Difference between revisions of "Suicide attack" - New World Encyclopedia

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A '''suicide attack''' is an attack on a military or civilian target, in which an attacker intends to kill others, and knows that they will either certainly or most likely die in the process. The means of attack have included vehicles filled with explosives, passenger planes carrying large amounts of fuel, and individuals wearing vests filled with explosives. Synonyms include suicide-homicide bombing, martyrdom operations, and predatory martyrdom. Strictly speaking, an attack may not be considered a suicide attack if the attacker is not killed (although they might hope and plan to be), or if there is some question as to whether their intention is to be killed (even if the attack is certain to kill them).   
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A '''suicide attack''' is an attack on a military or civilian target, in which an attacker intends to kill others, and knows that they will either certainly or most likely die in the process (see [[suicide]]). The means of attack have included vehicles filled with explosives, passenger planes carrying large amounts of fuel, and individuals wearing vests filled with explosives. Synonyms include suicide-homicide bombing, martyrdom operations, predatory martyrdom. Strictly speaking, an attack may not be considered a suicide attack if the attacker is not killed (although they might hope and plan to be), or if there is some question as to whether their intention is to be killed (even if the attack is certain to kill them).   
 
  
 
Although use of suicide attacks has occurred throughout history — with  [[Samson]]'s suicidal destruction of a [[Philistine]] temple (as recounted in the [[Book of Judges]]), the legendary [[Switzerland|Swiss]] hero [[Arnold von Winkelried]], and the Japanese [[kamikaze]] pilots of [[World War II]] — its main notoriety as a specific kind of attack has been in recent years following the success of a [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing|1983 truck bombing of two barracks buildings in Beirut]] that killed 300 and helped drive American and French [[Multinational Force in Lebanon|Multinational Force]] troops from Lebanon.
 
Although use of suicide attacks has occurred throughout history — with  [[Samson]]'s suicidal destruction of a [[Philistine]] temple (as recounted in the [[Book of Judges]]), the legendary [[Switzerland|Swiss]] hero [[Arnold von Winkelried]], and the Japanese [[kamikaze]] pilots of [[World War II]] — its main notoriety as a specific kind of attack has been in recent years following the success of a [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing|1983 truck bombing of two barracks buildings in Beirut]] that killed 300 and helped drive American and French [[Multinational Force in Lebanon|Multinational Force]] troops from Lebanon.
  
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The first modern suicide bombing &mdash; involving explosives deliberately carried to the target either on the person or in a civilian vehicle and delivered by surprise&mdash;was in 1981. It was perfected by factions of the [[Lebanese Civil War]]; spread to insurgents groups like the [[Tamil Tigers]] of [[Sri Lanka]], Palestinian groups, [[Al-Qaeda]], and by 2005 to dozens of countries where a weaker power is fighting a stronger one. Particularly hard-hit have been military and civilian targets in Sri Lanka during [[Sri Lankan Civil War]], Israeli targets in [[Israel]] since 1994, and [[Iraq]]is since the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|US-led invasion of that country in 2003]]. From 1980 to 2003, suicide attacks amounted to only 3% of all terrorist attacks but accounted for 48% of total deaths due to terrorism - this excluding [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11 attacks]]. <ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.28</ref>
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The first modern suicide bombing &mdash; involving explosives deliberately carried to the target either on the person or in a civilian vehicle and delivered by surprise&mdash;was in 1981. It was perfected by factions of the [[Lebanese Civil War]]; spread to insurgents groups like the [[Tamil Tigers]] of [[Sri Lanka]], Palestinian groups, [[Al-Qaeda]], and by 2005 to dozens of countries where a weaker power is fighting a stronger one. Particularly hard-hit have been military and civilian targets in Sri Lanka during [[Sri Lankan Civil War]], Israeli targets in [[Israel]] since 1994, and [[Iraq]]is since the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|US-led invasion of that country in 2003]]. From 1980 to 2003, suicide attacks amounted to only three percent of all terrorist attacks but accounted for 48 percent of total deaths due to terrorism - this excluding [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11 attacks]].
  
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The motivation of recent attack campaigns is a matter of much controversy, with one scholar  ([[Robert Pape]]), attributing 95% of attacks in recent times to the same strategic goal: the withdrawal of the occupying forces from a disputed territory. <ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005)</ref>
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The motivation of recent attack campaigns is a matter of much controversy, with one scholar, ([[Robert Pape]]), attributing 95 percent of attacks in recent times to the same strategic goal: the withdrawal of the occupying forces from a disputed territory. World leaders, especially those of countries that experience suicide bombings, usually express resolve to continue on their previous course of affairs after such attacks. They denounce suicide bombings and sometimes vow not to let such bombings deter ordinary people from going about their everyday economic business.
  
 
==Overview of suicide bombing==
 
==Overview of suicide bombing==
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Contemporary suicide attacks almost always involve [[explosive material]]s such as a [[bomb]] (a '''suicide bombing'''), and are often carried out with the help of vehicles.  
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Contemporary suicide attacks almost always involve [[explosive material]]s such as a [[bomb]] (a "suicide bombing"), and are often carried out with the help of vehicles. The strategic rationale may be military, political, or both; the target may be military, in which case the bombing is usually classified as an act of war, or [[civilian]], in which case it is usually considered terrorism.  
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The strategic rationale may be military, political, or both; the target may be military, in which case the bombing is usually classified as an act of war, or [[civilian]], in which case it is usually considered terrorism.  
 
  
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Military historians classify suicide bombing as a form of armed [[violence]], belonging to the tactics of [[asymmetric warfare]]—suicide bombings are only common when one side in a violent [[conflict]] lacks the means for effective, conventional attacks. The [[cost-benefit analysis]], expressed here by [[al-Qaeda]] leader [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]], is simple: "The method of [[martyrdom]] operation [is] the most successful way of inflicting damage against the opponent and the least costly to the [[mujahidin]] in terms of casualties".<ref>http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/ayman_bk.html</ref>  
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Military historians classify suicide bombing as a form of armed [[violence]], belonging to the tactics of [[asymmetric warfare]] — suicide bombings are only common when one side in a violent [[conflict]] lacks the means for effective, conventional attacks. The [[cost-benefit analysis]], expressed here by [[al-Qaeda]] leader [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]], is simple: "The method of [[martyrdom]] operation [is] the most successful way of inflicting damage against the opponent and the least costly to the [[mujahidin]] in terms of casualties".<ref>http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/ayman_bk.html</ref>  
  
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Advantages of suicide attacks include the ability to conceal weapons, make last-minute adjustments, increased ability to infiltrate heavily guarded targets, lack of need for escape plans and/or rescue teams. "Suicide attacks are an especially convincing way to signal the likelihood of more pain to come, because" if you are willing to kill yourself you are also willing to endure brutal retaliation. "... The element of suicide itself helps increase the credibility of future attacks because it suggests that attackers cannot be deterred." <ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win,'' (2005), p.28-9</ref>
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Advantages of suicide attacks include the ability to conceal weapons, make last-minute adjustments, increased ability to infiltrate heavily guarded targets, and the lack of need for escape plans and/or rescue teams. "Suicide attacks are an especially convincing way to signal the likelihood of more pain to come, because" if you are willing to kill yourself you are also willing to endure brutal retaliation. "... The element of suicide itself helps increase the credibility of future attacks because it suggests that attackers cannot be deterred." <ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win,'' (2005), p.28-9</ref>
  
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Civilians are the favored targets, being easier to attack than [[Fortification|fortified]] installations, [[armored vehicle]]s, or armed and wary [[soldier]]s. The consistent targeting of civilians, however, may call into question the [[moral]] legitimacy,  of the bomber's cause (although in some of the perpetrating group's base population, it may be thought to enhance those qualities).{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
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Civilians are the favored targets, being easier to attack than [[Fortification|fortified]] installations, [[armored vehicle]]s, or armed and wary [[soldier]]s. The consistent targeting of civilians, however, may call into question the [[moral]] legitimacy of the bomber's cause (although in some of the perpetrating group's base population, it may be thought to enhance those qualities).  
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[[Image:Londonbombing2.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The [[7 July 2005 London bombings|7th July 2005 London]] [[suicide bombers]] caught on CCTV at [[Luton]] [[train station]] at 07:21 BST on July 7, 2005. From left to right, [[Hasib Hussain]], [[Jamal Lindsay|Germaine Lindsay]], [[Mohammad Sidique Khan]], and [[Shehzad Tanweer]].<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/4689739.stm#</ref> (Image: [[Crown copyright]])]]
  
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According to Robert Pape, director of the Chicago Project on suicide terrorism and expert on suicide bombers, 95% of suicide attacks in recent times have the same specific strategic goal: to cause an occupying state to withdraw forces from a disputed territory. Pape found the targeted countries were ones were the government was democratic and public opinion played a role in determining policy. Other characteristics Pape found were a difference in religion between the attackers<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.128</ref> and the occupiers and grassroots support for the attacks.<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.92</ref>  Characteristics  thought to be correlated to suicide bombing and bombers Pape found lacking included: Islam, especially the influence of Salafi Islam;<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.110-3</ref> brutality and cruelty of the occupiers;<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.60</ref> competition among militant groups; and poverty, immaturity, poor education, past history of suicide attempts, or social maladjustment of the attackers.<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.200-216</ref>   
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According to Robert Pape, director of the Chicago Project on suicide terrorism and an expert on suicide bombers, 95 percent of suicide attacks in recent times have the same specific strategic goal: to cause an occupying state to withdraw forces from a disputed territory. Pape found the targeted countries were ones were the government was democratic and public opinion played a role in determining policy. Other characteristics Pape found were a difference in religion between the attackers<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.128</ref> and the occupiers and grassroots support for the attacks.<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.92</ref>  Characteristics  thought to be correlated to suicide bombing, and bombers Pape found lacking included: Islam, especially the influence of Salafi Islam;<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.110-3</ref> brutality and cruelty of the occupiers;<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.60</ref> competition among militant groups; and poverty, immaturity, poor education, past history of suicide attempts, or social maladjustment of the attackers.<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win'' (2005) p.200-216</ref>   
  
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Other researchers have argued that Pape's analysis of the data is fundamentally flawed, however, particularly his contention that democracies are the main targets of such attacks.<ref>Sara Jackson Wade and Dan Reiter, "Does Democracy Matter?  Regime Type and Suicide Terrorism," Journal of Conflict Resolution 51:2 (April 2007).</ref> Still others argue that perceived religious rewards in the hereafter are instrumental in encouraging some, especially Muslims, to commit suicide attacks. <ref>[http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=ia&ID=IA2500 The Shuhada Cult of Martyrdom in Islamic Jihad]</ref><ref>[http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=ia&ID=IA7401 72 Black Eyed Virgins]</ref>
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Other researchers have argued that Pape's analysis of the data is fundamentally flawed, however, particularly his contention that democracies are the main targets of such attacks.  Still others argue that perceived religious rewards in the hereafter are instrumental in encouraging some, especially Muslims, to commit suicide attacks.  
  
