Difference between revisions of "Sufism" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Sufism''' is a [[Mysticism|mystical]] tradition of [[Islam]] encompassing a diverse range of beliefs and practices dedicated to [[Allah]] (God) as the epitome of divine Love. Sufis differ from their fellow Muslims in their concern with directly experiencing God as Love. They believe that rationalism and logic are limited in explaining the immense nature of God; thus Sufis seek to free themselves from the limitation of matter and even rational thought to realize God (Tell, 2002). They developed ecstatic devotional praxis oriented mysticism to annihilate the self and achieve a connection with Allah (Omaima, 1994).
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{{Islam}}
  
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Sufi thought likely emerged from the [[Middle East]] in the eighth century. Sufi orders (Tariqas) may be associated with [[Shi'a Islam]], [[Sunni Islam]], other currents of Islam, or a combination of multiple traditions. Sufi groups are now found around the world.  
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'''Sufism''' (from Arabic (صوف), ''Suf'' meaning "wool") is a [[Mysticism|mystical]] tradition of [[Islam]] dedicated to experiencing [[Allah]]/[[God]] as the epitome of divine [[Love]]. Sufis can be associated with [[Shi'a Islam]], [[Sunni Islam]], other currents of Islam, or a combination of multiple traditions. Emerging duing the eighth century C.E. in the [[Middle East]], though having earlier precedents, Sufism subsequently developed into several different orders known as ''Tariqas.'' The most famous of these orders is the Mevlevi tradition associated with the [[poet]] and mystic, [[Rumi|Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi]].
  
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Sufis believe that excessive rationalism blocks human understanding of God's immersive and loving nature. Consequently, they focus on directly experiencing God through ecstatic practice in order to efface the obstructing self. Sufis have endured persecution over the years due to their unconventional and controversial approach to Allah, which has been perceived by some to be blasphemous.
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In recent times, the teachings of Sufism have spread to the West and Sufi writings have become best-selling works.
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[[Image:Whirling_Dervishes,_Konya,_Turkey,_RMO.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Whirling Dervishes perform near the Mevlevi Museum in Konya, Turkey.]]
 
==Etymology==
 
==Etymology==
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There are several possible etymologies for the word ''Sufi'' (تصوف, ):
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There are several possible etymologies for the word ''Sufi'' (تصوف), which are indicated below:
  
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The conventional view is that the word originates from Suf (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore. However, not all sufis wear cloaks or clothes of wool. Another etymological theory states that the root word of Sufi is the Arabic word safa (صفا), meaning purity. This places the emphasis of Sufism on purity of heart and soul. 
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*The conventional view is that the term originates from ''Suf'' (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, referring to the simple cloaks that the early ascetics wore. However, not all Sufis wear cloaks or clothes of wool.  
  
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Others suggest the origin is from "Ashab al-Suffa" ("Companions of the Veranda") or "Ahl al-Suffa" ("People of the Veranda"), who were a group of Muslims during the time of the Prophet Muhammad who spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque devoted to prayer.
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*Another possible etymology is that the root word of Sufi comes from the Arabic word ''safa'' (صفا), meaning "purity." This approach places the emphasis of Sufism on purity of heart and soul.  
  
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Yet another etymology, advanced by the 10th century author Al-Biruni is that the word, as 'Sufiya', is linked with the Greek term for 'Wisdom' - 'Sophia.'
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*Another suggested origin is from "Ashab al-Suffa" ("Companions of the Veranda") or "Ahl al-Suffa" ("People of the Veranda"), who were a group of Muslims during the time of the Prophet Muhammad that spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque devoted to prayer.
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*A final etymology, advanced by the tenth-century author Al-Biruni, is that the word ''Sufiya'' is linked with the Greek term for 'Wisdom' - 'Sophia.'
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
 
===Origins===
 
===Origins===
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Sufism may have originated in the teachings of the Prophet [[Muhammad]] although some Sufi teachers have claimed that Sufism pre-dates Islam and simply adopted Islam as a suitable vehicle. Almost all traditional Sufi schools (orders) trace their "chains of transmission" back to the Prophet via his cousin and son-in-law Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib except the Naqshbandi order which traces its origin to caliph [[Abu Bakr]]. From their point of view, the esoteric teaching was given to those who had the capacity to contain the direct experiential gnosis of God, and then passed on from teacher to student through the centuries.  
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Sufism is said to have originated during the time of Prophet [[Mohammad]] (seventh century C.E.). Almost all traditional Sufi orders trace their "chains of transmission" back to the Prophet via his cousin and son-in-law ''[[Ali ibn Abi Talib]]'' (except the Naqshbandi order which traces its origin to caliph [[Abu Bakr]]). Each order believes that Sufi teachings were passed on from teacher to student through the centuries.  
  
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Some [[orientalist]] scholars believe that Sufism was essentially the result of Islam evolving in a more mystic direction. For example, Annemarie Schimmel proposes that Sufism in its early stages of development meant nothing but the interiorization of Islam. And Louis Massignon states: "It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development."<ref>Massignon, Louis. Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane.  Paris: Vrin, 1954. p. 104.</ref>
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Some scholars argue that Sufism evolved from an interiorization of Islam, such as Louis Massignon who states: "It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development."<ref>Louis Massignon, ''Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane'' (Paris: Vrin, 1954), 104.</ref> Sufism may also have emerged from the practice of Muslim [[asceticism]]. People of ascetic temperaments were found throughout Muslim communities early in the history of Islam.<ref name=waines> Waines, 2003</ref> These ascetics focused on introspection and maintained a strict control over their life and behavior. They followed a lifestyle of modesty, temperance, contentment and the denial of luxury. Their practices included fasting, wearing light clothing in the depths of winter, or withdrawing themselves from the world.<ref>Melchert, 1996</ref> Other theories have been suggested for the origins of Sufism, which link it to outside non-Muslim influences.<ref>A number of scholars perceive influences from pre-Islamic and non-Islamic schools of [[mysticism]] and philosophy on Sufism such as [[Gnosticism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Hinduism]]. [http://www.khamush.com/sufism/persian_sufism.htm The Persian Sufis] Retrieved June 3, 2008.</ref>
  
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In any case, people of ascetic temperaments emerged throughout Muslim communities early in the history of Islam (Waines, 2003). Such ascetics focused on self-introspection; although they did not withdraw from society, they maintained a strict control over their life and behaviour (Waines, 2003). They would continually fast, wear light clothing in the depths of winter, or withdraw themselves from the world (Melchert, 1996). The ascetics endorsed a lifestyle of modesty, temperance, contentment and the denial of luxury (Melchert, 1996).
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===Development===
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If early Sufism arose out of the practice of asceticism&mdash;the turning away from worldly life to concentrate on prayer to Allah&mdash;then it likely resulted in being limited to a small number of devoted practitioners. However, by the middle of the ninth century, Sufi mysticism started to burgeon. One major figure and catalyst in its growth was the female mystic [[Rabiah al-Adawiyah]] (died 801), who emphasized the absolute love for Allah above everything else. The shift of Sufism from asceticism to divine love captured the attention of the masses and elites, and soon Sufism began to flourish in Baghdad spreading then to [[Persian Empire|Persia]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[North Africa]], and Muslim Spain.<ref name=waines/>
  
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In the middle of the ninth century, Islamic mysticism started to burgeon from the practice of asceticism (Melchert, 1996). The transformation from the individual practice of piety to the movement of mysticism was first spawned in the major cultural centres of Iraq and Iran (Waines, 2003).  
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Figures such as Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm Bin Hian, Hasan Ul-Basri and Sayid Ibn Ul Mussib are regarded as the first mystics in Islam. Rabia was a female Sufi and known for her love and passion for God.  
  
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The Sufi Abu Bakr b. Jahdar al-Shibli redefined asceticism in Sufi terms as “turning away of the heart from things to the Lord of things” (Waines, 2003, p. 137). His words express the difference between the ascetics’ quest and the Sufis’ quest; while ascetics focused on self-denial as a means of achieving blessedness after death, Sufis were concerned with directly connecting with the divine and eternal through contemplation (Waines, 2003).
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===Golden Age===
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[[Image:Turkey.Konya008.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Rumi`s tomb in Konya.]]
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From 1200-1500 C.E., Sufism experienced an era of increased activity in various parts of the Islamic world. This period (especially the thirteenth century) is considered to be the "Golden Age" of Sufism. At this time, many of the major figures in the history of Sufism were alive and writing their monumental classics of Sufi [[literature]] and [[poetry]].  
  
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The ninth century mystic Nubian Dhu al-Nun al-Misri clearly expressed what was to become the backbone of Sufi philosophy, saying, “Let him direct his soul to the greatness of God, for then it will dissolve and become pure. Whoever regards the power of God, his own power goes away, for all souls are poor next to his awesomeness” (Melchert, 1996).
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The Sufis dispersed throughout the Middle East, particularly in the areas previously under Byzantine influence and control. This period was characterized by the practice of an apprentice ''(murid)'' placing himself under the spiritual direction of a Master (shaykh or pir). Schools were developed, concerning themselves with the topics of mystical experience, education of the heart to rid itself of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through progressive stages ''(maqaam)'' and states ''(haal)''. The schools were formed by reformers who felt their core values and manners had disappeared in a society marked by material prosperity that they saw as eroding the spiritual life. Additionally, many Sufi brotherhoods ''(turuq)'' flourished with lodges and hospices that became places for practicing Sufis and other mystics to stay and retreat. One of the first Sufi orders was the Yasawi order, named after Khwajah Ahmed Yesevi in modern [[Kazakhstan]]. Another order, called the Kubrawiya order, originated in Central Asia. The most prominent Sufi master of this era is Abdul Qadir Jilani, the founder of the Qadiriyyah order in Iraq. Others included [[Rumi|Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi]], founder of the [[Mevlevi]] order in Turkey, Sahabuddin Suharwardi in Asia minor, and Moinuddin Chishti in India.  
  
