers)|caravan]]]]
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Tales of Timbuktu's fabulous wealth helped prompt European exploration of the west coast of Africa. Exploration of Timbuktu was often motivated by outrageous tales of wealth that glossed over the reality of the city and cemented its reputation as a mythical land of wealth. Among the earliest descriptions of Timbuktu are those of [[Leo Africanus]] and [[Shabeni]].  
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Tales of Timbuktu's fabulous wealth helped prompt European [[exploration]] of the west coast of Africa. Among the earliest descriptions of Timbuktu are those of [[Leo Africanus]], [[Ibn Battuta]] and [[Shabeni]].  
 
  
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The place name is said to come from a Tuareg woman named Buktu who dug a well in the area where the city stands today; hence "Timbuktu", which means "Buktu's well".
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=====Leo Africanus =====
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Leo Africanus is possibly the most famous author to describe life in the fabled city of Timbuktu. He first came to the city in 1512, while the Songhai Empire was at its peak and exercised control over the city.  
  
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=====Leo Africanus =====
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He described the wealth of the city thus:  
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Perhaps most famous among the tales written about Timbuktu is that by [[Leo Africanus]]. As a captured renegade who later converted back to Islam from Christianity, following a trip in 1512, when the [[Songhai Empire|Songhai empire]] was at its height he wrote the following:  
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<blockquote> The rich king of Tombuto hath many plates and sceptres of gold, some whereof weigh 1300 pounds... He hath always 3000 horsemen... (and) a great store of doctors, judges, priests, and other learned men, that are bountifully maintained at the king's expense.<ref> Jim Mann Taylor, [http://www.manntaylor.com/battuta.html Ibn Battuta and his Saharan Travels], ''153 Club''. Retrieved July 8, 2007.</ref></blockquote>  
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<blockquote> The rich king of Tombuto hath many plates and sceptres of gold, some whereof weigh 1300 pounds. ... He hath always 3000 horsemen ... (and) a great store of doctors, judges, priests, and other learned men, that are bountifully maintained at the king's expense. <ref>[http://www.manntaylor.com/battuta.html "Ibn Battuta and his Saharan Travels"] 153 Club</ref></blockquote>  
 
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At the time of Leo Africanus' visit, grass was abundant, providing plentiful milk and butter in the local cuisine, though there were neither gardens nor orchards surrounding the city.
 
  
 
=====Shabeni =====
 
=====Shabeni =====
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[[Shabeni]] was a merchant from [[Tetuan]] who was captured and ended up in [[England]] where he told his story of how as a child of 14, around 1787, he had gone with his father to Timbuktu. A version of his story is related by [[James Grey Jackson]] in his book ''An Account of Timbuctoo and [[Hausa people|Hausa]]'', 1820:  
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<blockquote>On the east side of the city of Timbuctoo, there is a large forest, in which are a great many [[elephant]]s. The timber here is very large. The trees on the outside of the forest are remarkable...they are of such a size that the largest cannot be girded by two men. They bear a kind of berry about the size of a walnut, in clusters consisting of from ten to twenty berries. Shabeeny cannot say what is the extent of this forest, but it is very large.</blockquote>
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[[Shabeni]] visited Timbuktu as a 14 year old around 1787 with his father. Raised in [[Tetuan]] to become a merchant, he was captured and spent his adult life in [[England]].  
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A version of his story is related by James Grey Jackson in his book ''An Account of Timbuctoo and Hausa'', 1820:  
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<blockquote>On the east side of the city of Timbuctoo, there is a large forest, in which are a great many elephants. The timber here is very large. The trees on the outside of the forest are remarkable...they are of such a size that the largest cannot be girded by two men. They bear a kind of berry about the size of a walnut, in clusters consisting of from ten to twenty berries. Shabeeny cannot say what is the extent of this forest, but it is very large.</blockquote>
  
 
==Decline of Timbuktu==
 
==Decline of Timbuktu==
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The city began to decline after explorers and slavers from [[Portugal]] and then other European countries landed in West Africa, providing an alternative to the slave market of Timbuktu and the [[trade route]] through the world's largest desert. The decline was hastened when it was invaded by [[Morisco]] mercenaries armed with European-style guns in the service of the [[Morocco|Moroccan]] sultan in 1591.
 