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Suicide operatives are overwhelmingly male in most groups, but among the Chechen rebels and the [[Kurdistan Workers Party]] (PKK) they form a majority.<ref>Pape, ''Dying to Win,'' (2005), p.209</ref>.  So too some groups use teams all or most of the time (Al-Qaeda and Chechen), and others infrequently or never (Palestinians, Lebanese, and PKK. The ritualistic communion of the [[extremist]] groups to which they belong ("lone wolf" suicide bombers are rare), in addition to their strongly-held beliefs, helps motivate their decision to commit suicide.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
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Suicide operatives are overwhelmingly male in most groups, but among the Chechen rebels and the [[Kurdistan Workers Party]] (PKK) they form a majority. So too some groups use teams all or most of the time (Al-Qaeda and Chechen), and others infrequently or never (Palestinians, Lebanese, and PKK. The ritualistic communion of the [[extremist]] groups to which they belong ("lone wolf" suicide bombers are rare), in addition to their strongly-held beliefs, helps motivate their decision to commit suicide.
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{{suicide}}
 
  
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Responses and reactions to the suicide bombing are mixed, so that a full assessment of the action's impact &mdash; especially whether it helped or hindered the cause in whose name it was carried out &mdash; is difficult. The public response of politicians is usually one of determination and condemnation. Military and [[law enforcement]] are [[Mobilization|mobilized]] to disrupt or destroy the organization which planned the attack. The root cause of the violence is often obfuscated by the occupying power in order to avoid discussion of the military occupation that evokes the violent countermeasures. Often the bomber is portrayed as irrational and motivated by blind hatred.  
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Responses and reactions to the suicide bombing are mixed, so that a full assessment of the action's impact &mdash; especially whether it helped or hindered the cause in whose name it was carried out &mdash; is difficult. The public response of politicians is usually one of determination and condemnation. Military and [[law enforcement]] are [[Mobilization|mobilized]] to disrupt or destroy the organization which planned the attack. The root cause of the violence is often obfuscated by the occupying power in order to avoid discussion of the military occupation that evokes the violent countermeasures. Often the bomber is portrayed as irrational and motivated by blind hatred.  
  
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Those who support the bomber's cause will often hold him up as a hero; for example, the [[Tamil Tigers]] in [[Sri Lanka]], publish celebratory books containing the photos of those they regard as heroic freedom fighters; [[militant]] [[Islamist]] groups like Al Qaeda, for example, make use of religious language to lionize suicide bombers, calling the bomber ''Shahid'', or 'martyr'.  
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Those who support the bomber's cause will often hold him up as a hero; for example, the [[Tamil Tigers]] in [[Sri Lanka]], publish celebratory books containing the photos of those they regard as heroic freedom fighters; [[militant]] [[Islamist]] groups like Al Qaeda, for example, make use of religious language to lionize suicide bombers, calling the bomber ''Shahid'', or "martyr."
  
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The term dates back to the 1940s, when it was used in reference to certain [[Germany|German]] and Japanese battle tactics, but did not gain its present meaning until 1981 . Various alternate terms have been used to [[Framing (social sciences)|frame]] the act differently: the Muslim use of ''shahid'' for the bomber or ''[[martyrdom operation]]'' for the bombing emphasizes the self-sacrificial aspects, while the term "homicide bombing" emphasizes the fact that the bomber kills others.
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The term dates back to the 1940s, when it was used in reference to certain [[Germany|German]] and Japanese battle tactics, but did not gain its present meaning until 1981. Various alternate terms have been used to [[Framing (social sciences)|frame]] the act differently: the Muslim use of ''shahid'' for the bomber or ''[[martyrdom operation]]'' for the bombing emphasizes the self-sacrificial aspects, while the term "homicide bombing" emphasizes the fact that the bomber kills others.
  
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In the book, ''Dead for Good: Martyrdom and the Rise of the Suicide Bomber'' (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2007), Hugh Barlow describes a new development in the long history of martyrdom, describing them as '''predatory martyrdom'''. Some individuals who now act alone are inspired by emails, radical books, the internet, various new electronic media, and a general public tolerance of extreme teachers and leaders with [[terrorist]] agendas.
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In the book, ''Dead for Good: Martyrdom and the Rise of the Suicide Bomber'' (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2007), Hugh Barlow describes a new development in the long history of martyrdom, describing it as "predatory martyrdom." Some individuals who now act alone are inspired by emails, radical books, the internet, various new electronic media, and a general public tolerance of extreme teachers and leaders with [[terrorist]] agendas.
  
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== Tactics ==
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==Tactics==
 
In the case of using explosives, a suicide attack does not require remote or delayed detonation. In the case of causing a crash, it allows human guidance of the weapon (carrying it, driving a car or boat, flying a plane, etc.) without the need for remote or automatic control as in a [[guided missile]]. Also, obviously, the attack plan does not require a plan on escaping to safety from the enemy after the attack.
 
In the case of using explosives, a suicide attack does not require remote or delayed detonation. In the case of causing a crash, it allows human guidance of the weapon (carrying it, driving a car or boat, flying a plane, etc.) without the need for remote or automatic control as in a [[guided missile]]. Also, obviously, the attack plan does not require a plan on escaping to safety from the enemy after the attack.
  
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*Suicide attack with guns: Kashmiri insurgents on the Indian Parliament in December 2001 killing 15 people.
 
*Suicide attack with guns: Kashmiri insurgents on the Indian Parliament in December 2001 killing 15 people.
  
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In some cases a nuclear attack on a nuclear power may be considered a suicide attack in the wider sense, with the attacking country being sure or almost sure of suffering many fatalities in a retaliation. See also [[mutually assured destruction]].
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In some cases, an attack on a nuclear power may be considered a suicide attack in the wider sense, with the attacking country being sure or almost sure of suffering many fatalities in a retaliation.  
  
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See also [[suicide weapon]].
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Suicide attacks usually (but not always) target poorly guarded, non-military facilities and [[personnel]]. It can be either a military tactic, a political one, or a mixture of the two. It may qualify as [[terrorism]] when the intention is to kill, maim or terrorise a predominantly civilian target population, or fall within the definition of an act of war when it is committed against a military target under war conditions.  
  
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Suicide attacks usually (but not always) target poorly-guarded, non-military facilities and [[personnel]]. It can be either a military tactic, a political one, or a mixture of the two. It may qualify as [[terrorism]] when the intention is to kill, maim or terrorise a predominantly civilian target population, or fall within the definition of an act of war when it is committed against a military target under war conditions.  
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[[Image:Explosive-belt01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Explosive belt]] of a Palestinian suicide bomber, captured by the Israeli police. Anti-terrorism [[Military intelligence|intelligence]] claims such suicide bomber [[clothing]] is designed by a person they call [[The Tailor of Death]].]]
  
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<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Explosive-belt01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Explosive belt]] of a Palestinian suicide bomber, captured by the Israeli police. Anti-terrorism [[Military intelligence|intelligence]] claims such suicide bomber [[clothing]] is designed by a person they call [[The Tailor of Death]].]] —>
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However, use against civilian targets has differing effects on their goals (see reaction below). Some [[list of economists|economists]] suggest that this tactic goes beyond symbolism and is actually a response to commodified, controlled, or [[value of life|devalued]] lives, as the suicide attackers apparently consider family prestige and financial compensation from the community as compensation for their own lives. Whether such motivation is significant as compared to political or religious feeling remains unclear.
  
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However, use against civilian targets has differing effects on their goals (see reaction below). Some [[list of economists|economists]] suggest that this tactic goes beyond symbolism and is actually a response to commodified, controlled, or [[value of life|devalued]] lives, as the suicide attackers apparently consider family prestige and financial compensation from the community as compensation for their own lives.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Whether such motivation is significant as compared to political or religious feeling remains unclear.
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The [[Military doctrine|doctrine]] of asymmetric warfare views suicide attacks as a result of an imbalance of power, in which groups with little significant power resort to suicide bombing as a convenient tactic to demoralize the targeted civilians or government leadership of their enemies. Suicide bombing may also take place as a perceived response to actions or policies of a group with greater power. Groups which have significant power have no need to resort to suicide bombing to achieve their aims; consequently, suicide bombing is overwhelmingly used by guerrilla, and other [[irregular military|irregular fighting forces]]. Among many such groups, there are religious overtones to martyrdom: attackers and their supporters may believe that their sacrifice will be rewarded in an [[afterlife]]. Suicide attackers often believe that their actions are in accordance with moral or social standards because they are aimed at fighting forces and conditions that they perceive as unjust.
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The [[Military doctrine|doctrine]] of asymmetric warfare views suicide attacks as a result of an imbalance of power, in which groups with little significant power resort to suicide bombing as a convenient tactic (see advantages noted above) to demoralize the targeted civilians or government leadership of their enemies. Suicide bombing may also take place as a perceived response to actions or policies of a group with greater power. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} Groups which have significant power have no need to resort to suicide bombing to achieve their aims; consequently, suicide bombing is overwhelmingly used by guerrilla, and other [[irregular military|irregular fighting forces]]. Among many such groups, there are religious overtones to martyrdom: attackers and their supporters may believe that their sacrifice will be rewarded in an [[afterlife]]. Suicide attackers often believe that their actions are in accordance with moral or social standards because they are aimed at fighting forces and conditions that they perceive as unjust.
 