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His disciple, Al-Kharraz, (890 – 891), was the first to speak of ''f’ana'' (annihilation) and ''baqa'' (remaining) to describe how Sufis sought to lose consciousness of their own self to properly live in full contemplation of the divine’s existence (Melchert, 1996).
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As Sufism grew and as the Mongol empire expanded from Persia through Central Asia, Sufis absorbed ideas from local people who followed such ancient traditions as [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Vedanta]], [[Gnosticism]], [[Buddhism]], or [[Shamanism]].<ref>White, 1965; Schwartz, 2002</ref> Thus Sufism came to bridge gaps between the Muslim population and rulers and the local people they ruled over.<ref>Schwartz, 2002</ref>
  
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A number of scholars perceive influences on Sufism from pre-Islamic and non-Islamic schools of [[mysticism]] and philosophy. Some of these new perspectives originate from the synthesis of Persian civilization with Islam, an emphasis on spiritual aspects of Islam, and the incorporation of ideas and practices from other mysticisms such as [[Gnosticism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Hinduism]] into Islam [http://www.khamush.com/sufism/persian_sufism.htm]. There are also claims regarding [[ancient Egypt]]ian roots of Sufism which are not widely accepted. [http://www.egypt-tehuti.org/articles/sufism.html].
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===Modern Period===
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In the modern period, Sufism has started to reemerge, and has tens of millions of followers in Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and West Africa; hundreds of millions more across the world follow Sufi ways.<ref name=tell>Tell, 2002</ref>
  
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Sufism, during 1200-1500 C.E., experienced an era of increased activity in various parts of the Islamic world.  This period is considered as the "Classical Period" or the "Golden Age" of Sufism. Lodges and [[hospice]]s soon became not only places to house Sufi students, but also places for practising Sufis and other mystics to stay and retreat.  
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In recent times, Sufism has spread to the West and the writings of Sufi masters and poets have become best-selling works.<ref name=tell/> Additionally, there has been a growth of non-traditional Sufi movements in the West. Some examples are Universal Sufism movement, the Mevlevi Order of America, the Golden Sufi Center, the Sufi Foundation of America, and Sufism Reoriented.
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The propagation of Sufism started from its origin in Baghdad, Iraq, and spread to [[Persian Empire|Persia]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[North Africa]], and Muslim Spain. There were tests of conciliation between Sufism and the other Islamic sciences (sharia, fiqh, etc.), as well as the beginning of the Sufi brotherhoods (turuq).
 
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One of the first orders to originate was the Yasawi order, named after Khwajah Ahmed Yesevi in modern [[Kazakhstan]]. The Kubrawiya order, originating in Central Asia, was named after Najmeddin Kubra, known as the "saint-producing shaykh" , since a number of his disciples became shaykhs. The most prominent Sufi master of this era is Abdul Qadir Jilani, the founder of the Qadiriyyah order in Iraq. Others included [[Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi|Rumi]], founder of the [[Mevlevi]] order in Turkey, Sahabuddin Suharwardi in Asia minor, and Moinuddin Chishti in India.
 
  
 
==Sufi Philosophy==
 
==Sufi Philosophy==
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Sufis believe that love is a projection of the essence of [[God]] to the [[universe]].
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Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such may be compared to other forms of religious [[mysticism]]. Sufis make extensive use of [[parable]], [[allegory]], and [[metaphor]] to express divine longing and mystical experience. The following allegory helps to explain the Sufi approach to God:
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The central doctrine of Sufism, sometimes called ''Wahdat'' or Unity, is the understanding of Tawhid: all phenomena are manifestations of a single reality, or ''Wujud'' (being), or ''al-Haq'' (Truth, God). The essence of being/Truth/God is devoid of every form and quality, and hence unmanifested, yet it is inseparable from every form and phenomenon either material or spiritual. It is often understood to imply that every phenomenon is an aspect of Truth and at the same time attribution of existence to it is false. The chief aim of all Sufis then is to let go of all notions of duality, therefore the individual self also, and realize the divine unity.
 
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Sufis teach in personal groups, as the interaction of the master is considered necessary for the growth of the pupil. They make extensive use of [[parable]], [[allegory]], and [[metaphor]], and it is held by Sufis that meaning can only be reached through a process of seeking the truth, and knowledge of oneself. Although philosophies vary between different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such may be compared to various forms of [[mysticism]] such as [[Zen]] Buddhism and [[Gnosticism]].
 
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The following metaphor, credited to an unknown Sufi scholar, helps describe this line of thought.
 
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:''There are three ways of knowing a thing. Take for instance a flame. One can be told of the flame, one can see the flame with his own eyes, and finally one can reach out and be burned by it. In this way, we Sufis seek to be burned by God.''
 
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A significant part of [[Persian literature]] comes from the Sufis, who created great books of [[poetry]] (which include for example the ''Walled Garden of Truth'', ''[[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]]'', the ''Conference of the Birds'' and the ''Masnavi''), all of which contain teachings of the Sufis.
 
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Because of Sufism’s distinctive philosophy and practices, both Muslims and non-Muslims have thought of Sufism as a separate belief system, alien to Islam (Chittick, 2000). However, the Sufi tradition is in fact grounded in three themes that repeatedly appear in the Qu’ran, which are “submission” (Islam), “faith” (Iman), and “doing the beautiful” (Ihsan). Sufism takes “doing the beautiful” as its especial domain, which is based on submission and faith (Chittick, 2000).
 
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At the surface level, Islam focuses on instructing followers on right and wrong practices, giving it its systematic laws or Sharia (Chittick, 2000).  At a deeper level, Islam teaches people how to understand their world and their own minds, giving them “faith.” (Chittick, 2000). At its deepest level, Islam is concerned with helping people transform themselves so that they are in harmony with all being. Proper practices and faith focused together can transform the practitioner into the embodiment of perfection (Chittick, 2000). In Islamic tradition, certain Sufis most clearly expressed this third, deepest level of Islam. In this respect, Sufism appears to be at the heart of any true expression of Islam. (Chittick, 2000).  At this deepest level, Sufis understand the Prophet’s saying, “God was, and nothing was Him” to mean that God’s existence is supreme to all others. God alone possesses reality and provides the reality to everything else in the world (Chittick, 2000, p. 12). Understanding this fact is the first step to true discernment between what is real and unreal and between God and the world (Chittick, 2000).
 
  
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According to Sufis, people who sense this special perception within themselves and who work to transcend ordinary human constraints can further develop their minds (Hardin, 1973). Sufis believe that certain mental or physical activity can lead to the evolution of the mind as a higher functioning thing (Hardin, 1973; Semaan, 1979). Through this evolution, the Sufi learns how to “know” and distinguish between facts and the inner workings of reality (Hardin, 1973).  
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:"There are three ways of knowing a thing. Take for instance a flame. One can be told of the flame, one can see the flame with his own eyes, and finally one can reach out and be burned by it. In this way, we Sufis seek to be burned by God."
  
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==Sufism and Love==
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Sufis understand the Prophet [[Mohammed]]’s saying, “God was, and nothing was Him” to mean that God’s existence is supreme to all others. God alone possesses reality and provides the reality to everything else in the world (Chittick, 2000, p. 12). People who sense this special perception within themselves and who work to transcend ordinary human constraints can further develop their minds to “know” God (Hardin, 1973). The ninth-century mystic Nubian Dhu al-Nun al-Misri clearly expressed what was to become the backbone of Sufi philosophy by saying, “Let him direct his soul to the greatness of God, for then it will dissolve and become pure. Whoever regards the power of God, his own power goes away, for all souls are poor next to his awesomeness” (Melchert, 1996). His disciple, Al-Kharraz, (890 – 891 C.E.), was the first to speak of ''f’ana'' (annihilation) and ''baqa'' (remaining) to describe how Sufis sought to lose consciousness of their own self to properly live in full contemplation of the divine’s existence (Melchert, 1996).
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The Qur’an states that God created the world out of love for Muhammad '''(Please find/give specific passage)''' (White, 1965). As the world was created for the sake of love, love has an elevated status in the Sufis’ understanding of the world (White, 1965).  
 
  
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The Sufis believe that the highest form of human love is the pure love for the Divine. Humans can achieve this love if they give themselves entirely to the Beloved’s will (Abdin, 2004). The heart of a believer should be so overflowing with God’s love that there is no other room for any other emotion in it (Abdin, 2004).  
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Building on these notions, Sufism developed several key doctrines including ''Wahdat'' (meaning "Unity"), which affirms the Oneness of Allah ''(tawhid)'', and ''Tawakkal'' (meaning "absolute trust in God"). The former doctrine is predicated on the belief that all phenomena are manifestations of a single reality called ''Wujud'' (being), or ''al-Haq'' (Truth, God). The essence of being/Truth/God is devoid of every form and quality, and hence unmanifested, yet it is inseparable from every form and phenomenon either material or spiritual. It is often understood to imply that every phenomenon is an aspect of Truth and at the same time attribution of existence to it is false. The chief aim of all Sufis is to let go of all notions of duality, including the individual self and realize this divine unity. In this way, Sufis seek to directly connect with the divine. [[Junayd]] was among the first theorist of Sufism; he concerned himself with ‘fanaa’ and ‘baqaa’, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning worldly phenomena.
  
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Affirming this sentiment, the great female Sufi Rabi’a Al Adawiyya said, “I love God: I have no time left in which to hate the devil.” (Abdin, 2004).
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===Sufism and Love===
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The Sufis believe that the highest form of human love is the pure love for the Divine. Humans can achieve this love if they give themselves entirely to the Allah's will (Abdin, 2004). Sufis consider love for family, friends, material goods, or even Paradise all to be distractions from the love of God (Chittick, 2000). The heart of a believer should be so overflowing with God’s love that there is no other room for any other emotion in it (Abdin, 2004). Affirming this sentiment, the great female Sufi Rabi’a Al Adawiyya said, “I love God: I have no time left in which to hate the devil.” (Abdin, 2004). Love allows the believer to seize the spiritual beauty of God that is present in all things, and therefore love God in all things and love all things through God (Abdin, 2004).  
  