  
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In 1824, the Paris-based [[Société de Géographie]] offered a 10,000 franc prize to the first non-[[Muslim]] to reach the town and return with information about it. The Scot [[Alexander Gordon Laing|Gordon Laing]] arrived in September 1826 but was killed shortly after by local Muslims who were fearful of European discovery and intervention. The Frenchman [[René Caillié]] arrived in 1828 traveling alone disguised as Muslim; he was able to safely return and claim the prize.
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The decline of Timbuktu began with the influx of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] traders, who undercut the importance of Timbuktu on the [[Niger River]] by using the mouth of the river as a trading location. The destruction of Timbuktu was cemented with the invasion of Morisco mercenaries armed with European-style guns in the service of the [[Morocco|Moroccan]] sultan in 1591. The military invasion was the final blow to an already deteriorating nation.
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[[Image:Barth-Haus.jpg|left|225px|thumbnail|Heinrich Barth's house in Timbuktu (in summer 1908 before its collapse)]]
 
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[[Robert Adams (explorer)|Robert Adams]], an African-American sailor, claimed to have visited the city in 1811 as a slave after his ship wrecked off the African coast.<ref>Calhoun, Warren Glenn; ''From Here to Timbuktu'', p. 273 ISBN 0-7388-4222-2</ref> He later gave an account to the [[United Kingdom|British]] counsel in [[Tangier]], [[Morocco]] in 1813. He published his account in an 1816 book, ''The Narrative of Robert Adams, a Barbary Captive'' (still in print as of 2006), but doubts remain about his account. Only three other Europeans reached the city before 1890: [[Heinrich Barth]] in 1853 and the German [[Oskar Lenz]] with the Spanish [[Cristobal Benítez]] in 1880.
 
  
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In the 1990s, Timbuktu came under attack from Tuareg people hoping to build their own state. The [[Tuareg Rebellion]] was symbolically ended with a burning of [[weapon]]s in the town in [[1996]].
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==Timbuktu today==
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[[Image:Timbuktu Caille House Street Scene.jpg|thumb|left|260px|Street Scene - Caille House]]
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[[Image:Timbuktu Street Scene 1.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Street Scene - Children]]
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[[Image:Street Timbuktu Mali Africa 2000.jpg|thumb|right|260px|A typical street scene in Timbuktu, with omnipresent bread-baking ovens.]]
  
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==Timbuktu today==
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Despite its history of auspicious wealth, modern day Timbuktu is a deeply impoverished city. While the city offers few economic attractions, it still attracts visitors based on its mythical status and fabled existence. The image of the city as mysterious or mythical has survived to the present day in other countries: a poll among young [[Great Britain|Briton]]s in 2006 found 34 percent did not believe the town existed, while the other 66 percent considered it "a mythical place".<ref> ''BBC News''. October 18, 2006. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6062360.stm Search on for Timbuktu's twin] Retrieved July 8, 2007. </ref>
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[[Image:Timbuktu Caille House Street Scene.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Street Scene - Caille House]]
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[[Image:Timbuktu Street Scene 1.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Street Scene - Children]]
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The city continues to face political threats, however, and in the 1990s it came under attack from Tuareg people hoping to build their own state. The [[Tuareg Rebellion]] symbolically ended in 1996 with a burning of [[weapon]]s in the city.
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[[Image:Street Timbuktu Mali Africa 2000.jpg|thumb|right|240px|A typical street scene at Timbuktu, Mali, with omnipresent bread-baking ovens]]
 
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Today, Timbuktu is an impoverished town, although its reputation makes it a tourist attraction to the point where it even has an international [[airport]]. It is one of the eight [[regions of Mali]], and is home to the region's local governor. It is the sister city to [[Djenné]], also in Mali. The 1998 census listed its population at 31,973, up from 31,962 in the census of 1987.
 