  
 
==Profile of a bomber==
 
==Profile of a bomber==
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Some suicide bombers are educated, with [[college]] or [[university]] experience, and come from [[middle class]] homes. Most suicide bombers do not show signs of [[psychopathology]]. Indeed, leaders of the groups who perpetrate these attacks search for individuals who can be trusted to carry out the mission; those with mental illnesses are not ideal candidates.  
 
Some suicide bombers are educated, with [[college]] or [[university]] experience, and come from [[middle class]] homes. Most suicide bombers do not show signs of [[psychopathology]]. Indeed, leaders of the groups who perpetrate these attacks search for individuals who can be trusted to carry out the mission; those with mental illnesses are not ideal candidates.  
  
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===Rationale===
 
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{{bias}}
 
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Much of the discourse that frames or responds to suicide bombing addresses or attempts to uncover the rationality of the action itself.  Generally, the suicide bomber is understood as irrational—driven beyond the boundaries of rational thought by environmental, religious, political, and/or social factors—ergo capable of setting aside the "common sense" of self-preservation.  [[The Pentagon]] released a study tasked with pinpointing motivation:
 
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<blockquote>
 
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"His actions provide a win-win scenario for himself, his family, his faith and his God," The document explains. "The bomber secures salvation and the pleasures of Paradise. He earns a degree of financial security and a place for his family in Paradise. He defends his faith and takes his place in a long line of martyrs to be memorialized as a valorous fighter. And finally, because of the manner of his death, he is assured that he will find favor with Allah," the briefing adds. "Against these considerations, the selfless sacrifice by the individual Muslim to destroy Islam's enemies becomes a suitable, feasible and acceptable course of action."{{Fact|date=July 2007}}
 
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</blockquote>
 
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Recent published research on the rationale of suicide bombing as an effective technique to kill enemies has highlighted the importance of motivation.<ref>Vincetto Olivetti,''Terror's Source''2002</ref><ref>Tariq Ali,''The Clash of Fundamentalism:Crusades, Jihads and Modernity''2002</ref><ref>John Esposito,""Unholy War:Terror in the Name of Islam''2003</ref>While some scholars argue there is an interplay of political and socio-economic factors<ref>Nazih Ayubi,''Political Islam''1991</ref><ref>Mohammed Hafez,2003</ref>,others agree that religion is a driving force to encourage suicide bombers.This mainstream puts forward that religion provides the framework for suicide bombing precisely because acting in the name of Islam is regarded as a form of martyrdom.Since "martyrdom"is widely seen as a step towards Heaven, those who commit suicide whilst discarding their community from a common enemy believe that they will reach an ultimate salvation after they die<ref>Vincetto Olivetti,''Terror's Source'',2002</ref>.
 
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The briefing – produced by a little-known Pentagon intelligence unit called the [[Counterintelligence Field Activity]], or CIFA – cites a number of passages from the Quran dealing with jihad, or "holy" warfare, martyrdom and Paradise, where "beautiful mansions" and "maidens" await martyr heroes. In preparation for attacks, suicide terrorists typically recited passages from the Quran.
 
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Various scholars and analysts, however, dispute the claim that Muslim suicide bombers are driven by religion.
 
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Professor [[Robert A. Pape]] of the University of Chicago writes:
 
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<blockquote>
 
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"Beneath the religious rhetoric with which [such terror] is perpetrated, it occurs largely in the service of secular aims. Suicide terrorism is mainly a response to foreign occupation rather than a product of Islamic fundamentalism."
 
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</blockquote>
 
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His research suggests that foreign occupation is the principal factor motivating suicide attackers.
 
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"Though it speaks of Americans as infidels, al-Qaida is less concerned with converting us to Islam than removing us from Arab and Muslim lands," Pape says.
 
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From 1980 to early 2004, 95% of suicide attacks had the central objective of compelling a democratic state with military forces on territory that the terrorists prize to take those forces out. According to an interviewee in ''[[Banned by PBS: Muslims Against Jihad]]'', "Imagine your family was once wealthy, but one of your ancestors squandered that wealth, and now you daily pass by a grand house once owned by your family. It [militant Islam] is like if someone came up to you and said you could get that house back, but you had to do one or two illegal things to get it."
 
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Pape also argues that although terrorist leaders may harbour other goals.  According to Pape, history shows that the presence of foreign combat forces is the principal recruiting tool used by terrorist leaders to mobilise suicide terrorists to kill others. <ref>http://www.theage.com.au/news/opinion/why-the-bombers-are-so-angry-at-us/2005/07/22/1121539145036.html</ref>
 
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==History==
 
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===Background===
 
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Often acts of terrorism, such as the suicide bombing of civilians, are compared to the self-sacrifice of soldiers in wartime. The principal difference is that the soldier is implementing the policy of a nation and is thus held responsible, whereas a civilian may or may not support their nation's policies and may or may not consider the terrorist's nation (or peoples) an enemy.
 
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The concept of self-sacrifice has long been a part of war.  However, many instances of suicide bombing today has intended civilian targets, not military targets alone.  So there are some principal differences between the ideas of the past and the present. From the earliest days of honouring fallen soldiers as [[hero]]es, those who sacrifice themselves to further a political, moral, or cultural [[ideology]] have been and are still highly regarded figures in their respective societies. Soldiers who lay down their lives to protect their comrades are commonly awarded the highest recognition for [[courage]] in battle, while those who survive combat are honoured for their physical and psychological sacrifice. An example of such self-sacrifice in warfare in medieval legend is [[Arnold von Winkelried]]. The earliest reference of a suicide attack outside a context of warfare has been suggested to be in the story of [[Samson]] who died together with his victims as he collapsed a Philistine temple:
 
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:"Samson said, 'Let me die with the Philistines!'  Down came the temple on the rulers and all the people in it. Thus he killed many more as he died than while he lived." (Judges 16:30).
 
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A modern example of suicide bombing occurred during the [[Belgian Revolution]], when the [[the Netherlands|Dutch]] [[Lieutenant]] [[Jan van Speijk]] detonated his own ship in the [[harbour]] of [[Antwerp]] to prevent being captured by the Belgians.
 
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Another example was the [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] soldier Karl Klinke on 18 April 1864 at the [[Battle of Dybbøl#Legacy|Battle of Dybbøl]], when he blew a hole in a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[fortification]].
 
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Next example is from the time of the Crusades, when the Knights Templar destroyed one of their own ships, killing 140 Christians in order to kill ten times as many Muslims. <ref>http://www.dialogue-international.org/Dialogue%20International%20Project%20&%20Events%202005_files/SPRING-05%20DISCUSSION%20GROUP/DISCUSSION%20PRESENTATIONS/TERROR%20and%20Suicide%20Attacks.ppt</ref>
 
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The act of deliberately destroying oneself to inflict harm on an enemy, especially civilians, is more restricted to modern times and the era of explosives. The line between the two is considered by some a matter of subjectivity, as in the argument that many WWII soldiers killed were "[[martyr]]s" (in the sense that they were to suffer for the sake of a principle, rather than dying as the penalty for refusing to renounce a belief) because their life expectancy in combat was very low—often averaging only two or three months.
 
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Likewise, African American soldiers in the Union Army conducted a suicide attack against a [[Fort Wagner|Confederate position]] in South Carolina, as honored in the 1988 film "[[Glory (film)|Glory]]."
 
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<ref>http://www.reel.com/movie.asp?MID=472</ref>
 
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Modern suicide bombing as a political tool can be traced back to the assassination of Czar [[Alexander II of Russia]] in 1881. Alexander fell victim to a [[Nihilist movement|Nihilist]] plot. While driving on one of the central streets of [[Saint Petersburg]], near the [[Winter Palace]], he was mortally wounded by the explosion of hand-made grenades and died a few hours afterwards. The Tzar was killed by the Pole [[Ignacy Hryniewiecki]], who died while intentionally exploding the bomb during the attack.
 
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The ritual act of self-sacrifice during combat appeared in a large scale at the end of [[World War II]] with the [[Japan]]ese [[kamikaze]] bombers. In these attacks, airplanes were used as flying bombs. Later in the war, as Japan became more desperate, this act became formalized and ritualized, as planes were outfitted with explosives specific to the task of a suicide mission. Kamikaze strikes were a weapon of symmetric war used by the [[Empire of Japan]] chiefly against [[United States Navy]] [[aircraft carrier]]s.
 
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The Japanese Navy also used both one and two man piloted [[torpedo]]es called ''[[kaiten]]'' on suicide missions. Although sometimes called [[midget submarine]]s, these were modified versions of the unmanned torpedoes of the time and are distinct from the torpedo-firing midget submarines used earlier in the war, which were designed to [[Infiltration|infiltrate]] [[shore]] defences and return to a [[mother ship]] after firing their torpedoes. Though extremely hazardous, these midget submarine attacks were not technically suicide missions; while the early ''kaiten'' were equipped with escape hatches, there is no evidence that they were ever used or that the pilots had any intention of using them. Later kaitens, by contrast, provided no means of escape.
 
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After aiming a two-person kaiten at their target, the two crew members traditionally embraced and shot each other in the head. Social support for such choices was strong, due in part to Japanese cultural history, in which [[seppuku]], honourable suicide, was part of [[samurai]] [[duty]]. It was also fostered and indoctrinated by the Imperial program to [[Persuasion|persuade]] the Japanese soldiers to commit these acts.
 
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Suicide attacks were used as a military tactic aimed at causing material damage in war, during the [[World War II|Second World War]] in the Pacific as [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] ships were attacked by [[Japan]]ese [[kamikaze]] pilots who caused maximum damage by flying their explosive-laden [[aircraft]] into military targets, not focused on civilian targets. 
 
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During the [[Battle for Berlin]] the Luftwaffe flew "Self-sacrifice missions" ''(Selbstopfereinsatz)'' against Soviet bridges over the [[River Oder]]. These 'total missions' were flown by pilots of the ''[[Leonidas]]'' Squadron under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Heiner Lange. From 17 April until 20 April 1945, using any aircraft that were available, the Luftwaffe claimed that the squadron destroyed 17 bridges, however the military historian [[Antony Beevor]] when writing about the incident thinks that this was exaggerated and that only the railway bridge at [[Küstrin]] was definitely destroyed. He comments that "thirty-five pilots and aircraft was a high price to pay for such a limited and temporary success." The missions were called off when the Soviet ground forces reached the vicinity of the squadron's airbase at [[Jüterbog]].<ref>[[Antony Beevor|Beevor, Antony]]. ''Berlin: The Downfall 1945'', Penguin Books, 2002, ISBN 0-670-88695-5. Page 238</ref>
 
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Following World War II, [[Viet Minh]] "death volunteers" fought against the [[France|French]] [[colonial]] [[army]] by using a long stick-like explosive to detonate French tanks, as part of their urban warfare tactics.
 