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Sufis consider love for family, friends, material goods, or even Paradise all to be distractions from the love of God (Chittick, 2000). Love allows the believer to seize the spiritual beauty of God that is present in all things, and therefore love God in all things and love all things through God (Abdin, 2004).
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Sufis believe that love is a projection of the essence of [[God]] to the [[universe]]. The most famous and respected of the Sufi poets, Jalaludin Rumi, wrote extensively of love and the overwhelming joy of joining with the divine:
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:“What would happen, youth, if you became a lover like me –
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The Sufi Hhusayn b. Mansur al-Hallaj, who was executed for calling himself “the Real” is often held up as a model for the intensity of his love of God. His love for God reached its utmost limit when he realized that nothing but God existed (Chittick, 2000; Tell, 2002).  
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:Every day madness, every night weeping.  
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:His image not out of your eyes for an instant –
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The Sufi poet [[Rumi]] explained that if Hallaj had said, “You are God and I am the servant,” that would have created duality by reaffirming his own existence. If Hallaj had said, “He is the Real,” that too is duality, for there can’t be “He” without “I.” Hence, Hallaj said, “I am the Real” to acknowledge other than God, nothing else existed. Rumi writes, “Hallaj had been annihilated, so those were the words of the Real.” (Chittick, 2000, p. 17).
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:Two hundred lights in your eyes from that face.  
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:You would cut yourself off from your friends,
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The words of Sufis often can not be understood through their surface meaning alone and so too, Hallaj’s statement is interpreted to have a deeper meaning (Tell, 2002; Abdin, 2004).
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:You would wash your hands of the world:
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:“I have detached myself from myself,
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Realizing that language was an inadequate and even dangerous way of describing their spiritual journey, Sufis became careful in using language to express themselves (Waines, 2003). They stressed the importance of the practices of Islam and further austerities, but emphasized the inner meaning of these practices as giving one’s self to God (Melchert, 1996).
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:I have become totally Yours.
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:“When I mix with these people, I am water with oil,
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:Outwardly joined, inwardly separate.”
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:Leaving behind all selfish desires, you would become mad,  
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:But not any madness a doctor could cure.
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:If for an instant the physicians tasted this heartache,  
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:They would escape their chains and tear up their books.  
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:Enough! Leave all this behind, seek a mine of sugar!
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:Become effaced in that sugar like milk in pastry.” (Chittick, 2000, p. 72)
  
 
==Sufi Devotional Practices==
 
==Sufi Devotional Practices==
  
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'''(Whurling Dervishes here?)'''
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Remembrance of [[Allah]], or ''dhikr'', forms the backbone of Sufi practices (Waines, 2003). Repeating the name of God is a form of dhikr, which is thought to be a direct manifestation of the divine on a human level. Additionally, [[poetry]], [[dancing]] and [[music]] are devotional tools used by Sufis to remind the seeker of God’s presence. These practices were also used to heighten awareness and concentration of one’s inner mind, and were a central part of Sufism from the early days.  
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For the Sufis, each of the rituals of faith was valid according to its inner purpose and meaning. For example, a Sufi may view the pilgrimage to Mecca as an opportunity to contemplate Allah or see fasting as a way to weaken the physical state so that a person can focus inwards to come closer to the Truth (Chittick, 2000). Sufism emphasizes that the practice of the Five pillars should endow followers with knowledge and inner transformation. Islamic faith and practices are seen as the basis for Sufism, as both faith and practices provide the tools for spiritual growth (Loutfy & Berguno, 2005).
 
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Remembrance of Allah, or dhikr, forms the backbone of Sufi practices (Waines, 2003). Repeating the name of God is a form of dhikr; the name of God is thought to be a direct manifestation of the divine on a human level. God’s name is intended to fill up the mind and consciousness of Sufi seekers so that they can achieve “union” with God and fully realize human perfection (Chittick, 2000).
 
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A typical Sufi gathering to engage in dhikr might take place amidst the open night’s air (Waines, 2003). Some two dozen men would gather in a circle, seated on reed mats, and would begin by chanting the first chapter of the Qur’an, followed by chanting the verse, “There is no God but Allah.” This chant would first be done slowly to a rhythmic bowing of the head and body, and then at a quicker pace, and shifting to a different tune of the same words. Followers would sing about mystical love, accompanied by a flute. The meeting would reach a fever pitch after about two hours, and it was not uncommon for one or more participants to collapse in an ecstatic state (Waines, 2003).
 
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Poetry, dancing and music are other devotional tools which remind the seeker of God’s presence (Waines, 2003). These practices were also used to heighten awareness and concentration of one’s inner mind, and were a central part of Sufism from early days (Waines, 2003).
 
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The poetic gems of Sufism can be found in every major Islamic literature from Turkish to Arabic to Persian. Sufi poets describe the experience of God’s presence in beautiful, unconventional and even shocking ways, which could offend the conventionally pious (Omaima, 1994).  
 
  
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Perhaps the most famous and respected of the Sufi poets, Jalaludin Rumi, wrote extensively of love and the overwhelming joy of joining with the divine.
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As Sufi devotional practices evolved over the centuries, a more elaborate system developed that aimed to facilitate moving the seeker through seven stages of consciousness (Semaan, 1979; Safi, 2003). In the first stage, Sufi followers were to give themselves over to service of their brethren and to following the law. In the second stage, Sufis were to practice righteous actions as prescribed by the [[Qur'an|holy Qur'an]], and the further rigors of asceticism. Through these practices, Sufis aimed to be imbued with the knowledge of an inner light. The third stage sought the experience of ecstasy in the presence of God moving towards the sixth stage of finding union with God. Finally, in the seventh stage, the Sufi reaches annihilation&mdash;the self is extinguished and no longer exists independently from God (Semaan, 1979). The one who has reached the pinnacle of these stages is said to be a ''Mu’min'', or pure believer, who can communicate directly with God (Safi, 2003). At the seventh stage, the Sufi is said to see everything as a manifestation of God and is stripped of all notions of culture, race and ideology (Safi, 2003).  
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:“What would happen, youth, if you became a lover like me –
 
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:Every day madness, every night weeping.
 
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:His image not out of your eyes for an instant –
 
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:Two hundred lights in your eyes from that face.
 
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:You would cut yourself off from your friends,
 
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:You would wash your hands of the world:
 
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:“I have detached myself from myself,
 
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:I have become totally Yours.
 
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:“When I mix with these people, I am water with oil,
 
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:Outwardly joined, inwardly separate.”
 
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:PLeaving behind all selfish desires, you would become mad,
 
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:But not any madness a doctor could cure.
 
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:If for an instant the physicians tasted this heartache,
 
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:They would escape their chains and tear up their books.
 
−
:Enough! Leave all this behind, seek a mine of sugar!
 
−
:Become effaced in that sugar like milk in pastry.” (Chittick, 2000, p. 72)
 
−
 
 
−
Rumi also became the founder of the Mevlevi order, an order famous for their whirling dance (El-Zein, 2000). Along with anticipation and anguish, the dance of the whirling dervish symbolizes the exhilaration that comes from the search for divine love (El-Zein, 2000; Tell, 2002). The whirling movements of the dervishes are performed to the sound of a reed and drum; the intensity of the movement mounts as the Sufis attempt to transcend their body and rational consciousness (Tell, 2002). Their dance becomes part of the universal cosmic dance that was begun and is sustained by the divine music of love (And, 1977; Omaima, 1994).
 
−
 
 
−
===Seven Stages of Sufi Consciousness===
 
−
 
 
−
Typically, the Sufi seeker aims to move through seven stages of consciousness (Semaan, 1979; Safi, 2003).  
 
−
 
 
−
In the first stage, Sufi followers give themselves over to service of their brethren and to following the law. In the second stage, Sufis practice righteous actions as prescribed by the Quran, and the further rigors of asceticism. Through the proper practice, Sufis aim to be imbued with knowledge and the coming of an inner light. Beyond the third stage of knowledge, the Sufi experiences ecstasy in the presence of God (Semaan, 1979). In the presence of God, Sufis recognize Truth, or the true nature of God and life. Realizing Truth allows the Sufi to reach the sixth stage of finding union with God. Finally, in the seventh stage, the Sufi reaches annihilation – the self is extinguished and no longer exists independently from God (Semaan, 1979). The one who has reached the pinnacle of these stages is said to be a ''Mu’min'', or pure believer, who can communicate directly with God (Safi, 2003). Once the Sufi reaches the seventh stage, he or she sees everything as a manifestation of God and is stripped of all notions of culture, race and ideology (Safi, 2003).  
 
 
:“It is then and only then…that the human being steps into the true radiance and beauty of God Consciousness, which recognizes no differences in the human family” (Safi, 2003, p. 239)
 
:“It is then and only then…that the human being steps into the true radiance and beauty of God Consciousness, which recognizes no differences in the human family” (Safi, 2003, p. 239)
  
−
==Famous Sufi Masters==
+
Virtually all Sufis also distinguish ''Lataif-e-Sitta'' (The Six Subtleties) that designate the spiritual centers of sensory perception that lie dormant in an individual (i.e. Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa). Sufis seek to activate and awaken these centers. The purification of the elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God's love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God's attributes (Dhikr), and completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi and Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties and the transformative results from their activation, the basic Sufi psychology bears some resemblance to the schemata of [[kabbalah]] and the [[Tantra|tantric]] [[chakra]] system.
−
[[Image:Higherself.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Rumi]] (1207-1273 C.E.) sufi and poet]]
 
−
The Sufis dispersed throughout the Middle East, particularly in the areas previously under Byzantine influence and control. This period was characterised by the practice of an apprentice ([[murid]]) placing himself under the spiritual direction of a Master (shaykh or pir).  
 
−
 
 
−
Schools were developed, concerning themselves with the topics of mystical experience, education of the heart to rid itself of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through progressive stages ([[maqaam]]) and states ([[haal]]). The schools were formed by reformers who felt their core values and manners had disappeared in a society marked by material prosperity that they saw as eroding the spiritual life.
 
−
 
 
−
Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm Bin Hian, Hasan Ul-Basri and Sayid Ibn Ul Mussib are regarded as the first mystics among the "Taabi'een" in Islam. Rabia was a female Sufi and known for her love and passion for God. Junayd was among the first theorist of Sufism; he concerned himself with ‘fanaa’ and ‘baqaa’, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning wordly phenomena.
 
−
 
 
−
'''(Add Rumi here)'''
 
−
 
 
−
'''(Al-Ghazali too?)'''
 
−
 
 
−
==Sufi Literature and Poetry==
 
−
Sufism has produced a large body of poetry in Arabic, Turkish, [[Persian language|Persian]], Kurdish, Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi, which notably includes the works of [[Ibn al-Farid]], [[Ibn Arabi]], [[Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi]], Farid Ud-Din Attar, Abdul Qader Bedil, [[Bulleh Shah]], Amir Khusro, Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Sachal Sarmast, Sultan Bahu, as well as numerous traditions of devotional dance, such as Sufi whirling, and music, such as Qawwali.
 