  
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Timbuktu is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], listed since 1988. In 1990, it was added to the list of [[List of World Heritage Sites in danger|world heritage sites in danger]] due to the threat of [[desert]] sands. A program was set up to preserve the site and, in 2005; it was taken off the list of endangered sites. Timbuktu is currently (beginning 2007) a candidate in a competition to choose the [[New Seven Wonders of the World]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,452293,00.html |title=From Machu Picchu to Timbuktu — The Search for the World's Seven New Wonders |accessdate=2006-12-29 |format= |work=[[Der Spiegel]] }}</ref>
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Timbuktu is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], listed since 1988. In 1990, it was added to the list of world heritage sites in danger due to the threat of [[desert]] sands and desertification. A program was set up to preserve the historical sites of Timbuktu. In 2005, it was taken off the list of endangered sites.  
  
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Timbuktu was one of the major stops during [[Henry Louis Gates]]' [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] special "Wonders of the African World". Gates visited with Abdel Kadir Haidara, curator of the [[Mamma Haidara Library]] together with [[Ali Ould Sidi]] from the [[Cultural Mission of Mali]]. It is thanks to Gates that an [[Andrew W. Mellon Foundation|Andrew Mellon Foundation grant]] was obtained to finance the construction of the library's facilities, later inspiring the work of the [[Timbuktu Manuscripts Project]]. Unfortunately, no practising book artists exist in Timbuktu although cultural memory of book artisans is still alive, catering to the tourist trade. The town is home to an institute dedicated to preserving historic documents from the region, in addition to two small museums (one of them the house in which the great German explorer Heinrich Barth spent six months in 1853-54), and the symbolic ''Flame of Peace'' monument commemorating the reconciliation between the Tuareg and the government of Mali.
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Timbuktu was a major stop on Henry Louis Gates' PBS special "Wonders of the African World." After visiting with the curators of the [[Mamma Haidara Library]] and the [[Cultural Mission of Mali]], he was instrumental in obtaining funding (from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation) to finance the construction of the library's facilities, later inspiring the work of the [[Timbuktu Manuscripts Project]].  
  
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The image of the city as mysterious or mythical has survived to the present day in other countries: a poll among young [[Great Britain|Briton]]s in 2006 found 34% did not believe the town existed, while the other 66% considered it "a mythical place".<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6062360.stm "Search on for Timbuktu's twin"] BBC News, 18 October 2006. Retrieved 28 March 2007</ref>
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Timbuktu is home to an institute dedicated to preserving historic documents from the region, in addition to two small museums (one of them the house in which the great German explorer [[Heinrich Barth]] spent six months in 1853-54), and the symbolic ''Flame of Peace'' monument commemorating the reconciliation between the [[Tuareg]] and the government of [[Mali]].
  
 
===Attractions===
 
===Attractions===
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Timbuktu's [[vernacular architecture]] is marked by mud [[mosque]]s, which are said to have inspired [[Antoni Gaudí]]. These include  
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Timbuktu's main attractions are the intellectual and religious centers that have existed in the cities for centuries. The most prominent of the Islamic sites are the proliferate mud [[mosque]]s, which are said to have inspired [[Antoni Gaudí]]. These include:
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* [[Djinguereber Mosque]], built in 1327 by [[El Saheli]]
 
* [[Djinguereber Mosque]], built in 1327 by [[El Saheli]]
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* ''Sankore Mosque'', also known as [[Sankore University]], built in the early [[fifteenth century]]
+
* ''Sankore Mosque'', also known as [[Sankore University]], built in the early fifteenth century
 
* [[Sidi Yahya]] mosque, built in the 1441 by [[Mohamed Naddah]].  
 
* [[Sidi Yahya]] mosque, built in the 1441 by [[Mohamed Naddah]].  
−
* From 2008, NUON will set up their EDM headquarters in Timbuktu, to be headed by [[André Koelewijn]]. {{fact|date=May 2007}}
 
  
 
Other attractions include a [[museum]], terraced gardens and a [[water tower]].
 