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In 1972  in the hall of the [[Lod Airport massacre|Lod airport]] in [[Tel Aviv]], [[Israel]], three Japanese used [[grenade]]s and [[automatic rifle]]s to kill 26 people and wound more than a hundred.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} The group belonged to the [[Japanese Red Army]] (JRA) a terrorist organization created in 1969  and [[Military alliance|allied]] to the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP). Until then, no group involved in terrorism had conducted such a suicide operation in Israel. Members of the JRA became instructors in [[martial art]] and [[kamikaze]] operations at several [[Hezbollah]] training camps bringing the suicide techniques to the [[Middle East]].
 
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===1980 to present===
 
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The first modern suicide bombing&mdash;involving explosives deliberately carried to the target either on the person or in a civilian vehicle and delivered by surprise&mdash;was in 1981; perfected by the factions of the [[Lebanese Civil War]] and especially by the [[Tamil Tigers]] of [[Sri Lanka]], the tactic had spread to dozens of countries by 2005 . Those hardest-hit are Sri Lanka during [[Sri Lankan Civil War|its prolonged ethnic conflict]], [[Lebanon]] during its [[Lebanese civil war|civil war]],  [[Israel]] and the [[Palestinian Territories]] since 1994 , and [[Iraq]] since the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|US-led invasion in 2003]].
 
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The [[Islamic Dawa Party]]'s [[car bomb]]ing of the Iraqi [[embassy]] in [[Beirut]] in December 1981 and [[Hezbollah]]'s [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing|bombing of the U.S. embassy in April 1983]] and [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing|attack on United States Marine and French barracks]] in October 1983 brought suicide bombings international attention. Other parties to the civil war were quick to adopt the tactic, and by 1999  factions such as Hezbollah, the [[Amal Movement]], the [[Ba'ath Party]], and the [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party]] had carried out around 50 suicide bombings between them. (The latter of these groups sent the [[Sana'a Mehaidli|first]] recorded [[female suicide bomber]] in 1985 . Female combatants have existed throughout human history and in many different societies, so it is possible that females who engage in suicidal attacks are not new.) Hezbollah was the only one to attack overseas, [[Israeli Embassy Attack in Buenos Aires|bombing the Israeli embassy]] (and possibly the [[AMIA Bombing|Argentine-Israeli Mutual Association building]]) in [[Buenos Aires]]; as its military and political power have grown, it has since abandoned the tactic.
 
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Lebanon saw the first bombing, but it was the LTTE [[Tamil Tigers]] in [[Sri Lanka]] who perfected the tactic and inspired its use elsewhere [http://washingtontimes.com/op-ed/20060819-095333-3607r.htm]. Their [[LTTE Black Tiger|Black Tiger]] unit has committed between 76 and 168 (estimates vary) suicide bombings since 1987 , the higher estimates putting them behind more than half of the world's suicide bombings between 1980 and 2000 [http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/usscole/jir001020_1_n.shtml]. The list of victims include former [[India]]n Prime Minister, [[Rajiv Gandhi]], and the president of Sri Lanka, [[Ranasinghe Premadasa]].
 
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Suicide bombing has, since 1993, been a particularly popular tactic amongst some [[Palestinian]] groups, including [[Hamas]], [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad|Islamic Jihad]], and the [[Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade]]. Bombers affiliated with these groups often use so-called "[[suicide belts]]," [[explosive device]]s (often including [[shrapnel]]) designed to be strapped to the body under clothing. In order to maximize the loss of life, the bombers may seek out cafés or city [[bus]]es crowded with people at [[rush hour]], or less commonly a military target (for example, soldiers waiting for transport at roadside). By seeking enclosed locations, a successful bomber usually kills a number of people.
 
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Palestinian [[television]] has aired a number of [[music videos]] and announcements that [[promotion (marketing)|promote]] [[eternal]] reward for children who seek "''[[shahada]]''",<ref>http://www.pmw.org.il/tv%20part1.html</ref> which ''Palestinian Media Watch'' has claimed is "Islamic motivation of suicide terrorists".<ref>http://www.pmw.org.il/index.html</ref> ''[[The Chicago Tribune]]'' has documented the concern of Palestinian parents that their children are encouraged to take part in suicide operations.<ref>http://www.eufunding.org/Textbooks/EuropesPalestinianChildren.html</ref> Israeli sources have also alleged that Hamas, Islamic Jihad and Fatah operate "Paradise Camps," training children as young as 11 to become suicide bombers.<ref>http://www.adl.org/PresRele/IslME_62/4153_62.asp</ref><ref>http://www.cnsnews.com/ForeignBureaus/archive/200107/For20010723d.html</ref>
 
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The [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]] has also employed suicide bombings in the scope of its guerrilla attacks on Turkish security forces since the beginning of their insurgency against the Turkish state in 1984.  Although the majority of [[PKK]] activity is focused on [[village guards]], gendarme, and military posts, they have employed suicide bombing tactics on touristic sites and commercial centers in Western Turkish cities, especially during the peak of tourism season. 
 
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The [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] involved the [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacking]] of large passenger [[jet aircraft|jet]]s which were deliberately flown into the towers of the [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York City]] and [[the Pentagon]], killing everyone aboard the planes and thousands more in and around the targeted buildings, thus making it one of the most destructive suicide attacks in history. The passenger jets selected were required to be fully fueled to fly cross-country, turning the planes themselves into the largest suicide bombs in history. The 'September 11' attacks also had a vast economic and political impact: for the cost of the lives of the 19 hijackers and financial expenditure of around US$100,000, [[al-Qaeda]], the [[militant]] [[Islamist]] group responsible for the attacks, effected a trillion-dollar drop in global markets within one week, and triggered massive increases in military and security expenditure in response.
 
  
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In December 22 2001, [[Richard Reid (terrorist)|Richard Reid]] attempted to destroy the [[American Airlines Flight 63]] by the means of a bomb hidden in a shoe. He was arrested after his attempt was foiled when he was unable to light the bomb's [[Fuse (explosives)|fuse]].
 
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After the [[United States|U.S.]]-led [[invasion of Iraq in 2003]], [[Iraqi insurgency|Iraqi and foreign insurgents]] carried out waves of suicide bombings. They attacked [[United States military]] targets, although many civilian targets (eg. [[Shiite]] [[mosque]]s, international offices of the [[UN]] and the [[Red Cross]], Iraqi men waiting to apply for jobs with the new army and [[police]] force) were also attacked. In the lead up to the [[Iraqi parliamentary election, 2005|Iraqi parliamentary election]], on January 30, 2005, suicide attacks upon civilian and security personnel involved with the [[election]]s increased, and there were reports of the insurgents co-opting disabled people as involuntary suicide bombers.<ref>http://www.smh.com.au/news/After-Saddam/Handicapped-boy-made-into-bomb/2005/02/01/1107228705132.html</ref>  Professor Pape suggests that the bombings of Iraqis by Iraqis target those believed to be in the service of the American occupation.
 
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Suicide bombings have occurred in more than 30 countries: [[Afghanistan]], [[Algeria]], [[Argentina]], [[Bangladesh]], [[China]], [[Colombia]], [[Croatia]], [[Egypt]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iraq]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Kenya]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Morocco]], [[Pakistan]], the [[Palestinian territories]], [[Panama]], the [[Philippines]], [[Qatar]], [[Russia]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Somalia]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Tanzania]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Uzbekistan]], and [[Yemen]]. (Suicide planes were also used in the [[United States]]).
 
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[[Image:Londonbombing2.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The [[7 July 2005 London bombings|7th July 2005 London]] [[suicide bombers]] caught on CCTV at [[Luton]] [[train station]] at 07:21 BST on July 7, 2005. From left to right, [[Hasib Hussain]], [[Jamal Lindsay|Germaine Lindsay]], [[Mohammad Sidique Khan]], and [[Shehzad Tanweer]].<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/4689739.stm#</ref> (Image: [[Crown copyright]])]]
 
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==Range of opinions==
 
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World leaders, especially those of countries that experience suicide bombings, usually express resolve to continue on their previous course of affairs after such attacks. They denounce suicide bombings and sometimes vow not to let such bombings deter ordinary people from going about their everyday economic business.
 
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Suicide bombings are sometimes followed by [[reprisal]]s. As a "successful" suicide bomber cannot be targeted, the response is often a targeting of those believed to have sent the bomber. In targeting such [[organization]]s, Israel often uses military strikes against organizations, individuals, and possibly [[infrastructure]]. In the [[West Bank]] the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] formerly [[Demolition|demolished]] homes that belong to families whose children (or renters whose tenants) had volunteered for such missions (whether successfully or not),<ref name="demolition">[http://www.btselem.org/download/200411_Punitive_House_Demolitions_Eng.pdf ''Through No Fault of Their Own: Punitive House Demolitions during the al-Aqsa Intifada''] [[B'Tselem]], November 2004</ref> though an internal review starting in October 2004 brought an end to the policy.<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Government/Law/Legal+Issues+and+Rulings/Human+Rights+Issues+for+the+Palestinian+population+-+April+2005.htm ''Human Rights Issues for the Palestinian population - April 2005''] Ed Farrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs</ref>
 
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The effectiveness of suicide bombings&mdash;notably those of the Japanese [[kamikaze]]s, the Palestinian bombers, and even the September 11, 2001 attacks&mdash;is debatable.
 