  
−
[[Al Ghazali]]'s treatises, the "Reconstruction of Religious Sciences" and the "Alchemy of Happiness," argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an making it compatible with mainstream Islamic thought and theology. It was around 1000 C.E. that the early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations.
+
===Muraqaba===
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[[Image:data_durbar_(9).JPG|thumb|170px||Data Durbar Complex in [[Pakistan]] , Mausoleum of Data Ganj Bakhsh]]
+
''Muraqaba'' (Persian: Tamarkoz) is the word used by many Sufis when referring to the practice of [[meditation]]. The Arabic word literally means "to observe, guard or control one's thoughts and desires." In some Sufi orders, ''muraqaba'' may involve concentrating one's mind on the names of God, on a verse of the Qur'an, or on certain Arabic letters that have special significance.
−
 
 
−
==Sufi concepts==
 
−
 
 
−
===The Six Subtleties===
 
−
Drawing from Qur'anic verses, virtually all Sufis distinguish [[Lataif-e-Sitta]] (The Six Subtleties), '''Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr,  Khafi & Akhfa'''. These lataif (singular : latifa) designate various psychospiritual "organs" or, faculties of sensory perception.
 
−
 
 
−
Sufic development involves the awakening of these spiritual centers of perception that lie dormant in an individual. Each center is associated with a particular colour and general area of the body, ofttimes with a particular prophet, and varies from Order to Order. The help of a guide is considered necessary to help activate these centers. After undergoing this process, the dervish is said to reach a certain type of "completion."
 
−
 
 
−
Man gets acquainted with the lataif one by one by [[Muraqaba]] (Sufi Meditation), [[Dhikr]] (Remembrance of God) and purification of one's psyche from negative thoughts, emotions, and actions. Loving God and one's fellow, irrespective of his race, religion or nationality, and without consideration for any possible reward, is the key to ascension according to Sufis.
 
−
 
 
−
These six "organs" or faculties: Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa, and the purificative activities applied to them, contain the basic orthodox Sufi philosophy. The purification of the elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God's love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God's attributes (Dhikr), and completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi & Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties and the transformative results from their activation, the basic Sufi psychology is outlined and bears some resemblance to the schemata of [[kabbalah]] and the [[Tantra|tantric]] [[chakra]] system.
 
−
 
 
−
==Sufi practices==
 
−
[[Image:Sudan sufis.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Sufi man goes into a trance during a ritual in [[Khartoum]], [[Sudan]]]]
 
−
===Meditation===
 
−
Muraqaba or ([[Persian]]: Tamarkoz) is the word used by many Sufis when referring to the practice of [[meditation]]. The [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word literally means observe, guard or control one's thoughts and desires. In some Sufi orders, muraqaba may involve concentrating one's mind on the [[99 Names of God|names of God]], on a verse of the [[Qur'an]], or on certain [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic letters]] that have special significance. Muraqaba in other orders may involve the Sufi aspirant focusing on his or her [[murshid]], while others (such as the [[Azeemia]] order) imagine certain colors to achieve different spiritual states.
 
  
 
===Dhikr===
 
===Dhikr===
−
[[Dhikr]] (Zekr) is the remembrance of God commanded in the [[Qur'an]] for all [[Muslims]]. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from [[hadith]] literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God is considered dhikr.
+
''Dhikr'' is the remembrance of God commanded in the Qur'an for all [[Muslims]]. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from [[hadith]] literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God is considered dhikr.
  
−
It is interesting to note that the practice of Muraqaba and Dhikr have very close resemblence with the practices of the Jewish mystics. Muraqaba is very similar to the [[Merkavah]] practice, which is one of the meditations used by Kabbalists to attain higher states of consciousness. Kabbalists also use a practice called Zakhor which in Hebrew literally means remembrance. Zakhor serves the same purpose in Kabbalah as Dhikr serves in Sufism. Another thing to notice here is that there is not only similarity in practice but also a strong similarity in the spelling and sounding of the words in Sufism and Kabbalah. This may imply that the Sufi mystical system has its origins in [[Judaism]] and its mystical tradition the [[Kabbala]].
+
It is interesting to note that the practice of Muraqaba and Dhikr have very close resemblance with the practices of the Jewish mystics. Muraqaba is very similar to the Merkavah practice, which is one of the meditations used by Kabbalists to attain higher states of consciousness. Kabbalists also use a practice called Zakhor which in Hebrew literally means remembrance. Zakhor serves the same purpose in Kabbalah as Dhikr serves in Sufism. Another thing to notice here is that there is not only similarity in practice but also a strong similarity in the spelling and sounding of the words in Sufism and Kabbalah. This may imply that the Sufi mystical system has its origins in [[Judaism]] and its mystical tradition the [[Kabbala]].
  
−
Some [[Sufi]] orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, the [[liturgy]] of which may include [[recitation]], [[singing]], [[instrumental music]], [[dance]], [[costume]]s, [[incense]], [[meditation]], ecstasy, and |trance. (Touma 1996, p.162).
+
Some Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, the [[liturgy]] of which may include [[recitation]], [[singing]], [[instrumental music]], [[dance]], [[costume]]s, [[incense]], [[meditation]], ecstasy, and trance. (Touma 1996, p.162).
  
 
===Hadhra===
 
===Hadhra===
−
Hadhra is a dance associated with [[dhikr]] practiced primarily in the Arab world. The word Hadhra means Presence in Arabic. Sometimes the sufi songs, or dances are performed as an appeal for the Presence of God, his prophets, and angels.
+
''Hadhra'' is a dance associated with [[dhikr]] practiced primarily in the Arab world. The word Hadhra means Presence in Arabic. Sometimes the Sufi songs, or dances are performed as an appeal for the Presence of God, his prophets, and angels.
  
 
===Qawwali===
 
===Qawwali===
−
[[Qawwali]] is a form of devotional Sufi music common in [[Pakistan]], North [[India]], [[Afganistan]], [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]. It is known for its secular strains. Some of its modern-day masters have included [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]] and the [[Sabri Brothers]].
+
''[[Qawwali]]'' is a form of devotional Sufi music common in [[Pakistan]], North [[India]], [[Afganistan]], [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]. It is known for its secular strains. Some of its modern-day masters have included [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]] and the [[Sabri Brothers]].
  
−
===Sama===
+
===Sema===
−
[[Sufi whirling#Sama|Sama]] or Sema' (Arabic "listening") refers to [[Sufi]] worship practices involving music and dance (see ''[[Sufi whirling]]''). In Uyghur culture, this includes a dance form also originally associated with Sufi ritual. See Qawwali origins and [http://www.osa.co.uk/qawwali_history.html ''Origin and History of the Qawwali''], Adam Nayyar, Lok Virsa Research Centre, [[Islamabad]], 1988.
+
''Sema'' refers to Sufi worship practices involving music and dance. In Uyghur culture, this includes a dance form also originally associated with Sufi ritual.<ref> See Qawwali origins and ''Origin and History of the Qawwali'', Adam Nayyar, Lok Virsa Research Centre, Islamabad, 1988. </ref> The Mevlevi order, founded by [[Rumi]], became famous for their whirling dance (El-Zein, 2000). Along with anticipation and anguish, the dance of the whirling dervish symbolizes the exhilaration that comes from the search for divine love (El-Zein, 2000; Tell, 2002). The whirling movements of the dervishes are performed to the sound of a reed and drum; the intensity of the movement mounts as the Sufis attempt to transcend their body and rational consciousness (Tell, 2002). Their dance is said to be symbolic of the universal cosmic dance that was begun and is sustained by the divine music of love (And, 1977; Omaima, 1994).
  
 
===Khalwa===
 
===Khalwa===
−
Khalwa refers to a form of retreat, once widespread but now less common. A ''khalwa'' may be prescribed by the ''shaykh'' (spiritual advisor) of the ''murid'' or ''talib'' (student). Muslims believe that most of the prophets, and also Maryam (Mary) the mother of [[Islamic view of Jesus|Issa]] (Jesus), lived in some form of seclusion at some point in their life. Muhammad, for example, used to retreat to the cave where he received his first inspiration – but had been going there for many years prior to his meeting with the angel Gabriel. Similar examples include Moses' going into seclusion for 40 days in a cave in Mt. Sinai. Mary was in seclusion in the Jewish temple for a year, where only Zakariya was permitted to see her.
+
Khalwa refers to a form of retreat, once widespread but now less common. A ''khalwa'' may be prescribed by the ''shaykh'' (spiritual advisor) of the ''murid'' or ''talib'' (student). Muslims believe that most of the prophets, and also Maryam (Mary) the mother of [[Islamic view of Jesus|Issa]] (Jesus), lived in some form of seclusion at some point in their life. Muhammad, for example, used to retreat to the cave where he received his first inspiration&mdash;but had been going there for many years prior to his meeting with the angel Gabriel. Similar examples include Moses' going into seclusion for 40 days in a cave in Mt. Sinai. Mary was in seclusion in the Jewish temple for a year, where only Zakariya was permitted to see her.
  
−
===Nazar ill'al-murd===
+
==Sufi Literature and Poetry==
−
Nazar is a controversial and esoteric practice consisting of spiritual realization and union with the godhead. Also known as "contemplation of the beardless," or ''Shahed-bazi,'' "witness play" in Persian, it is seen as an act of worship intended to help one ascend to the absolute beauty that is God through the relative beauty that is a boy. Modern Sufi thought asserts that this contemplation uses imaginal [[yoga]] to transmute erotic desire into spiritual consciousness.
+
Sufism has produced a large body of [[poetry]] in Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Kurdish, Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi. Its poetic gems can be found in every major Islamic culture and literature. Notable Sufi writers include Ibn al-Farid, Ibn Arabi, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, Farid Ud-Din Attar, Abdul Qader Bedil, Bulleh Shah, Amir Khusro, Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Sachal Sarmast and Sultan Bahu.
  
−
==Orders of Sufism==
+
A significant part of Persian literature comes from Sufism, which produced great works of poetry such as the ''Walled Garden of Truth'', ''Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam'', the ''Conference of the Birds'' and the ''Masnavi'', all of which contain teachings of the Sufis. It was around 1000 C.E. that the early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations.  
−
===Traditional orders===
 
−
The traditional Sufi orders emphasize the role of Sufism within Islam. Therefore the [[Sharia]] (traditional Islamic law) and the [[Sunnah]] (customs of the Prophet) are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant. Among the oldest and most well known of the Sufi orders are the Qadiri, Chisti,  Oveyssi, Shadhili, Jerrahi, [[Naqshbandi]], [[Nimatullahi]], [[Mevlevi]] and the [[Ashrafi]]. Almost all the famous Sufi masters of the Islamic Caliphate times were also experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and live correct with Sufism one must be a practicing Muslim obeying the Sharia. In recent decades there has been a growth of non-traditional Sufi movements in the West. Some examples are Universal Sufism movement, the Mevlevi Order of America, the Golden Sufi Center, the Sufi Foundation of America, and Sufism Reoriented.  
 