Other attractions include a [[museum]], terraced gardens and a [[water tower]].
  
−
<gallery>
+
===Language===
−
Image:Timbuktu Street Scene with Sankore Mosque.jpg|Street Scene with Sankore Mosque
 
−
Image:Timbuktu Street Scene 2.jpg|Street Scene
 
−
Image:Timbuktu Street Scene 3.jpg|Street Market
 
−
Image:Sahara Desert Tribal Camp.jpg|Sahara Desert Tribal Camp
 
−
Image:Timbuktu_cemetery.jpg|Cemetery
 
  
−
</gallery>
+
The main language of Timbuktu is [[Koyra Chiini language|Koyra Chiini]], a variety of Songhai languages spoken by over 80 percent of its residents. Some smaller population groups speak [[Hassaniya]] Arabic and [[Tuareg languages|Tamashek]].
  
−
===Language===
+
===Famous people connected with Timbuktu===
−
The main language of Timbuktu is a [[Songhay languages|Songhay]] variety termed [[Koyra Chiini language|Koyra Chiini]], spoken by over 80% of residents. Smaller groups, numbering 10% each before many were expelled during the Tuareg/Arab rebellion of 1990-1994, speak [[Hassaniya]] Arabic and [[Tuareg languages|Tamashek]].
 
  
−
===Famous people connected with Timbuktu===
+
* [[Ali Farka Toure]] (1939–2006) Born in Timbuktu.<ref> ''BBC News''. March 7, 2006. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4782176.stm African star Ali Farka Toure dies] Retrieved July 8, 2007.</ref>
−
* [[Ali Farka Toure]] (1939–2006) Born in Timbuktu.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4782176.stm "African star Ali Farka Toure dies"] BBC News, 7 March 2006. Retrieved 7 March 2006</ref>
+
* [[Heinrich Barth]] (1821-1865) German traveler and scholar and the first European to investigate into African history.
−
* [[Heinrich Barth]] (1821-1865) German traveller and scholar and the first European to investigate into African history
+
* [[Peter de Neumann|Bernard Peter de Neumann, GM]] (1917–1972) "The Man From Timbuctoo."<ref> ''The Daily Express''. February 10, 1943. Front Page: ''The Man From Timbuctoo''.</ref> Held prisoner of war there along with other members of the crew of the ''Criton'' during 1941-1942.
−
* [[Peter de Neumann|Bernard Peter de Neumann, GM]] (1917–1972) "The Man From Timbuctoo".<ref>The Daily Express, 10 February 1943. Front Page: ''The Man From Timbuctoo''</ref>   Held prisoner of war there along with other members of the crew of the ''Criton'' during 1941-1942.
 
  
 
===Sister cities===
 
===Sister cities===
−
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Chemnitz]], [[Germany]]
+
 
 +
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - Chemnitz, [[Germany]]
 
* {{flagicon|Wales}} - Y Gelli Gandryll ([[Hay-on-Wye]]), [[Wales]]
 
* {{flagicon|Wales}} - Y Gelli Gandryll ([[Hay-on-Wye]]), [[Wales]]
−
* {{flagicon|Tunisia}} - [[Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]]
+
* {{flagicon|Tunisia}} - Kairouan, [[Tunisia]]
−
* {{flagicon|Morocco}} - [[Marrakech]], [[Morocco]]
+
* {{flagicon|Morocco}} - Marrakech, [[Morocco]]
 
*[[Liopolis]]
 
*[[Liopolis]]
−
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Saintes]], [[France]]
+
* {{flagicon|France}} - Saintes, [[France]]
−
* {{flagicon|Arizona}} - {{flagicon|United States}} - [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Arizona]], [[United States]]<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6062360.stm "Search on for Timbuktu's twin"] BBC News, 18 October 2006. Retrieved 28 March 2007</ref>
+
* {{flagicon|Arizona}} - {{flagicon|United States}} - Tempe, [[Arizona]], [[United States]] <ref> ''BBC News''. October 18, 2006. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6062360.stm Search on for Timbuktu's twin] Retrieved July 8, 2007.</ref>
 +
 