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Although kamikaze attacks could not stop the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] advance the [[Pacific War|Pacific]], they inflicted more casualties and delayed the fall of [[Japan]] for longer than might have been the case using only the conventional methods available to the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese Empire]]. Subsequently, Japanese leaders acknowledged the great cost in losing many of their best young men in these actions. The attacks reinforced the resolution of the [[World War II]] Allies to destroy the Imperial force, and may have had a significant effect in the decision to use [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombs]] against Japan.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}
 
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In the case of the September 11 attacks, the long-term effects remain to be seen, but in the short term, the results were negative for Al-Qaeda, as well as the [[Taliban|Taliban Movement]]. Furthermore, since the September 11 attacks, Western nations have diverted massive resources towards stopping similar actions, as well as tightening up [[border]]s, and military actions against various countries that the [[United States|U.S.]] and its allies believe to have been involved with terrorism. However, critics of the [[War on Terrorism]] suggest that in fact the results were profoundly negative, as the proceeding actions of the United States and other countries has increased the number of recruits, and their willingness to carry out suicide bombings.
 
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It is more difficult to determine whether Palestinian suicide bombings have proved to be a successful tactic. In the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]], the suicide bombers were repeatedly deployed since the [[Oslo Accords]].<ref>http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+before+2000/Fatal+Terrorist+Attacks+in+Israel+Since+the+DOP+-S.htm</ref>
 
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In 1996 , the Israelis elected the conservative candidate [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] who promised to restore safety by conditioning every step in the [[peace process]] on Israel's assessment of the [[Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian Authority]]'s fulfillment of its obligations in curbing violence as outlined in the Oslo agreements.
 
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In the course of [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] which followed the collapse of the [[Camp David 2000 Summit|Camp David II]] summit between the [[Palestine Liberation Organization|PLO]] and Israel, the number of suicide attacks drastically increased. In response, [[Israel]] [[Mobilization|mobilized]] its army in order to seal off the [[Gaza Strip]] and reinstate military control of the [[West Bank]], patrolling the area with [[tank]]s. The Israelis also began a campaign of targeted [[assassination]]s to kill [[militant]] Palestinian leaders, using jets and [[helicopter]]s to deploy [[Precision bombing|high-precision bombs and missiles]].
 
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The suicide missions, having killed hundreds and maimed thousands of Israelis, are believed by some to have brought on a move to the political right, increasing public support for hard-line policies towards the Palestinians, and a government headed by the former [[general]], [[prime minister]] [[Ariel Sharon]]. In response to the suicide bombings, Sharon's government has imposed restrictions on the Palestinian community, making commerce, travel, school, and other aspects of life difficult for the Palestinians, with the average Palestinian suffering due to the choices of the suicide bombers. The [[Israeli West Bank barrier|Separation barrier]] under construction seem to be part of the Israeli government's efforts to stop suicide bombers from entering Israel proper.
 
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Social support by some for this activity remained, however, as of the calling of a truce at the end of June 2003 . This may be due to the economic or social purpose of the suicide bombing and the bombers' refusal to accept external judgements on those who sanction them.
 
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If the objective is to kill as many people as possible, suicide bombing by terrorists may thus "work" as a tactic in that it costs fewer lives than any conventional military tactic and targeting unarmed civilians is much easier than targeting soldiers. As an objective designed to achieve some form of favorable outcome, especially a political outcome, most believe it to be a failure. Terrorist campaigns involving the targeting of civilians have never won a war. Analysts believe that in order to win or succeed, any guerrilla or terrorist campaign must first transform into something more than a guerrilla or terrorist movement.<ref>http://www.washtimes.com/commentary/20050723-092116-9131r.htm</ref> Such analysts believe that a terrorist cause has little political attraction and success may be achieved only by renouncing terrorism and transforming the passions into politics.
 
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Israeli ultra-right politician and author Obadiah Shoher declared terrorism proper and efficient military tactics, and called for the Jews to answer in kind.<ref>http://samsonblinded.org/titles/terrorism_in_Israel.htm</ref> Shoher praised [[Baruch Goldstein]] who massacred Palestinian worshippers inside a mosque.
 
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Often extremists assert that, because they are outclassed militarily, suicide bombings are necessary. For example, the former leader of [[Hamas]] [[Ahmed Yassin|Sheikh Ahmad Yassin]] stated: "Once we have warplanes and missiles, then we can think of changing our means of legitimate self-defense. But right now, we can only tackle the fire with our bare hands and sacrifice ourselves."<ref>Quoted in [[Mia Bloom]], ''Dying to Kill: The Allure of Suicide Terror'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005) p. 3-4.</ref>
 
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Such views are challenged both from the outside and from within Islam. According to Islamic jurist and scholar [[Khaled Abou Al-Fadl]],
 
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<blockquote>The classical jurists, nearly without exception, argued that those who attack by stealth, while targeting noncombatants in order to terrorize the resident and wayfarer, are corrupters of the earth. "Resident and wayfarer" was a legal expression that meant that whether the attackers terrorize people in their urban centers or terrorize travelers, the result was the same: all such attacks constitute a corruption of the earth. The legal term given to people who act this way was ''muharibun'' (those who wage war against society), and the crime is called the crime of ''hiraba'' (waging war against society). The crime of ''hiraba'' was so serious and repugnant that, according to Islamic law, those guilty of this crime were considered enemies of humankind and were not to be given quarter or sanctuary anywhere.
 
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...
 
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Those who are familiar with the classical tradition will find the parallels between what were described as crimes of ''hiraba'' and what is often called terrorism today nothing short of remarkable. The classical jurists considered crimes such as assassinations, setting fires, or poisoning water wells - that could indiscriminately kill the innocent - as offenses of ''hiraba''. Furthermore, hijacking methods of transportation or crucifying people in order to spread fear and terror are also crimes of ''hiraba''. Importantly, Islamic law strictly prohibited the taking of hostages, the mutilation of corpses, and torture.<ref>[[Khaled Abou Al-Fadl]]: ''The Great Theft. Wrestling Islam from the Extremists'' (HarperCollins 2005. ISBN 0-06-056339-7) p.243</ref></blockquote>
 
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=== The Islamic View ===
 
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The most mainstream Islamic judicial opinion rejects suicide for any reason.<ref>http://islam.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?zi=1/XJ&sdn=islam&zu=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fatwa-online.com%2Fworship%2Fjihaad%2Fjih004%2Findex.htm</ref><ref>http://www.islamweb.net/ver2/Fatwa/ShowFatwa.php?Option=FatwaId&lang=E&Id=699</ref> However, some top authorities do support suicide attacks on perceived enemies of Islam. [[Mohammed Ijaz ul-Haq]], religious affairs minister of [[Pakistan]], the world's second largest Muslim majority country, has made public statements in favor of it.<ref>http://www.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/asiapcf/06/18/pakistan.britain.ap/index.html</ref> 
 
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Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi, sometimes called "the world's most quoted independent Islamic jurist," <ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,543164,00.html Bombing for God by Faisal Bodi,
 
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August 28, 2001 ]</ref> has said
 
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<BLOCKQUOTE>The martyr operations is the greatest of all sorts of Jihad in the Cause of Allah. A martyr operation is carried out by a person who sacrifices himself, deeming his life less value than striving in the Cause of Allah, in the cause of restoring the land and preserving the dignity. <Ref>[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503545134 Fatwa Bank ]</ref></BLOCKQUOTE>
 
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Other clerics have supported attacks mainly in connection with Palestine. Sunni Iraqi Cleric, Sheikh Ahmad Al-Qubeisi has proclaimed that "those who commit martyrdom [i.e. suicide] operations who are, by Allah, the greatest martyrs in Islamic history..."
 
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<ref>Dubai TV, May 5, 2004</ref> Amongst others the Imam of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, Abd Al-Rahman Al-Sudayyis,<ref>On Saudi TV Channel 1, April 2, 2004,</ref>, the former President of Al-Azhar University, Ahmad 'Omar Hashem <ref>On Channel 1 of Egyptian TV, April 23, 2004</ref> and  Cleric, Sheikh Ibrahim Mudeiris of Gaza <ref>Palestinian Authority TV, May 21, 2004</ref> have all urged on suicide operations by Muslims.
 
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There have been conflicting reports about the stand of Sheikh [[Muhammad Sayyid Tantawy]], the top Egyptian cleric of [[Al ­Azhar]] University, and the mufti of Egypt, Sheikh Dr. Ahmad Al ­Tayyeb. Shortly after 9/11 the Sheikh Tantawy issued a statement apposing suicide attacks <Ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1690624.stm Grand Sheikh condemns suicide bombings
 
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]</ref> But a translation from [[Al ­Azhar]] website quotes him as supporting suicide attacks on Jews in Israel as part of the Palestinian struggle "to strike horror into the hearts of the enemies of Islam."<ref>www.lailatalqadr.com/stories/n040401.shtml, April 4, 2002.</ref>  Then  in mid-2003 he was quoted again as saying "groups which carried out suicide bombings were the enemies of Islam." <ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3059365.stm Cleric condemns suicide attacks]</ref>
 
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According to Professor Charles A. Kimball, chair of the Department of Religion at [[Wake Forest University]] in [[Winston-Salem, North Carolina|Winston-Salem]], "There is only one verse in the Qur'an that contains a phrase related to suicide," Verse 4:29 of the [[Qur'an]].<ref>http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/004.qmt.html</ref> It reads ''O you who believe! Do not consume your wealth in the wrong way-rather through trade mutually agreed to, and do not kill yourselves. Surely God is Merciful toward you.'' Some commentators believe that the phrase "do not kill yourselves" is better translated "do not kill each other," and some translations (e.g. [[M. H. Shakir|Shakir]]) reflect that view. (A note on the Qur'an's unique textual density is perhaps in order here: It is not uncommon for a single Qur'anic Arabic phrase to embrace two or more complementary meanings at the same time, and this may be the case with 4:29.)
 