  
−
Mainstream Sufism is seen by its scholars and supporters as a part of traditional Islam. However, there is a major line of non-Islamic or offshoot-Islamic Sufi thought that sees Sufism as predating Islam and being a [[Universalism|universal]] philosophy, that is independent of the [[Qur'an]] and the teachings of Prophet [[Muhammad]]. This view of Sufism has been popular in the [[Western world]], and the terms yogi and sufi are used interchangeably. Universal Sufism tends to be opposed by traditional Sufis, who argue that Sufism has always been practiced from within an Islamic framework and can never be separated from it. [[Inayat Khan founded [[Universal Sufism]] whilst also maintaining his lineage in [[Chishti]] sufism, and Idries Shah advocated similar concepts. Irina Tweedie and Abdullah Dougan also taught outside the Islamic context while maintaining the connection to their Naqshbandi heritage.
+
Sufi poets describe the experience of God’s presence in beautiful, unconventional and even shocking ways, which could offend the conventionally pious (Omaima, 1994). Realizing that language was an inadequate and even dangerous way of describing their spiritual journey, Sufis became careful in using language to express themselves (Waines, 2003). The words of Sufis often can not be understood through their surface meaning alone and they emphasized the inner meaning of these words as giving one’s self to God:
 +
:[However], The allegorical and often abstruse language used by Sufis in their texts when interpreted by unqualified people opens avenues for many misunderstandings. eg. The concept of divine unity Wahdat-ul-wujood which critics consider equivalent to [[pantheism]] and therefore incompatible with Islam. Sufi masters in many of their introductory texts caution aspirants from reading and interpreting texts by themselves. They hold that the subject can only be taught by a master to a student under strict guidance and supervision owing to its delicate nature.
  
−
==Traditional Islamic schools of thought and Sufism==
+
==Orders of Sufism==
 +
Sufis do not define Sufism as a school of legal jurisprudence (or Madhab). Often what distinguishes a person as a Sufi is their association with a Sufi order. Among the oldest and most well known of the Sufi orders (tariqas) are the Qadiri, Chisti, Oveyssi, Shadhili, Jerrahi, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi, Mevlevi and the Ashrafi. Classic Sufi tariqas insist on adherence to one of the four Madhabs of Fiqh and one of the two orthodox schools of Aqida. In this sense, traditional practitioners of Sufism do not see it as a sectarian group but just as a form of training necessary to cultivate spirituality and Ihsan in their lives.
  
−
Sufis do not define Sufism as a school of legal jurisprudence (called [[Madhab]]). Belief in Sufism is not sufficient for being recognized as a Sufi and what distinguishes a person as a Sufi is practicing Sufism, usually through association with a Sufi order. . Classic Sufi tariqas insist on adherence to one of the four Madhabs of [[Fiqh]] and one of the two orthodox schools of [[Aqida]]. In this sense, traditional practitioners of Sufism do not see it as an exclusive group but just as a form of training necessary to cultivate spirituality and [[Ihsan]] in their lives.  
+
Sufism was traditionally considered the systematization of the spiritual component of Islam. It dealt with matters of the heart (just as Fiqh dealt with the body and Aqida dealt with the intellect). Many of the greatest Islamic scholars wrote treatises on the subject (eg. [[Al-Ghazali]]'s ihya ulum-aldeen (احياء علوم الدين), Imam Nawawi's Bustan al-Arifeen etc.). Almost all the famous Sufi masters of the Islamic Caliphate times were also experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and live correct with Sufism one must be a practicing Muslim obeying the Sharia. Many of the traditional scholars who were part of famous Islamic institutions (eg. Al-Azhar) like [http://www.sufiway.net/ar_awliya_ibnataillah.html Ibn Ata'illah] were Sufi masters. Even today, many of the traditional Islamic universities like Al-Azhar endorse Sufism as a part of the religion of Islam.<ref name=rott>Nuh Ha Mim Keller, ''Reliance of the traveler'': “we certify that the above-mentioned translation corresponds to the Arabic original and confirms to the practice and faith of the orthodox Sunni community (ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama'a).”</ref>
  
−
Sufism was traditionally considered the systematisation of the spiritual component of Islam. It dealt with matters of the heart (just as [[Fiqh]] dealt with the body and [[Aqida]] dealt with the intellect). Many of the greatest Islamic scholars wrote treatises on the subject (eg. [[Al-Ghazali]]'s ihya ulum-aldeen (احياء علوم الدين), Imam [[Nawawi]]'s Bustan al-Arifeen etc.). Many of the traditional scholars who were part of famous Islamic institutions (eg. [[Al-Azhar]]) like [http://www.sufiway.net/ar_awliya_ibnataillah.html Ibn Ata'illah] were [[Shaykh of Sufism|Sufi masters]]. Even today, many of the traditional Islamic universities like Al-Azhar endorse Sufism as a part of the religion of Islam <ref name=rott>{{cite book|last=Keller|first=Nuh Ha Mim|authorlink=Nuh Ha Mim Keller|title=Reliance of the traveller|quote=we certify that the above-mentioned translation corresponds to the Arabic original and confirms to the practice and faith of the orthodox Sunni community (ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama'a)}}</ref>. Many of the famous Islamic scholars have praised Sufis and their practices. <ref> For a list, please refer to [http://www.sunnah.org/tasawwuf/scholar.htm scholars on Sufism].</ref>
+
However, Sufism emphasizes non-quantifiable matters (like states of the heart). The authors of various Sufi treatises often used allegorical language which could not be read by an unknowledgeable person to describe these states (eg. likened some states to intoxication which is forbidden in Islam). This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some Sufi groups emerged that considered themselves above the [[Sharia]] and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars. An example of such a deviant sufi was Abu Hilman.<ref>[http://www.sunnah.org/history/Scholars/abd_alqahir_albaghadadi.htm Abu Hilman] Retrieved June 3, 2008.</ref> One of the most vocal critics of such deviations from the Islamic creed was Ibn Taymiya.<ref> For a detailed essay on the role that Sufism plays in traditional Islam, please refer to [http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/sufitlk.htm Place of Tasawwuf in traditional Islam] Retrieved June 3, 2008.</ref>
  
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However, Sufism emphasises non quantifiable matters (like states of the heart). The authors of various Sufi treatises often used allegorical language which couldn't be read by an unknowledgeable person to describe these states (eg. likened some states to intoxication which is forbidden in Islam). This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some groups emerged that considered themselves above the [[Sharia]] and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars. An example of such a deviant sufi was Abu Hilman.[http://www.sunnah.org/history/Scholars/abd_alqahir_albaghadadi.htm]  One of the most vocal critics of such deviations from the Islamic creed was Ibn Taymiya. <ref> For a detailed essay on the role that Sufism plays in traditional Islam, please refer to [http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/sufitlk.htm Place of Tasawwuf in traditional Islam] </ref>
+
==Persecution and Controversy==
 +
The relationship between orthodox Islam and Sufism is complicated due to the variety of Sufi orders and their histories. According to the followers of Sufism, early scholars of Islam had positive attitudes towards Sufism. For example, [[Al-Ghazali]] defended Sufis as true Muslims. Later, there were some scholars who considered some aspects of Sufism [[heresy]]. Eventually puritanical Muslims attacked Sufis, saying their poetry and music were infections from [[Christianity]] and [[Hinduism]] and were antithetical to the principles of Islam (Dalrymple, 2004). The poetic raptures of Sufis were also considered suspect; at times, they were misinterpreted as insane ravings or even as blasphemy (Waines, 2003). Some Sufis were executed for their preaching; other Sufis saw their shrines destroyed; and still others were forced underground in countries like Saudi Arabia, where mysticism and the worship of saints are labeled as apostasy (Khan, 2005). Authorities expelled Abu Sulayman al-Darani from Damascus when he said he had seen and heard angels (Melchert, 1996). Abu Yazid was also forced into several years of exile from the city of Bastam after he claimed that, like Muhammad, he had ascended to the heavens (Melchert, 1996). Abu Hamzah recognized the voice of God in the cawing of a crow, for which authorities expelled him from Tarsus (Melchert, 1996).
  
−
W. Chittick explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:
+
The controversy surrounding Sufism is perhaps best exemplified by [[Mansur al-Hallaj]], who identified himself by one of the names of Allah&mdash;‘Ana Al-haqq,’ which means “I am the truth, I am the Reality or I am God.” These words had him branded as a blasphemer, and authorities in Baghdad ordered him to execution (Chittick, 2000; Tell, 2002; Waines, 2003; Abdin, 2004). Mansur al-Hallaj's statement is indicative of his intensity love of God, which reached its utmost limit when he realized that nothing but God existed (Chittick, 2000; Tell, 2002). The Sufi poet [[Rumi]] explained al-Hallaj's controversial statement this way: If al-Hallaj'shad said, “You are God and I am the servant,” that would have created duality by reaffirming his own existence. If Hallaj had said, “He is the Real,” that too is duality, for there can’t be “He” without “I.” Hence, Hallaj said, “I am the Real” to acknowledge other than God, nothing else existed. Rumi writes, “Hallaj had been annihilated, so those were the words of the Real” (Chittick, 2000, p. 17).
  
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:Muslim scholars who focused their energies on understanding the normative guidelines for the body came to be known as jurists, and those who held that the most important task was to train the mind in achieving correct understanding came to be divided into three main schools of thought: theology, philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us with the third domain of human existence, the spirit. Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing the spiritual dimensions of the human person came to be known as Sufis
+
While critics have thought of Sufism as a belief system that is alien to Islam, supporters of Sufism have argued that its tradition is in fact grounded in three themes that repeatedly appear in the Qu’ran, which are “submission” (Islam), “faith” (Iman), and “doing the beautiful” (Ihsan). Sufism takes “doing the beautiful” as its especial domain, which is based on submission and faith (Chittick, 2000).
  
−
The relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complicated due to the variety of Sufi orders and their history.
+
==Notes==
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+
<references/>
−
According to the followers of Sufism, the founders and early scholars of the schools (madhhabs) had positive attitudes towards Sufism, for example [[Imam Ibn Hambal]] used to visit the Sufi master Bishr al Hafi frequently [http://www.crescentlife.com/spirituality/early_scholars_on_sufism.htm]. Later, there were some scholars who considered some aspects of Sufism rank [[heresy]] as well as those like [[Al-Ghazali]] who defended Sufis as true Muslims. In time, even the controversial words of [[Al-Hallaj]] came to be accepted by some scholars.
 