 +
=== Photo Gallery===
 +
<gallery>
 +
Image:Timbuktu Street Scene with Sankore Mosque.jpg|Street Scene with Sankore Mosque
 +
Image:Timbuktu Street Scene 2.jpg|Street Scene
 +
Image:Timbuktu Street Scene 3.jpg|Street Market
 +
Image:Timbuktu_cemetery.jpg|Cemetery
 +
</gallery>
  
−
==See also==
+
==Notes==
−
* [[Timbuktu Manuscripts Project]]
+
{{reflist}}
  
−
== Sources and Further reading ==
+
== References and further reading ==
−
* Braudel, Fernand. 1984. ''The perspective of the world''. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0060153172 and ISBN 9780060153175
+
* Auster, Paul. 1999. ''Timbuktu: a novel''. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0805054073
−
* Auster, Paul. 1999. ''Timbuktu: a novel''. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0805054073 and ISBN 9780805054071
+
* Braudel, Fernand. 1984. ''The perspective of the world''. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0060153172
−
* Smith, David N. 1983. ''Timbuktu''. New York: Dodd, Mead. ISBN 0396082327 and ISBN 9780396082323
+
* Davidson, Basil. 1998. ''West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850''. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0582318521
−
* Jenkins, Mark. 1997. To Timbuktu. New York: W. Morrow. ISBN 0688115853 and ISBN 9780688115852
+
* Jenkins, Mark. 1997. ''To Timbuktu''. New York: W. Morrow. ISBN 0688115853
 +
* Smith, David N. 1983. ''Timbuktu''. New York: Dodd, Mead. ISBN 0396082327
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
* [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_2/leo_africanus.html Leo Africanus: Description of Timbuktu]. ''Washington State University''. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
+
All links retrieved April 30, 2023.
−
* [http://www.manntaylor.com/shabeni.html Shabeni's Description of Timbuktu]. ''The 153 Club''. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
+
* ''The Road to Timbuktu''. [http://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi5/5_wondr6.htm Wonders: Sankore Mosque]
−
* [http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=508 Trekking to Timbuktu—Student Version]. ''National Endowment for the Humanities''. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
+
* Pearce, Justin. October 3, 2005. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4304922.stm Saving Mali's written treasures] ''British Broadcasting Corporation''
−
* [http://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi5/5_wondr6.htm Wonders: Sankore Mosque]. ''The Road to Timbuktu''. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
+
* ''Library of Congress''. [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mali/ Ancient Manuscripts from the Desert Libraries of Timbuktu]
−
* Rashidi, Runoko. [http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/timbuktu.html The Great University of Sankore at Timbuktu a Brief Note]. ''The Global African Presence''. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
 
−
* [http://www.sum.uio.no/research/mali/timbuktu/libraries.html The Timbuktu Libraries]. ''Libraries of Timbuktu''. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
 
−
* Pearce, Justin. October 3, 2005. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4304922.stm Saving Mali's written treasures]. ''British Broadcasting Coorporation''. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
 
−
* [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mali/ Ancient Manuscripts from the Desert Libraries of Timbuktu]. ''Library of Congress''. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
 
−
* Hammer, Joshua. [http://www.smithsonianmagazine.org/issues/2006/december/timbuktu.php The Treasures of Timbuktu]. ''Smithsonian''. Retrieved June 21, 2007.
 
 
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{{Geolinks-cityscale|16.7759|-3.0094}}
  
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==Notes and references==
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{{reflist}}
 
  
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[[Category:Nations and places]]
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[[Category:Geography]]
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[[Category:History and biography]]
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[[Category:History]]
 
[[Category:Africa]]
 
[[Category:Africa]]
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[[Category:Ancient cities]]
 
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Latest revision as of 23:36, 30 April 2023

Timbuktu*
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Djinguereber Mosque
State Party Flag of Mali Mali
Type Cultural
Criteria ii, iv, v
Reference 119
Region** Africa
Inscription history
Inscription 1988  (12th Session)
Endangered 1990-2005
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.
** Region as classified by UNESCO.