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Mainstream Islamic groups such as the European Council for Fatwa and Research use the Quran'ic verse Al-Anam 6:151 ''(And take not life, which Allah has made sacred, except by way of justice and law)'' as further reason to prohibit suicide.<ref>http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?cid=1119503549272&pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaEAskTheScholar</ref> In addition, the ''[[hadith]]'' unambiguously forbid suicide.<ref>http://www.aljazeerah.info/Islam/Islamic%20subjects/2004%20subjects/June/Committing%20Suicide%20Is%20Strictly%20Forbidden%20in%20Islam,%20Adil%20Salahi.htm</ref>
 
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A contrary view is presented by Faisal Bodi writing in [[The Guardian]], who said many Muslims celebrate suicide bombers as heroes defending things they hold sacred.<ref>{{cite web
 
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|last = Bodi
 
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|first = Faisal
 
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|year = 2001
 
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|url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,543164,00.html
 
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|title = Bombing for God
 
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|work = Special report: Israel and the Middle East
 
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|publisher = Guardian Newspapers Limited
 
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|accessdate = 2006-07-19
 
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}} - "In the Muslim world, then, we celebrate what we call the martyr-bombers. To us they are heroes defending the things we hold sacred. Polls in the Middle East show 75% of people in favour of martyr-bombings."</ref>
 
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A tiny minority of Muslim clerics, while condemning the [[7 July 2005 London bombings|London bombings]], have stated that under certain circumstances Islamic suicide bombings are justified. For example, Sayed Mohammed Musawi, head of the World Islamic League in London, insisted "there should be a clear distinction between the suicide bombing of those who are trying to defend themselves from occupiers, which is something different from those who kill civilians, which is a big crime."<ref>http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/22/AR2005072201629.html</ref> This is, however, far from the mainstream opinion; an overwhelming consensus of Muslim scholars hold that suicide attacks are simply forbidden.
 
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Nevertheless, Islamist militant organisations (including [[Al-Qaeda]], [[Hamas]] and [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad Movement|Islamic Jihad]]) continue to argue that suicide operations are justified according to Islamic law, despite Islam's strict prohibition of suicide and murder.<ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20041011230417/abdulhaqq.jeeran.com/ruling.html</ref><ref>http://web.archive.org/web/20041009222904/abdulhaqq.jeeran.com/fatwa_sheikh_qaradhawi.html</ref> [[Irshad Manji]], in a conversation with one leader of Islamic Jihad noted their ideology.
 
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<blockquote>"What's the difference between suicide, which the Koran condemns, and martyrdom?" I asked. "Suicide," he replied, "is done out of despair. But remember: most of our martyrs today were very successful in their earthly lives." In short, there was a future to live for—and they detonated it anyway.</blockquote>
 
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Since the four suicide bombings in London, there have been many scholastic refutations of suicide bombings from Sunni Muslims. Ihsanic Intelligence, a London-based Islamic think-tank, published their two-year study into suicide bombings in the name of Islam, titled 'The Hijacked Caravan',<ref>http://www.ihsanic-intelligence.com/dox/The_Hijacked_Caravan.pdf</ref> which concluded that, "The technique of suicide bombing is anathema, antithetical and abhorrent to Sunni Islam. It is considered legally forbidden, constituting a reprehensible innovation in the Islamic tradition, morally an enormity of sin combining suicide and murder and theologically an act which has consequences of eternal damnation."<ref>http://mac.abc.se/home/onesr/ez/isl/0-sbm/The.Hijacked.Caravan.html</ref> The Oxford-based Malayist jurist, Shaykh Muhammad <!--duplicate?—>Shaykh Muhammad Afifi al-Akiti, issued his landmark fatwa on suicide bombing and targeting innocent civilians, titled 'Defending the Transgressed, by Censuring the Reckless against the Killing of Civilians', where he states suicide bombing in its most widespread form, is forbidden: 'If the attack involves a bomb placed on the body or placed so close to the bomber that when the bomber detonates it the bomber is certain [yaqin] to die, then the More Correct Position according to us is that it does constitute suicide. This is because the bomber, being also the Maqtul [the one killed], is unquestionably the same Qatil [the immediate/active agent that kills] = Qatil Nafsahu [suicide]"<ref>http://www.livingislam.org/k/dcmm_e.html</ref>
 
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In January of 2006, one of [[Shi'a Islam|Shia Islam]]'s highest ranking [[marja]] clerics, [[Yousef Sanei|Ayatollah al-Udhma Yousof al-Sanei]] also decreed a [[fatwa]] against suicide bombing, declaring it as a "terrorist act".<ref>Feb 2007 interview with [[Christianne Amanpour]] of [[CNN]]: [http://www.roozonline.com/archives/2007/02/002139.php]</ref>
 
  
 
== Usage of "Suicide Bombing" and related terms ==
 
== Usage of "Suicide Bombing" and related terms ==
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==="Homicide bombing"===
 
==="Homicide bombing"===
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Some effort has been made to replace the term ''suicide bombing'' with the term '''''homicide bombing'''''. The first such use was by [[White House Press Secretary]] [[Ari Fleischer]] in April 2002.<ref>http://www.wordspy.com/words/homicidebombing.asp</ref>  The ''[[Fox News Channel]]'' and the ''[[New York Post]]'', both owned by [[Rupert Murdoch]]'s [[News Corporation]], are two media organizations that have adopted the term. Fox News began using the term after it was suggested by former [[Israeli prime minister]] [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] during an interview.
 
Some effort has been made to replace the term ''suicide bombing'' with the term '''''homicide bombing'''''. The first such use was by [[White House Press Secretary]] [[Ari Fleischer]] in April 2002.<ref>http://www.wordspy.com/words/homicidebombing.asp</ref>  The ''[[Fox News Channel]]'' and the ''[[New York Post]]'', both owned by [[Rupert Murdoch]]'s [[News Corporation]], are two media organizations that have adopted the term. Fox News began using the term after it was suggested by former [[Israeli prime minister]] [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] during an interview.
  
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==="Genocide bombing"===
 
==="Genocide bombing"===
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Another attempted replacement is '''''genocide bombing'''''. The term was coined in 2002 by Canadian member of parliament [[Irwin Cotler]], in an effort to replace the term ''homicide bomber'' as a substitute for "suicide bomber."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.hfienberg.com/kesher/2002/06/genocide-bombing-two-months-after.html| title=Kesher Talk| year=June 24, 2002| accessdate=2006-05-13}}</ref> The intention was to focus attention on the alleged intention of [[genocide]] by militant [[Palestinians]] in their calls to "Wipe Israel off the map."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/commentary/20040423-081806-2252r.htm| title=Washington Times Commentary|}}</ref>
 
Another attempted replacement is '''''genocide bombing'''''. The term was coined in 2002 by Canadian member of parliament [[Irwin Cotler]], in an effort to replace the term ''homicide bomber'' as a substitute for "suicide bomber."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.hfienberg.com/kesher/2002/06/genocide-bombing-two-months-after.html| title=Kesher Talk| year=June 24, 2002| accessdate=2006-05-13}}</ref> The intention was to focus attention on the alleged intention of [[genocide]] by militant [[Palestinians]] in their calls to "Wipe Israel off the map."<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/commentary/20040423-081806-2252r.htm| title=Washington Times Commentary|}}</ref>
  
−
 
+
==Notes==  
−
 
 
−
== Notes ==  
 
 
<div class="references-small">
 
<div class="references-small">
 
<references/>
 
<references/>
 
</div>
 
</div>
  
−
== See also ==
+
==References==
−
* [[Jing Ke]]
+
*Barlow, Hugh. ''Dead for Good: Martyrdom and the Rise of the Suicide Bomber'',  Paradigm Publishers, 2007. ISBN 1-59451-324-4
−
* [[Hassan-i Sabbah]]
+
*Bloom, Mia. ''Dying to Kill: The Allure of Suicide Terror'', Columbia University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-231-13320-0
−
* [[Forlorn hope]]
+
*Hudson, Rex. ''Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists'', Lyons Press, 2002. ISBN 1-58574-754-8
−
* [[Human wave attack]]
+
*Pape, Robert. ''Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism'', Random House, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-6317-5
−
* [[Assassination]]
+
*Skaine, Rosemarie. ''Female Suicide Bombers'', McFarland Publishers, 2006. ISBN 0-7864-2615-2
−
* [[Baby Suicide Bomber]]
 
−
* [[Child suicide bombers in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
 
−
* [[Female suicide bomber]]
 
−
* [[Exploding donkey|Using animals instead of suicide]]
 
−
* [[Al Fateh]]
 
−
* [[List of Hamas suicide attacks]]
 
−
* [[List of Palestinian Islamic Jihad suicide attacks]]
 
−
* [[List of Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades suicide attacks]]
 
  
−
== External links, resources, references ==
+
==External links==
 
* [[Channel 4]]'s [http://www.channel4.com/news/microsites/C/cult_suicide_bomber/index.html Cult of the Suicide Bomber]
 
* [[Channel 4]]'s [http://www.channel4.com/news/microsites/C/cult_suicide_bomber/index.html Cult of the Suicide Bomber]
−
* [http://www.liberalislam.net/israeli_psycho.html The psychology of Palestinian suicide bombing and Israeli paranoia]
 
−
* {{PDFlink|[http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/faculty/harrison/papers/terrorism1.pdf The Economic Logic of Suicide Terrorism by Mark Harrison]}}
 
−
* [http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2003/06/hoffman.htm The Logic of Suicide Terrorism] by [[Bruce Hoffman]] published in [[The Atlantic Monthly]], June 2003
 
−
* [http://islam.about.com/cs/currentevents/a/suicide_bomb.htm Suicide Bombers] Why do they do it, and what does Islam say about their actions? - [[About.com]]
 
−
* [http://www.ihsanic-intelligence.com/dox/The_Hijacked_Caravan.pdf The Hijacked Caravan] Study refuting suicide bombing in Islam by Ihsanic Intelligence
 
−
* [http://www.livingislam.org/maa/dcmm_e.html Defending the Transgressed] Fatwa against suicide bombing by Shaykh Muhammad Afifi al-Akiti
 
 
* [http://www.israelinsider.com/channels/security/articles/sec_0049.htm What makes suicide bombers tick?] - Suicide bomber profile and info
 
* [http://www.israelinsider.com/channels/security/articles/sec_0049.htm What makes suicide bombers tick?] - Suicide bomber profile and info
 
* [http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2002/06/brooks.htm The Culture of Martyrdom] How suicide bombing became not just a means but an end by [[David Brooks (journalist)|David Brooks]] in [[The Atlantic Monthly]] June 2002
 
* [http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2002/06/brooks.htm The Culture of Martyrdom] How suicide bombing became not just a means but an end by [[David Brooks (journalist)|David Brooks]] in [[The Atlantic Monthly]] June 2002
 
* [http://hrw.org/reports/2002/isrl-pa/ Erased In A Moment] Suicide Bombing Attacks Against Israeli Civilians [Human Rights Watch]
 
* [http://hrw.org/reports/2002/isrl-pa/ Erased In A Moment] Suicide Bombing Attacks Against Israeli Civilians [Human Rights Watch]
 
* [http://www.wordspy.com/words/suicidebomber.asp History of use of the phrase "suicide bomber"]
 
* [http://www.wordspy.com/words/suicidebomber.asp History of use of the phrase "suicide bomber"]
−
* [http://www.iwar.org.uk/infocon/suicide-bombers.htm USAF Suicide Bombers Intelligence Brief]
 
−
*[http://graphics7.nytimes.com/images/2004/09/10/international/0910BOMBERSch.gif Women Armed for Terror] - list of women terrorist-bombers.
 