−
 
 
−
Today, many Islamic scholars (though not all) hold Tasawwuf, in the sense of Sufi doctrines and philosophies, to be the science of the heart or gnosis (as distinct from other branches of Islamic knowledge which are exoteric in nature) and appreciate Sufis for their extensive contributions to Islamic arts and philosophy. This idea of the view of Muslims about sufis and tasawwuf really depends on the persons knoweldge about sufism/tasawwuf and sharia/islam. 
 
−
 
 
−
Here are the views of some famous scholars about Sufism.
 
−
 
 
−
'''Imam Malik (95 H. - 179 H.)''' "whoever studies Jurisprudence (tafaqaha) and didn't study Sufism [tasawwafa] will be corrupted; and whoever studied Sufism and didn't study Jurisprudence will become a heretic; and whoever combined both will be reach the Truth." [the scholar'Ali al-Adawi , vol. 2, p 195.)
 
−
 
 
−
'''Imam Shafi'i (150 - 205 AH.)''' "I accompanied the Sufi people and I received from them three knowledges: ... how to speak; .. how to treat people withleniency and a soft heart... and they... guided me in the ways of Sufism." [Kashf al-Khafa, 'Ajluni, vol. 1, p 341.]
 
−
 
 
−
'''Imam Ahmad bin Hanbal (164 - 241 AH.)''' "O my son, you have to sit with the People of Sufism, because they are like a fountain of knowledge and they keep the Remembrance of Allah in their hearts. They are the ascetics and they have the most spiritual power." [Tanwir al-Qulub p. 405]
 
−
 
 
−
'''Imam Nawawi (620 - 676 AH.)''' "The specifications of the Way of the Sufis are ... to keep the Presence of Allah in your heart in public and in private; to follow the Sunnah of the Prophet (s) ... to be happy with what Allah gave you..."[in his Letters, (Maqasid at-tawhid), p. 201]
 
  
−
'''Ibn Khaldun (733 - 808 AH.)''' "The way of the Sufis is the way of the Salaf, the preceding Scholars between the Sahaba and Tabi'een of those who followed good guidance..." [Muqaddimat ibn al-Khaldun, p. 328]
+
==References==
  
−
'''Tajuddin as-Subki (727 - 771 AH.)''' "May Allah praise them [the Sufis] and greet them and may Allah cause us to be with them in Paradise. Too many things have been said about them and too many ignorant people have said things which are not related to them. And the truth is that those people left the world and were busy with worship. ... They are the People of Allah, whose supplications and player Allah accepts and by means of whom Allah supports human beings" [Mu'eed an-Na'am p. 190, the chapter entitled Tasawwufl
+
* Abdin, A. "Love in Islam." ''European Judaism'', 37 (2004), 92-102.  
−
 
+
* Chittick, W. ''Sufism: a Short Introduction.'' Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000.
−
'''Jalaluddin as-Suyuti (849 - 911 AH.)''' "At-Tasawwuf in itself is the best and most honorable knowledge. It explains how to follow the Sunnah of the Prophet (s) and to put aside innovation." [Ta'yid al-Haqiqat al-'Aiiyya,p 57]
+
* Dalrymple, W. "The ecstasy of God’s dancers." ''New Statesman'', 133, (2004), 22-25.  
−
 
+
* El-Zein, A. "Spiritual consumption in the United States: the Rumi phenomenon." ''Spiritual Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations'', 11 (2000), 71-86.  
−
'''lbn Qayyim (691 - 751 AH.)''' "We can witness the greatness of the People of Sufism, in the eyes of the earliest generations of Muslims by what has been mentioned by Sufyan ath-Thawri (d. 161 AH), one of the greatest imams of the second century and one of the foremost legal scholars. He said, "If it had not been for Abu Hisham as-Sufi (d. 115) 1 would never have perceived the action of the subtlest forms of hypocrisy in the self... Among the best of people is the Sufi learned in jurisprudence." [Manazil as-Sa'ireen.]
+
* Hardin, N. "Doris Lessing and the Sufi way." ''Contemporary Literature'', 14 (1973), 565-581.  
−
 
+
* Khan, A. "The path ahead." ''Maclean’s'', 118 (2005), 38-39.
−
'''Abdullah ibn Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab (1115 - 1201 AH.)''' "My father Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab and I do not deny or criticize the science of Sufism, but on the contrary we support it, because it purifies the external and the internal of the hidden sins, which are related to the heart and to the outward form. Even though the individual might externally be on the right way, internally he might be on the wrong way. Sufism is necessary to correct it." [ad-Dia'at mukathaffa did ash-Shaykh Ibn Abdul Wahhab,p.85 ]
+
* Loutfy, N., and G. Berguno. "The existential thoughts of the Sufis." ''Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis'', 16 (2005), 144-155.
−
 
+
* Melchert, C. "The transition from asceticism to mysticism at the middle of the ninth century C.E." ''Studia Islamica'', 83 (1996), 51-70.  
−
'''Ibn 'Abidin (1198 - 1252 AH.)''' "the Seekers in this Sufi Way don't hear except from the Divine Presence and they don't love any but Him. If they remember Him they cry, and if they thank Him they are happy; ... May Allah bless them." [Risa'il Ibn'Abidin p. 172 & 173]
+
* Omaima, A. "Abrogation of the mind in the poetry of Jalal al-Din Rumi." ''Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics'', 14 (1994), 37-63.
−
 
+
* Safi, O. ''Progressive Muslims: on justice, gender and pluralism.'' Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003.  
−
'''Muhammad 'Abduh (1265 - 1323 AH.)''' "Tasawwuf appeared in the first century of Islam and it received a tremendous honor. It purified the self and straightened the conduct and gave knowledge to people from the Wisdom and Secrets of the Divine Presence." (Majallat al-Muslim, 6th ed. 1378 H, p. 24].
+
* Semaan, K. "Islamic mysticism in modern Arabic poetry and drama." ''International Journal of Middle East Studies''. 1979, 517-531.  
−
 
+
* Shah, Idries. ''The Sufis''. 1971. ISBN 0385079664
−
'''Abul Hasan 'Ali an-Nadawi (1331 AH b.)''' "These Sufis were initiating people on Oneness and sincerity in following the Sunnah of the Prophet (s) and to repent from their sins and to be away from every disobedience of Allah 'Azza wa Jail. Their guides were encouraging them to move in the way of perfect Love to Allah 'Azza wa Jail. "...In Calcutta India, everyday more than 1000 people were taking initiation into Sufism. "...by the influence of these Sufi people, thousands and thousands and hundreds of thousands in India found their Lord and reached a state of Perfection through the Islamic religion."[Muslit-ns in India, p. 140-146]
+
* &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;. ''The Way of the Sufi''. 1991. ISBN 0140192522
−
 
+
* Shah, Omar Ali. ''The Rules of Secrets of the Naqshbandi Order''. 1998. ISBN 2909347095
−
==Response to Sufis==
+
* Tell, C. '"A poet and a mystic: Jalaluddin Rumi." ''Social Education'', 66 (2002), 204-210.  
−
 
+
* Waines, D. ''An Introduction to Islam.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
−
The mystics were not immediately embraced by their fellow Muslims and puritanical Muslims attacked Sufis, saying their poetry and music were infections from Christianity and Hinduism and were antithetical to the principles of Islam (Dalrymple, 2004).
+
* White, C. "Sufism in Medieval Hindi literature." ''History of Religions'', 5 (1965), 114-132.
−
 
 
−
Authorities expelled Abu Sulayman al-Darani from Damascus when he said he had seen and heard angels (Melchert, 1996). Abu Yazid was also forced into several years of exile from the city of Bastam after he claimed that like Muhammad, he too had ascended to the heavens (Melchert, 1996). Abu Hamzah recognized the voice of God in the cawing of a crow, for which authorities expelled him from Tarsus (Melchert, 1996).
 
−
 
 
−
The poetic raptures of Sufis were also considered suspect; at times, they were misinterpreted as insane ravings or even as blasphemy (Waines, 2003).
 
−
 
 
−
This was the predicament of the tenth century Sufi Hhusayn b. Mansur al-Hallaj, who once identified himself by one of the names of Allah. The Sufi is famous for saying, ‘Ana Al-haqq’ which is defined as alternately as “I am the truth, I am the Reality or I am God.” These words had him branded as a blasphemer, and authorities in Baghdad ordered him to execution (Chittick, 2000; Tell, 2002; Waines, 2003; Abdin, 2004).
 
−
 
 
−
As Sufism grew and as the Mongol empire expanded from Persia through Central Asia, Sufis absorbed ideas from local people who followed such ancient traditions as [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Vedanta]], [[Gnosticism]], [[Buddhism]], or [[Shamanism]] (White, 1965; Schwartz, 2002). Thus Sufism came to bridge gaps between the Muslim population and rulers and the local people they ruled over (Schwartz, 2002).
 
−
 
 
−
==Controversy and criticism of Sufism==
 
−
Today, the adherents of the [[Salafi]] school of thought form the majority of Muslims opposed to Tasawwuf. They hold that Sufism was always held to be an innovation even by the earliest scholars ([http://www.allaahuakbar.net/sufism/index.htm],[http://www.qss.org/articles/sufism/sufi7.html]). Some of their main criticisms are listed below.
 
−
# Sufi masters have introduced many special prayers and devotional acts into their schools. These are criticised as being [[Bid'ah|reprehensible innovations]] which are at best unnecessary. The supporters of Sufism defend their position by saying that innovations can be classified into good and bad ones. They hold that the textually transmitted prayers and invocations are superior in all respects to the ones they institute and that the latter only plays a reinforcing role rather than a main one ([http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/sufism.htm],[http://masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/bida.htm]).
 
−
# Some point to certain practices like singing being inconsistent with the Sharia. Sufis defend their position by quoting prophetic traditions that condone certain forms of non instrumental music (refer links above).
 
−
# The allegorical and often abstruse language used by Sufis in their texts when interpreted by unqualified people opens avenues for many misunderstandings. eg. The concept of divine unity Wahdat-ul-wujood which critics consider equivalent to [[pantheism]] and therefore incompatible with Islam([http://qa.sunnipath.com/issue_view.asp?HD=7&ID=6330&CATE=24]). Sufi masters in many of their introductory texts caution aspirants from reading and interpreting texts by themselves. They hold that the subject can only be taught by a master to a student under strict guidance and supervision owing to its delicate nature. [http://www.sunnah.org/publication/salafi/tosos.htm].
 