Founded perhaps as early as the tenth century, Timbuktu is an African city in the modern day nation of Mali. Occupying a strategic location in the Sahara, it served as a convenient meeting place for neighboring civilizations, nomadic Berber and Arab peoples from the north. A premier trading center for West Africa that often attracted European traders, it continues to serve as an entrepot for rock-salt from Taoudenni.

Timbuktu was the center of significant written tradition on the African continent, when by the fourteenth century they had established a system for the writing and copying of important books. It is remembered as well for its contributions to Islamic scholarship and is home to the prestigious Qur'anic Sankore University and other madrasas, reminiscent of its heritage as an intellectual and spiritual capital of Islamic West Africa in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Its three great mosques—Djingareyber, Sankore and Sidi Yahya—recall Timbuktu's golden age.

The city had acquired a mythical status in the West due to its extensive trade in gold and other commodities; it is still believed by some to be a mythical place, rather than an actual city. In contemporary times, Timbuktu is populated by Songhai, Tuareg, Fulani, and Mandé people.

Timbuktu's historical monuments are being threatened by a process called desertification, wherein the harsh winds off the Sahara drive sand against them. Although continuously restored, the sands continue to wreak a devastating effect; efforts to maintain the monuments have proven ineffectual.[1]

Rise of Timbuktu

Location of Timbuktu in Mali

Origins

Timbuktu was established by the nomadic Tuareg perhaps as early as the tenth century along the caravan routes that connected the southern coast of West Africa with the trans-Saharan trade. While conveniently located for trade, the geographic location of Timbuktu left it vulnerable to attacks from Tuareg raiders from the Sahara. The constant attacks and threats of invasion prevented Timbuktu from growing into a political center, hindrances that were not shared by neighboring Gao. While Gao grew into a political capital, Timbuktu was never considered safe enough to establish it as a stable community.

Over the long history of Timbuktu the geographical weakness of the city led it to be conquered by the Mali Empire, the Songhai Empire, the Tuareg, and the Fulani before being subdued by French colonial invaders in 1893.

Timbuktu as a Trading Center

Like its predecessor, Tiraqqa (a neighboring trading city of the Wangara), Timbuktu became immensely wealthy due to its role in the traffic of gold, ivory, slaves, and salt. These goods originated mainly from the Tuareg, Mandé and Fulani merchants in the north who used Timbuktu as a stepping stone to connect to the southern coast of West Africa. After stopping in Timbuktu and trading with other merchants, traders would transfer their Saharan goods to boats on the Niger River. Eventually these boats were destined for larger ports, including major coastal trading ports where European traders purchased goods to take back to their home countries.

Timbuktu's prime trade position made it an obvious target for West African empires seeking to expand their wealth or control over the trade routes. While Timbuktu's history is punctuated by repeated attacks, and it often fell victim to conquering armies, it maintained its position as a trading center despite the political entity that held it in thrall. For example, it retained its status as a key city in the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire from 1324, and the Songhai Empire from 1468. Under Songhai rule Timbuktu dramatically increased its wealth, and set itself on the road toward reaching its height in the sixteenth century. The eventual decline of the city, while due in some part to its military losses at the hands of Moroccan adventurers in 1591, can be primarily traced to the influx of Portuguese goods into the West African trading system. By choosing to send goods to the Niger River's mouth instead of up the river, Portuguese traders bypassed Timbuktu leading to the deterioration of the city's economic authority.

Timbuktu as an Intellectual Center

Sankore Mosque
Sankore Madrasah
Map from 1855

Timbuktu, while a prominent trading center, also gained recognition in the early fifteenth century as a center for intellectual and religious study. The physical history of the intellectual past of Timbuktu is found in the many mosques and other Islamic institutions that can be found throughout the city. The most famous of these is the Sankore Mosque, also known as the University of Sankore. While Islam was the prominent religion in the city, the majority of the rural population were non-Muslim traditionalists.