−
*[http://abdulhaqq.jeeran.com/operations.html An Islamist view of Martyrdom Operations]
 
−
*[http://www.waronline.org/en/terror/suicide.htm The mechanics of a living bomb]
 
−
*[http://www.spur.asn.au/chronology_of_suicide_bomb_attacks_by_Tamil_Tigers_in_sri_Lanka.htm Chronology of suicide bomb attacks by Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka]
 
 
*[http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/081004_tech.htm How a laser device can detect a suicide bomber's explosives belt or chemical weapons from dozens of meters away] - A web article
 
*[http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/081004_tech.htm How a laser device can detect a suicide bomber's explosives belt or chemical weapons from dozens of meters away] - A web article
 
*[http://stage.co.il/media/largefiles/doribenisraelkario299562.wmv short clip showing the victims of Palestinian suicide bombing] ''Warning: Graphic Images''
 
*[http://stage.co.il/media/largefiles/doribenisraelkario299562.wmv short clip showing the victims of Palestinian suicide bombing] ''Warning: Graphic Images''
−
*[http://www.bogvaerker.dk/suicide.html An examination of the most thoroughly stated 'fatwa' approving of suicide bombing.] By Abdassamad Clarke
 
−
*[http://www.manyriversfilms.co.uk/ Cult of the Suicide Bomber]- a television history by ex-CIA agent Robert Baer
 
−
*[http://www.canasb.ca/default.aspx Canadians Against Suicide Bombing] [[Salim Mansur]] leading member
 
−
*[http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/si/2004/aug/madsenAug04.asp Suicide Terrorism: Rationalizing the Irrational]
 
−
*[http://www.conceptwizard.com/info.html Concept Wizard - Mideast Conflict presentations] Flash, various languages
 
 
**[http://www.conceptwizard.com/imagine/imagine_n.html IMAGINE] Flash, images of bombings
 
**[http://www.conceptwizard.com/imagine/imagine_n.html IMAGINE] Flash, images of bombings
−
*[http://suicidebombersiniraq.com/index.html Suicide Bombers in Iraq] by [[Mohammed Hafez]]
 
 
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6914959.stm Few Muslims Back Suicide Bombs]
 
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6914959.stm Few Muslims Back Suicide Bombs]
  
−
==Further reading==
 
−
 
−
* [[Mohammed Hafez]] (2007), ''[http://www.suicidebombersiniraq.com/ Suicide Bombers in Iraq: The Strategy and Ideology of Martyrdom]'', (Washington, D.C.: [[United States Institute of Peace]]) ISBN-13: 978-1-601270-04-7
 
−
*Hugh Barlow (2007), ''Dead for Good: Martyrdom and the Rise of the Suicide Bomber.'' (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers) ISBN 1-59451-324-4
 
−
* Jayawardena, Hemamal., Forensic Medical Aspects of Terrorist Explosive Attacks (Paperback), Zeilan Press (2007),ISBN 978-09793-62422
 
−
* Rex Hudson (2002), ''Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists'', Lyons Press, ISBN 1-58574-754-8
 
−
* Mia Bloom (2005), ''Dying to Kill: The Allure of Suicide Terror'', Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-13320-0
 
−
* [[Robert Pape]] (2005), ''[[Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism]]'', Random House, ISBN 1-4000-6317-5
 
−
* Diego Gambetta, Editor (2005), ''Making Sense of Suicide Missions'', OUP, ISBN 0-19-927699-4
 
−
* Farhad Khosrokhavar, translated by David Macey (2005), ''Suicide Bombers: Allah's New Martyrs'', Pluto Press, ISBN 0-7453-2283-2
 
−
*[[Martin Kramer]]. 1996. [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Sacrifice.htm Sacrifice and "Self-Martyrdom" in Shi'ite Lebanon].
 
−
*[[Bernard B. Fall]]. 1966. ''Hell in a Very Small Place: The Siege of Dien Bien Phu''. Da Capo Press. (References to suicide bombers on pages 352 and 368).
 
−
* [[Rosemarie Skaine]] (2006), ''[[Female Suicide Bombers]]'', McFarland Publishers, ISBN 0-7864-2615-2
 
−
*M.R. Narayan Swamy. 1996. ''Tigers of Lanka: From Boys to Guerrillas'', 2nd Ed. Vijitha Yapa Bookshop (Colombo).
 
−
* Dr. Eyad Sarraj. "Why we have become Suicide Bombers".[http://www.mediareviewnet.com/;וע התאבדות]
 
−
* Gerhart Scheit. 2005. ''Suicide Attack'' ISBN 3-924627-87-8 (German)
 
−
* Reuter, Christoph trans. Ragg-Kirby, Helena. ''My Life is a Weapon: A Modern History of Suicide Bombing.'' Princeton University Press: Princeton, 2004.
 
−
*{{cite book
 
−
|last = Davis
 
−
|first = Joyce M.
 
−
|year = 2004
 
−
|title = Martyrs: Innocence, Vengeance, and Despair in the Middle East
 
−
|publisher = Palgrave Macmillan
 
−
|id = ISBN 1-4039-6681-8
 
−
}}
 
  
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
{{Credit|153419219}}
 
{{Credit|153419219}}

Revision as of 17:58, 22 December 2007


A suicide attack is an attack on a military or civilian target, in which an attacker intends to kill others, and knows that they will either certainly or most likely die in the process. The means of attack have included vehicles filled with explosives, passenger planes carrying large amounts of fuel, and individuals wearing vests filled with explosives. Synonyms include suicide-homicide bombing, martyrdom operations, and predatory martyrdom. Strictly speaking, an attack may not be considered a suicide attack if the attacker is not killed (although they might hope and plan to be), or if there is some question as to whether their intention is to be killed (even if the attack is certain to kill them).

Although use of suicide attacks has occurred throughout history — with Samson's suicidal destruction of a Philistine temple (as recounted in the Book of Judges), the legendary Swiss hero Arnold von Winkelried, and the Japanese kamikaze pilots of World War II — its main notoriety as a specific kind of attack has been in recent years following the success of a 1983 truck bombing of two barracks buildings in Beirut that killed 300 and helped drive American and French Multinational Force troops from Lebanon.

The first modern suicide bombing — involving explosives deliberately carried to the target either on the person or in a civilian vehicle and delivered by surprise—was in 1981. It was perfected by factions of the Lebanese Civil War; spread to insurgents groups like the Tamil Tigers of Sri Lanka, Palestinian groups, Al-Qaeda, and by 2005 to dozens of countries where a weaker power is fighting a stronger one. Particularly hard-hit have been military and civilian targets in Sri Lanka during Sri Lankan Civil War, Israeli targets in Israel since 1994, and Iraqis since the US-led invasion of that country in 2003. From 1980 to 2003, suicide attacks amounted to only three percent of all terrorist attacks but accounted for 48 percent of total deaths due to terrorism - this excluding 9/11 attacks.

The motivation of recent attack campaigns is a matter of much controversy, with one scholar, (Robert Pape), attributing 95 percent of attacks in recent times to the same strategic goal: the withdrawal of the occupying forces from a disputed territory. World leaders, especially those of countries that experience suicide bombings, usually express resolve to continue on their previous course of affairs after such attacks. They denounce suicide bombings and sometimes vow not to let such bombings deter ordinary people from going about their everyday economic business.

Overview of suicide bombing

Contemporary suicide attacks almost always involve explosive materials such as a bomb (a "suicide bombing"), and are often carried out with the help of vehicles. The strategic rationale may be military, political, or both; the target may be military, in which case the bombing is usually classified as an act of war, or civilian, in which case it is usually considered terrorism.

Military historians classify suicide bombing as a form of armed violence, belonging to the tactics of asymmetric warfare — suicide bombings are only common when one side in a violent conflict lacks the means for effective, conventional attacks. The cost-benefit analysis, expressed here by al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri, is simple: "The method of martyrdom operation [is] the most successful way of inflicting damage against the opponent and the least costly to the mujahidin in terms of casualties".[1]

Advantages of suicide attacks include the ability to conceal weapons, make last-minute adjustments, increased ability to infiltrate heavily guarded targets, and the lack of need for escape plans and/or rescue teams. "Suicide attacks are an especially convincing way to signal the likelihood of more pain to come, because" if you are willing to kill yourself you are also willing to endure brutal retaliation. "... The element of suicide itself helps increase the credibility of future attacks because it suggests that attackers cannot be deterred." [2]

Civilians are the favored targets, being easier to attack than fortified installations, armored vehicles, or armed and wary soldiers. The consistent targeting of civilians, however, may call into question the moral legitimacy of the bomber's cause (although in some of the perpetrating group's base population, it may be thought to enhance those qualities).

File:Londonbombing2.jpg
The 7th July 2005 London suicide bombers caught on CCTV at Luton train station at 07:21 BST on July 7, 2005. From left to right, Hasib Hussain, Germaine Lindsay, Mohammad Sidique Khan, and Shehzad Tanweer.[3] (Image: Crown copyright)

According to Robert Pape, director of the Chicago Project on suicide terrorism and an expert on suicide bombers, 95 percent of suicide attacks in recent times have the same specific strategic goal: to cause an occupying state to withdraw forces from a disputed territory. Pape found the targeted countries were ones were the government was democratic and public opinion played a role in determining policy. Other characteristics Pape found were a difference in religion between the attackers[4] and the occupiers and grassroots support for the attacks.[5] Characteristics thought to be correlated to suicide bombing, and bombers Pape found lacking included: Islam, especially the influence of Salafi Islam;[6] brutality and cruelty of the occupiers;[7] competition among militant groups; and poverty, immaturity, poor education, past history of suicide attempts, or social maladjustment of the attackers.[8]

Other researchers have argued that Pape's analysis of the data is fundamentally flawed, however, particularly his contention that democracies are the main targets of such attacks. Still others argue that perceived religious rewards in the hereafter are instrumental in encouraging some, especially Muslims, to commit suicide attacks.