−
 
 
−
==Future of Sufism==
 
−
 
 
−
In the nineteenth and twentieth century, Muslims have tried to revive Islamic teachings and practices, partly because they would like to counter the heavy influence of the West.
 
−
 
 
−
Sufi teachers have focused on remedying what they see as the cause of all social problems, the forgetfulness of God (Chittick, 2000).
 
−
As Sufism has expanded in the Islamic world, it has also spread to the West. The writings of Sufi masters, intellectuals and poets have mesmerized Westerners and some have even become best-selling works (Tell, 2002).
 
−
 
 
−
In the past, Sufis have been executed for their preachings; other Sufis have seen their shrines destroyed; and still others have been forced underground in countries like Saudi Arabia, where mysticism and the worship of saints are labeled as apostate (Khan, 2005).
 
−
 
−
But Sufism has started to reemerge, and has tens of millions of followers in Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and West Africa; hundreds of millions more across the world follow Sufi ways (Tell, 2002).
 
−
 
−
As it expands, Sufism may help to bridge growing divides between the Muslim and non-Muslim world as it has done throughout its history (Khan, 2005).
 
−
 
−
Like other Muslims, Sufis believe in the teachings of the Qur’an and that prayer and fasting are important practices that bring a person closer to God (Khan, 2005). But Sufism blurs the distinction between world religions, accepting that many prophets and saints, including Jesus and Buddha, hold keys to divine knowledge (Khan, 2005).
 
−
Muslims and non-Muslims alike can appreciate the principles of Sufism, and the Sufi seeker’s overwhelming thirst for divine love, compassion and to grow ever closer to God (Tell, 2002).
 
−
 
 
−
The inclusion of other traditions in Sufism did not rupture the link between the mystical practice and Islam. Instead, Sufism was incorporated into the tapestry of Islam, and served as a unique branch of the religion which offered followers a unique spiritual experience (White, 1965).
 
−
 
 
−
 
 
−
==References==
 
−
 
 
−
*Abdin, A. (2004). Love in Islam. European Judaism, 37, 92 – 102.  
 
−
*Chittick, W. (2000). Sufism: a short introduction. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.
 
−
*Dalrymple, W. (2004). The ecstasy of God’s dancers. New Statesman, 133, 22 – 25.  
 
−
*El-Zein, A. (2000). Spiritual consumption in the United States: the Rumi phenomenon.  
 
−
Spiritual Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 11, 71 – 86.
 
−
*Hardin, N. (1973). Doris Lessing and the Sufi way. Contemporary Literature, 14, 565 – 581.  
 
−
*Khan, A. (2005). The path ahead. Maclean’s, 118, 38-39.
 
−
*Loutfy, N., & Berguno, G. (2005). The existential thoughts of the Sufis. Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, 16, 144 – 155.
 
−
*Melchert, C. (1996). The transition from asceticism to mysticism at the middle of the ninth century C.E. Studia Islamica, 83, 51 – 70.  
 
−
*Omaima, A. (1994). Abrogation of the mind in the poetry of Jalal al-Din Rumi. Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics, 14. 37-63.
 
−
*Safi, O. (2003). Progressive Muslims: on justice, gender and pluralism. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.
 
−
*Semaan, K. (1979). Islamic mysticism in modern Arabic poetry and drama. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 517 – 531.  
 
−
*Tell, C. (2002). A poet and a mystic: Jalaluddin Rumi. Social Education, 66, 204 – 210.  
 
−
*Waines, D. (2003). An introduction to Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
 
−
*White, C. (1965). Sufism in medieval Hindi literature. History of Religions, 5, 114 – 132.
 
−
* ''The Sufis'' by [[Idries Shah]] (1971) ISBN 0385079664
 
−
* ''The Way of the Sufi'' by [[Idries Shah]] (1991) ISBN 0140192522
 
−
* ''The Rules of Secrets of the Naqshbandi Order'' by [[Omar Ali Shah]] (1998) ISBN 2909347095
 
−
*[http://www.islam.co.za/abdalqadirjilani/default.htm][http://www.al-baz.com/][http://www.quranicstudies.com/listbook1.html] Excrepts/Books by [[Abdul Qadir Jilani]]
 
−
* [http://www.ibn-arabi.com/][http://www.ibnarabisociety.org/Library.html] Excrepts/Books by [[Ibn Arabi]]
 
−
<references/>
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
===[[Tariqa]] websites and general links===  
+
===Tariqa websites and general links===  
−
 
+
All links retrieved February 26, 2023.
−
''' Tariqa Websites'
 
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* [http://www.bektashi.net/ The Bektashi Sufi Order]
 
−
* [http://www.chishti.ru/index.html/ The Chishti Sufi Order]
 
 
* [http://www.jerrahi.org/ The Helvati-Jerrahi Sufi Order]
 
* [http://www.jerrahi.org/ The Helvati-Jerrahi Sufi Order]
 
* [http://www.mtoshahmaghsoudi.org/ The Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi Order]
 
* [http://www.mtoshahmaghsoudi.org/ The Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi Order]
−
* [http://www.nimatullahi.net/ The Nimatullahi Sufi Order]
 
 
* [http://www.naqshbandi.org/ The Naqshabandi Sufi Order]
 
* [http://www.naqshbandi.org/ The Naqshabandi Sufi Order]
 
* [http://www.qadiri-rifai.org/ The Qadri-Rifai Sufi Order]
 
* [http://www.qadiri-rifai.org/ The Qadri-Rifai Sufi Order]
 
* [http://www.sufism.org/ The Mevlevi Order]
 
* [http://www.sufism.org/ The Mevlevi Order]
−
 
−
'''Sufi Links'''
 
−
* [http://www.mtoshahmaghsoudi.org/website/PDF/sufismGeneology.pdf Islamic Sufism Genealogy, November 2004, Tehran University Publications]
 
 
* [http://www.mtopublications.com M.T.O. Shahmaghsoudi Sufi Publications]
 
* [http://www.mtopublications.com M.T.O. Shahmaghsoudi Sufi Publications]
 
*[http://www.sufiassociation.org M.T.O. Sufi Association]
 
*[http://www.sufiassociation.org M.T.O. Sufi Association]
−
*[http://www.mto-hhc.com M.T.O. Holistic Health Center]
 
−
*[http://WWW.WORKOFTHECHARIOT.COM A site on the mystical Qabalah with much information on Sufism and its relation to Qabalah and other spiritual systems]
 
 
* [http://www.tamarkoz.org Tamarkoz (the Art of Sufi Meditation)]
 
* [http://www.tamarkoz.org Tamarkoz (the Art of Sufi Meditation)]
 
*[http://www.sufipsychology.org Sufi Psychology Association]
 
*[http://www.sufipsychology.org Sufi Psychology Association]
−
* [http://www.shaykh.org In Shaykh's Company]
 
−
* [http://www.studentofknowledge.com/tazkiyyah.htm Tazkiyyah from the Quran and Sunnah]
 
−
* [http://www.Islam786.com Ashrafi Silsila and Sufism]
 
−
* [http://ethikana.com/islam/sufism.htm Sufism (Arabic tasawwuf) a spiritual philosophy of Islam]
 
 
* [http://www.khamush.com Sufism, Rumi]  
 
* [http://www.khamush.com Sufism, Rumi]  
−
* [http://www.naksibendi.org Osmanli Naks'i-Bendi Hakkani Sufi Order]
 
−
* [http://www.sufimaizbhandar.org/index.htm Maizbhandar Sharif]
 
−
* [http://www.sufimeditation.org Sufi Meditation]
 
−
* [http://www.religioperennis.org/Wisdom.html Islam Articles on Sufism]
 
−
* [http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual_and_devotional_poets/sufi/ Collection of Sufi Poetry]
 
 
* [http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/pspa/al-ahbash.html A Sufi response to Islamism]
 
* [http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/pspa/al-ahbash.html A Sufi response to Islamism]
−
* [http://islamonline.net/english/Contemporary/2002/08/Article03.shtml “Sufism”: A Tradition of Transcendental Mysticism]
+
* [http://www.bmf.org A Modern Sufi Shaikh, Bawa Muhaiyaddeen]
−
* [http://www.bmf.org A Modern Sufi Shaikh, Bawa Muhaiyaddeen]
 
−
* [http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~gnosticpress/ Books by Abdullah Dougan]
 
−
* [http://www.beautyislam.org/practices_of_sufism.html Practices of Sufism]
 
−
* [http://www.ahmedbaki.com/english/ Sufism & Science]
 
  
−
===Criticism===
 
  
−
*[http://www.ahya.org/amm/modules.php?name=Sections&op=viewarticle&artid=69 What Islamic Scholars have said about Sufism]
 
−
*[http://www.ahya.org/amm/modules.php?name=Sections&op=viewarticle&artid=145 SUFISM: ITS ORIGINS]
 
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*[http://www.islamawareness.net/Deviant/Sufi/truth.html The Truth about Sufism]
 
−
*[http://www.geocities.com/kkhaan/sufi.html Path of Misguidance]
 
  
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
 
[[Category: Religion]]
 +
[[category:islam]]
  
 
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Latest revision as of 13:45, 28 April 2023

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Sufism (from Arabic (صوف), Suf meaning "wool") is a mystical tradition of Islam dedicated to experiencing Allah/God as the epitome of divine Love. Sufis can be associated with Shi'a Islam, Sunni Islam, other currents of Islam, or a combination of multiple traditions. Emerging duing the eighth century C.E. in the Middle East, though having earlier precedents, Sufism subsequently developed into several different orders known as Tariqas. The most famous of these orders is the Mevlevi tradition associated with the poet and mystic, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi.

Sufis believe that excessive rationalism blocks human understanding of God's immersive and loving nature. Consequently, they focus on directly experiencing God through ecstatic practice in order to efface the obstructing self. Sufis have endured persecution over the years due to their unconventional and controversial approach to Allah, which has been perceived by some to be blasphemous.

In recent times, the teachings of Sufism have spread to the West and Sufi writings have become best-selling works.

Whirling Dervishes perform near the Mevlevi Museum in Konya, Turkey.