University of Sankore

The most prominent of the Islamic institutions of Timbuktu, the University of Sankore, was established in 1581 C.E. Considered Timbukto's center of Islamic study, it was built on the remains of an older site, which archaeologists date to the thirteenth or fourteenth century. It exhibited a dramatically different structure than contemporary European universities and consisted of multiple, entirely independent colleges, as opposed to the European idea of a single college at a university. Students at Sankore dedicated themselves to individualized study under one single teacher, and often attended courses in the open courtyards of mosque complexes or private residences. Due to the religious affiliation of the university, most instruction focused on teaching the Qur'an, although broader instruction in fields such as logic, astronomy, and history also took place. As part of their education, students were expected to write books based upon their research, the profits of which were second only to the gold-salt trade. The most famous scholar of Sankore was Ahmed Baba—a highly distinguished historian frequently quoted in the Tarikh-es-Sudan and other works.

The Libraries of Timbuktu

The historical importance of Timbuktu was preserved for posterity through a system of libraries that cross the city and West Africa in general. Among the libraries that play a vital role in preserving the history of Timbuktu are: Institute des Hautes Etudes et de Recherche Islamique—Ahmed Baba, Timbuktu, Mamma Haidara Library, Fondo Kati Library, Al-Wangari Library, and Mohamed Tahar Library. Considered part of the African Ink Road that connects West Africa to North Africa and East Africa, these libraries are just a few of the 120 libraries that previously existed in Timbuktu and the surrounding areas.

The manuscripts housed in Timbuktu's libraries document all aspects of daily life and cover all aspects of human endeavor. As a historical source, the Timbuktu manuscripts have proven particularly valuable due to their detailed historical documents. Over one million objects have been preserved through the library system, most of which are found in Sokoto, Nigeria. The complete extent of the collections is not known, however, as many documents and artifacts were hidden after colonialists removed complete libraries to Paris, London and other parts of Europe. It is believed that there are still many hidden libraries that have not been discovered.

Timbuktu as a Mythical City

Tales of Timbuktu's fabulous wealth helped prompt European exploration of the west coast of Africa. Exploration of Timbuktu was often motivated by outrageous tales of wealth that glossed over the reality of the city and cemented its reputation as a mythical land of wealth. Among the earliest descriptions of Timbuktu are those of Leo Africanus and Shabeni.

Leo Africanus

Leo Africanus is possibly the most famous author to describe life in the fabled city of Timbuktu. He first came to the city in 1512, while the Songhai Empire was at its peak and exercised control over the city.

He described the wealth of the city thus:

The rich king of Tombuto hath many plates and sceptres of gold, some whereof weigh 1300 pounds... He hath always 3000 horsemen... (and) a great store of doctors, judges, priests, and other learned men, that are bountifully maintained at the king's expense.[2]

Shabeni

Shabeni visited Timbuktu as a 14 year old around 1787 with his father. Raised in Tetuan to become a merchant, he was captured and spent his adult life in England.

A version of his story is related by James Grey Jackson in his book An Account of Timbuctoo and Hausa, 1820:

On the east side of the city of Timbuctoo, there is a large forest, in which are a great many elephants. The timber here is very large. The trees on the outside of the forest are remarkable...they are of such a size that the largest cannot be girded by two men. They bear a kind of berry about the size of a walnut, in clusters consisting of from ten to twenty berries. Shabeeny cannot say what is the extent of this forest, but it is very large.

Decline of Timbuktu

The decline of Timbuktu began with the influx of Portuguese traders, who undercut the importance of Timbuktu on the Niger River by using the mouth of the river as a trading location. The destruction of Timbuktu was cemented with the invasion of Morisco mercenaries armed with European-style guns in the service of the Moroccan sultan in 1591. The military invasion was the final blow to an already deteriorating nation.