Suicide operatives are overwhelmingly male in most groups, but among the Chechen rebels and the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) they form a majority. So too some groups use teams all or most of the time (Al-Qaeda and Chechen), and others infrequently or never (Palestinians, Lebanese, and PKK. The ritualistic communion of the extremist groups to which they belong ("lone wolf" suicide bombers are rare), in addition to their strongly-held beliefs, helps motivate their decision to commit suicide.

Responses and reactions to the suicide bombing are mixed, so that a full assessment of the action's impact — especially whether it helped or hindered the cause in whose name it was carried out — is difficult. The public response of politicians is usually one of determination and condemnation. Military and law enforcement are mobilized to disrupt or destroy the organization which planned the attack. The root cause of the violence is often obfuscated by the occupying power in order to avoid discussion of the military occupation that evokes the violent countermeasures. Often the bomber is portrayed as irrational and motivated by blind hatred.

Those who support the bomber's cause will often hold him up as a hero; for example, the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka, publish celebratory books containing the photos of those they regard as heroic freedom fighters; militant Islamist groups like Al Qaeda, for example, make use of religious language to lionize suicide bombers, calling the bomber Shahid, or "martyr."

The term dates back to the 1940s, when it was used in reference to certain German and Japanese battle tactics, but did not gain its present meaning until 1981. Various alternate terms have been used to frame the act differently: the Muslim use of shahid for the bomber or martyrdom operation for the bombing emphasizes the self-sacrificial aspects, while the term "homicide bombing" emphasizes the fact that the bomber kills others.

In the book, Dead for Good: Martyrdom and the Rise of the Suicide Bomber (Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2007), Hugh Barlow describes a new development in the long history of martyrdom, describing it as "predatory martyrdom." Some individuals who now act alone are inspired by emails, radical books, the internet, various new electronic media, and a general public tolerance of extreme teachers and leaders with terrorist agendas.

Tactics

In the case of using explosives, a suicide attack does not require remote or delayed detonation. In the case of causing a crash, it allows human guidance of the weapon (carrying it, driving a car or boat, flying a plane, etc.) without the need for remote or automatic control as in a guided missile. Also, obviously, the attack plan does not require a plan on escaping to safety from the enemy after the attack.

Examples:

  • Suicide attack on foot: explosive belt
  • Attempted suicide attack with a plane as target: Richard Reid on American Airlines Flight 63
  • Suicide car bomb: 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, Sri Lankan Central Bank bombing, numerous incidents in Iraq since 2003
  • Suicide attack by a boat with explosives: USS Cole bombing, attacks in Sri Lanka by the LTTE Sea Tigers.
  • Suicide attack by a submarine with explosives (human-steered torpedo): Kaiten, used by Japan in World War II
  • Suicide attack by a plane with explosives: kamikaze
  • Suicide attack by a hijacked plane with fuel: September 11, 2001 attacks, possibly Air France Flight 8969 and attempted by Samuel Byck
  • Suicide attack by diverting a bus to an abyss: Tel Aviv Jerusalem bus 405 massacre
  • Suicide attack with guns: Kashmiri insurgents on the Indian Parliament in December 2001 killing 15 people.

In some cases, an attack on a nuclear power may be considered a suicide attack in the wider sense, with the attacking country being sure or almost sure of suffering many fatalities in a retaliation.

Suicide attacks usually (but not always) target poorly guarded, non-military facilities and personnel. It can be either a military tactic, a political one, or a mixture of the two. It may qualify as terrorism when the intention is to kill, maim or terrorise a predominantly civilian target population, or fall within the definition of an act of war when it is committed against a military target under war conditions.

File:Explosive-belt01.jpg
Explosive belt of a Palestinian suicide bomber, captured by the Israeli police. Anti-terrorism intelligence claims such suicide bomber clothing is designed by a person they call The Tailor of Death.

However, use against civilian targets has differing effects on their goals (see reaction below). Some economists suggest that this tactic goes beyond symbolism and is actually a response to commodified, controlled, or devalued lives, as the suicide attackers apparently consider family prestige and financial compensation from the community as compensation for their own lives. Whether such motivation is significant as compared to political or religious feeling remains unclear.

The doctrine of asymmetric warfare views suicide attacks as a result of an imbalance of power, in which groups with little significant power resort to suicide bombing as a convenient tactic to demoralize the targeted civilians or government leadership of their enemies. Suicide bombing may also take place as a perceived response to actions or policies of a group with greater power. Groups which have significant power have no need to resort to suicide bombing to achieve their aims; consequently, suicide bombing is overwhelmingly used by guerrilla, and other irregular fighting forces. Among many such groups, there are religious overtones to martyrdom: attackers and their supporters may believe that their sacrifice will be rewarded in an afterlife. Suicide attackers often believe that their actions are in accordance with moral or social standards because they are aimed at fighting forces and conditions that they perceive as unjust.

Profile of a bomber

A common reaction to a suicide bomber is to assume that he or she was motivated by despair, and probably came from a poor, neglected segment of society. Both President George W. Bush and the Dalai Lama have made this claim. However, anthropologist Scott Atran found in a 2003 study that this is not a justifiable conclusion. A recently published paper by Harvard University Professor of Public Policy Alberto Abadie "cast[s] doubt on the widely held belief that terrorism stems from poverty, finding instead that terrorist violence is related to a nation's level of political freedom."[9] More specifically this is due to the transition of countries towards democratic freedoms. "Intermediate levels of political freedom are often experienced during times of political transitions, when governments are weak, political instability is elevated, so conditions are favorable for the appearance of terrorism".[10][9]

Some suicide bombers are educated, with college or university experience, and come from middle class homes. Most suicide bombers do not show signs of psychopathology. Indeed, leaders of the groups who perpetrate these attacks search for individuals who can be trusted to carry out the mission; those with mental illnesses are not ideal candidates.


Usage of "Suicide Bombing" and related terms

The usage of the term "suicide bombing" dates back to at least 1940 . An August 10, 1940 New York Times article mentions the term in relation to German tactics. A March 4, 1942 article refers to a Japanese attempt at a "suicide bombing" on an American carrier. The Times (London) of April 15, 1947, page 2, refers to a new pilotless, radio-controlled rocket missile thus: "Designed originally as a counter-measure to the Japanese 'suicide-bomber,' it is now a potent weapon for defence or offence." The quotes are in the original and suggest that the phrase was an existing one. An earlier article (Aug 21, 1945, page 6) refers to a kamikaze plane as a "suicide-bomb."

The term with the meaning "an attacker blowing up himself or a vehicle to kill others" appeared in 1981 when it was used in an Associated Press article to describe the bombing of the Iraqi Embassy in Beirut.

In order to assign either a more positive or negative connotation to the act, suicide bombing is sometimes referred to by different terms. Islamists often call the act a isshtahad (meaning martyrdom operation), and the suicide bomber a shahid (pl. shuhada, literally 'witness' and usually translated as 'martyr'). The term denotes one who died in order to testify his faith in God (Allah), for example those who die while waging jihad bis saif; it is applied to suicide bombers, by the Palestinian Authority among others, in part to overcome Islamic strictures against suicide. This term has been embraced by Hamas, Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades, Fatah and other Palestinian factions engaging in suicide bombings. (The title is by no means restricted to suicide bombers and can be used for a wide range of people, including innocent victims; Muhammad al-Durra, for example, is among the most famous shuhada of the Intifada, and even a few non-Palestinians such as Tom Hurndall and Rachel Corrie have been called shahid.)

"Homicide bombing"

Some effort has been made to replace the term suicide bombing with the term homicide bombing. The first such use was by White House Press Secretary Ari Fleischer in April 2002.[11] The Fox News Channel and the New York Post, both owned by Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation, are two media organizations that have adopted the term. Fox News began using the term after it was suggested by former Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu during an interview.

Supporters of the term homicide bombing argue that since the primary purpose of such a bombing is to kill other people rather than merely to end one's own life, the term homicide is a more accurate description than suicide. Others argue that homicide bombing is a less useful term, since it fails to capture the distinctive feature of suicide bombings, namely the bombers' use of means which they are aware will inevitably bring about their own deaths. For instance, Timothy McVeigh and Theodore Kaczynski could both ostensibly be called "homicide bombers," but neither could be called a "suicide bomber." To this extent it has also been argued that most bombings are "homicide bombings," as loss of life is their inherent aim.

"Genocide bombing"

Another attempted replacement is genocide bombing. The term was coined in 2002 by Canadian member of parliament Irwin Cotler, in an effort to replace the term homicide bomber as a substitute for "suicide bomber."[12] The intention was to focus attention on the alleged intention of genocide by militant Palestinians in their calls to "Wipe Israel off the map."[13]

Notes

  1. ↑ http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/ayman_bk.html
  2. ↑ Pape, Dying to Win, (2005), p.28-9
  3. ↑ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/4689739.stm#
  4. ↑ Pape, Dying to Win (2005) p.128
  5. ↑ Pape, Dying to Win (2005) p.92
  6. ↑ Pape, Dying to Win (2005) p.110-3
  7. ↑ Pape, Dying to Win (2005) p.60
  8. ↑ Pape, Dying to Win (2005) p.200-216
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.ksg/povterr.pdf
  10. ↑ http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/05-terror.html Quote
  11. ↑ http://www.wordspy.com/words/homicidebombing.asp
  12. ↑ Kesher Talk (June 24, 2002). Retrieved 2006-05-13.
  13. ↑ Washington Times Commentary.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Barlow, Hugh. Dead for Good: Martyrdom and the Rise of the Suicide Bomber, Paradigm Publishers, 2007. ISBN 1-59451-324-4
  • Bloom, Mia. Dying to Kill: The Allure of Suicide Terror, Columbia University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-231-13320-0
  • Hudson, Rex. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Lyons Press, 2002. ISBN 1-58574-754-8
  • Pape, Robert. Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism, Random House, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-6317-5
  • Skaine, Rosemarie. Female Suicide Bombers, McFarland Publishers, 2006. ISBN 0-7864-2615-2

External links

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