Timbuktu today

Street Scene - Caille House
Street Scene - Children
A typical street scene in Timbuktu, with omnipresent bread-baking ovens.

Despite its history of auspicious wealth, modern day Timbuktu is a deeply impoverished city. While the city offers few economic attractions, it still attracts visitors based on its mythical status and fabled existence. The image of the city as mysterious or mythical has survived to the present day in other countries: a poll among young Britons in 2006 found 34 percent did not believe the town existed, while the other 66 percent considered it "a mythical place".[3]

The city continues to face political threats, however, and in the 1990s it came under attack from Tuareg people hoping to build their own state. The Tuareg Rebellion symbolically ended in 1996 with a burning of weapons in the city.

Timbuktu is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, listed since 1988. In 1990, it was added to the list of world heritage sites in danger due to the threat of desert sands and desertification. A program was set up to preserve the historical sites of Timbuktu. In 2005, it was taken off the list of endangered sites.

Timbuktu was a major stop on Henry Louis Gates' PBS special "Wonders of the African World." After visiting with the curators of the Mamma Haidara Library and the Cultural Mission of Mali, he was instrumental in obtaining funding (from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation) to finance the construction of the library's facilities, later inspiring the work of the Timbuktu Manuscripts Project.

Timbuktu is home to an institute dedicated to preserving historic documents from the region, in addition to two small museums (one of them the house in which the great German explorer Heinrich Barth spent six months in 1853-54), and the symbolic Flame of Peace monument commemorating the reconciliation between the Tuareg and the government of Mali.

Attractions

Timbuktu's main attractions are the intellectual and religious centers that have existed in the cities for centuries. The most prominent of the Islamic sites are the proliferate mud mosques, which are said to have inspired Antoni Gaudí. These include:

  • Djinguereber Mosque, built in 1327 by El Saheli
  • Sankore Mosque, also known as Sankore University, built in the early fifteenth century
  • Sidi Yahya mosque, built in the 1441 by Mohamed Naddah.

Other attractions include a museum, terraced gardens and a water tower.

Language

The main language of Timbuktu is Koyra Chiini, a variety of Songhai languages spoken by over 80 percent of its residents. Some smaller population groups speak Hassaniya Arabic and Tamashek.

Famous people connected with Timbuktu

  • Ali Farka Toure (1939–2006) Born in Timbuktu.[4]
  • Heinrich Barth (1821-1865) German traveler and scholar and the first European to investigate into African history.
  • Bernard Peter de Neumann, GM (1917–1972) "The Man From Timbuctoo."[5] Held prisoner of war there along with other members of the crew of the Criton during 1941-1942.

Sister cities

Photo Gallery

  • Street Scene with Sankore Mosque

  • Street Scene

  • Street Market

  • Cemetery

Notes

  1. ↑ UNESCO World Heritage Site. Timbuktu Retrieved July 8, 2007.
  2. ↑ Jim Mann Taylor, Ibn Battuta and his Saharan Travels, 153 Club. Retrieved July 8, 2007.
  3. ↑ BBC News. October 18, 2006. Search on for Timbuktu's twin Retrieved July 8, 2007.
  4. ↑ BBC News. March 7, 2006. African star Ali Farka Toure dies Retrieved July 8, 2007.
  5. ↑ The Daily Express. February 10, 1943. Front Page: The Man From Timbuctoo.
  6. ↑ BBC News. October 18, 2006. Search on for Timbuktu's twin Retrieved July 8, 2007.

References and further reading

  • Auster, Paul. 1999. Timbuktu: a novel. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0805054073
  • Braudel, Fernand. 1984. The perspective of the world. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0060153172
  • Davidson, Basil. 1998. West Africa Before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0582318521
  • Jenkins, Mark. 1997. To Timbuktu. New York: W. Morrow. ISBN 0688115853
  • Smith, David N. 1983. Timbuktu. New York: Dodd, Mead. ISBN 0396082327

External links

All links retrieved April 30, 2023.

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