Etymology

There are several possible etymologies for the word Sufi (تصوف), which are indicated below:

  • The conventional view is that the term originates from Suf (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, referring to the simple cloaks that the early ascetics wore. However, not all Sufis wear cloaks or clothes of wool.
  • Another possible etymology is that the root word of Sufi comes from the Arabic word safa (صفا), meaning "purity." This approach places the emphasis of Sufism on purity of heart and soul.
  • Another suggested origin is from "Ashab al-Suffa" ("Companions of the Veranda") or "Ahl al-Suffa" ("People of the Veranda"), who were a group of Muslims during the time of the Prophet Muhammad that spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque devoted to prayer.
  • A final etymology, advanced by the tenth-century author Al-Biruni, is that the word Sufiya is linked with the Greek term for 'Wisdom' - 'Sophia.'

History

Origins

Sufism is said to have originated during the time of Prophet Mohammad (seventh century C.E.). Almost all traditional Sufi orders trace their "chains of transmission" back to the Prophet via his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib (except the Naqshbandi order which traces its origin to caliph Abu Bakr). Each order believes that Sufi teachings were passed on from teacher to student through the centuries.

Some scholars argue that Sufism evolved from an interiorization of Islam, such as Louis Massignon who states: "It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development."[1] Sufism may also have emerged from the practice of Muslim asceticism. People of ascetic temperaments were found throughout Muslim communities early in the history of Islam.[2] These ascetics focused on introspection and maintained a strict control over their life and behavior. They followed a lifestyle of modesty, temperance, contentment and the denial of luxury. Their practices included fasting, wearing light clothing in the depths of winter, or withdrawing themselves from the world.[3] Other theories have been suggested for the origins of Sufism, which link it to outside non-Muslim influences.[4]

Development

If early Sufism arose out of the practice of asceticism—the turning away from worldly life to concentrate on prayer to Allah—then it likely resulted in being limited to a small number of devoted practitioners. However, by the middle of the ninth century, Sufi mysticism started to burgeon. One major figure and catalyst in its growth was the female mystic Rabiah al-Adawiyah (died 801), who emphasized the absolute love for Allah above everything else. The shift of Sufism from asceticism to divine love captured the attention of the masses and elites, and soon Sufism began to flourish in Baghdad spreading then to Persia, Pakistan, India, North Africa, and Muslim Spain.[2]

Figures such as Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm Bin Hian, Hasan Ul-Basri and Sayid Ibn Ul Mussib are regarded as the first mystics in Islam. Rabia was a female Sufi and known for her love and passion for God.

Golden Age

Rumi`s tomb in Konya.

From 1200-1500 C.E., Sufism experienced an era of increased activity in various parts of the Islamic world. This period (especially the thirteenth century) is considered to be the "Golden Age" of Sufism. At this time, many of the major figures in the history of Sufism were alive and writing their monumental classics of Sufi literature and poetry.

The Sufis dispersed throughout the Middle East, particularly in the areas previously under Byzantine influence and control. This period was characterized by the practice of an apprentice (murid) placing himself under the spiritual direction of a Master (shaykh or pir). Schools were developed, concerning themselves with the topics of mystical experience, education of the heart to rid itself of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through progressive stages (maqaam) and states (haal). The schools were formed by reformers who felt their core values and manners had disappeared in a society marked by material prosperity that they saw as eroding the spiritual life. Additionally, many Sufi brotherhoods (turuq) flourished with lodges and hospices that became places for practicing Sufis and other mystics to stay and retreat. One of the first Sufi orders was the Yasawi order, named after Khwajah Ahmed Yesevi in modern Kazakhstan. Another order, called the Kubrawiya order, originated in Central Asia. The most prominent Sufi master of this era is Abdul Qadir Jilani, the founder of the Qadiriyyah order in Iraq. Others included Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, founder of the Mevlevi order in Turkey, Sahabuddin Suharwardi in Asia minor, and Moinuddin Chishti in India.

As Sufism grew and as the Mongol empire expanded from Persia through Central Asia, Sufis absorbed ideas from local people who followed such ancient traditions as Zoroastrianism, Vedanta, Gnosticism, Buddhism, or Shamanism.[5] Thus Sufism came to bridge gaps between the Muslim population and rulers and the local people they ruled over.[6]

Modern Period

In the modern period, Sufism has started to reemerge, and has tens of millions of followers in Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and West Africa; hundreds of millions more across the world follow Sufi ways.[7]

In recent times, Sufism has spread to the West and the writings of Sufi masters and poets have become best-selling works.[7] Additionally, there has been a growth of non-traditional Sufi movements in the West. Some examples are Universal Sufism movement, the Mevlevi Order of America, the Golden Sufi Center, the Sufi Foundation of America, and Sufism Reoriented.

Sufi Philosophy

Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such may be compared to other forms of religious mysticism. Sufis make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor to express divine longing and mystical experience. The following allegory helps to explain the Sufi approach to God:

"There are three ways of knowing a thing. Take for instance a flame. One can be told of the flame, one can see the flame with his own eyes, and finally one can reach out and be burned by it. In this way, we Sufis seek to be burned by God."

Sufis understand the Prophet Mohammed’s saying, “God was, and nothing was Him” to mean that God’s existence is supreme to all others. God alone possesses reality and provides the reality to everything else in the world (Chittick, 2000, p. 12). People who sense this special perception within themselves and who work to transcend ordinary human constraints can further develop their minds to “know” God (Hardin, 1973). The ninth-century mystic Nubian Dhu al-Nun al-Misri clearly expressed what was to become the backbone of Sufi philosophy by saying, “Let him direct his soul to the greatness of God, for then it will dissolve and become pure. Whoever regards the power of God, his own power goes away, for all souls are poor next to his awesomeness” (Melchert, 1996). His disciple, Al-Kharraz, (890 – 891 C.E.), was the first to speak of f’ana (annihilation) and baqa (remaining) to describe how Sufis sought to lose consciousness of their own self to properly live in full contemplation of the divine’s existence (Melchert, 1996).

Building on these notions, Sufism developed several key doctrines including Wahdat (meaning "Unity"), which affirms the Oneness of Allah (tawhid), and Tawakkal (meaning "absolute trust in God"). The former doctrine is predicated on the belief that all phenomena are manifestations of a single reality called Wujud (being), or al-Haq (Truth, God). The essence of being/Truth/God is devoid of every form and quality, and hence unmanifested, yet it is inseparable from every form and phenomenon either material or spiritual. It is often understood to imply that every phenomenon is an aspect of Truth and at the same time attribution of existence to it is false. The chief aim of all Sufis is to let go of all notions of duality, including the individual self and realize this divine unity. In this way, Sufis seek to directly connect with the divine. Junayd was among the first theorist of Sufism; he concerned himself with ‘fanaa’ and ‘baqaa’, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning worldly phenomena.

Sufism and Love

The Sufis believe that the highest form of human love is the pure love for the Divine. Humans can achieve this love if they give themselves entirely to the Allah's will (Abdin, 2004). Sufis consider love for family, friends, material goods, or even Paradise all to be distractions from the love of God (Chittick, 2000). The heart of a believer should be so overflowing with God’s love that there is no other room for any other emotion in it (Abdin, 2004). Affirming this sentiment, the great female Sufi Rabi’a Al Adawiyya said, “I love God: I have no time left in which to hate the devil.” (Abdin, 2004). Love allows the believer to seize the spiritual beauty of God that is present in all things, and therefore love God in all things and love all things through God (Abdin, 2004).

Sufis believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. The most famous and respected of the Sufi poets, Jalaludin Rumi, wrote extensively of love and the overwhelming joy of joining with the divine:

“What would happen, youth, if you became a lover like me –
Every day madness, every night weeping.
His image not out of your eyes for an instant –
Two hundred lights in your eyes from that face.
You would cut yourself off from your friends,
You would wash your hands of the world:
“I have detached myself from myself,
I have become totally Yours.
“When I mix with these people, I am water with oil,
Outwardly joined, inwardly separate.”
Leaving behind all selfish desires, you would become mad,
But not any madness a doctor could cure.
If for an instant the physicians tasted this heartache,
They would escape their chains and tear up their books.
Enough! Leave all this behind, seek a mine of sugar!
Become effaced in that sugar like milk in pastry.” (Chittick, 2000, p. 72)

Sufi Devotional Practices

Remembrance of Allah, or dhikr, forms the backbone of Sufi practices (Waines, 2003). Repeating the name of God is a form of dhikr, which is thought to be a direct manifestation of the divine on a human level. Additionally, poetry, dancing and music are devotional tools used by Sufis to remind the seeker of God’s presence. These practices were also used to heighten awareness and concentration of one’s inner mind, and were a central part of Sufism from the early days.

As Sufi devotional practices evolved over the centuries, a more elaborate system developed that aimed to facilitate moving the seeker through seven stages of consciousness (Semaan, 1979; Safi, 2003). In the first stage, Sufi followers were to give themselves over to service of their brethren and to following the law. In the second stage, Sufis were to practice righteous actions as prescribed by the holy Qur'an, and the further rigors of asceticism. Through these practices, Sufis aimed to be imbued with the knowledge of an inner light. The third stage sought the experience of ecstasy in the presence of God moving towards the sixth stage of finding union with God. Finally, in the seventh stage, the Sufi reaches annihilation—the self is extinguished and no longer exists independently from God (Semaan, 1979). The one who has reached the pinnacle of these stages is said to be a Mu’min, or pure believer, who can communicate directly with God (Safi, 2003). At the seventh stage, the Sufi is said to see everything as a manifestation of God and is stripped of all notions of culture, race and ideology (Safi, 2003).

“It is then and only then…that the human being steps into the true radiance and beauty of God Consciousness, which recognizes no differences in the human family” (Safi, 2003, p. 239)

Virtually all Sufis also distinguish Lataif-e-Sitta (The Six Subtleties) that designate the spiritual centers of sensory perception that lie dormant in an individual (i.e. Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa). Sufis seek to activate and awaken these centers. The purification of the elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God's love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God's attributes (Dhikr), and completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi and Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties and the transformative results from their activation, the basic Sufi psychology bears some resemblance to the schemata of kabbalah and the tantric chakra system.

Muraqaba

Muraqaba (Persian: Tamarkoz) is the word used by many Sufis when referring to the practice of meditation. The Arabic word literally means "to observe, guard or control one's thoughts and desires." In some Sufi orders, muraqaba may involve concentrating one's mind on the names of God, on a verse of the Qur'an, or on certain Arabic letters that have special significance.

Dhikr

Dhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from hadith literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God is considered dhikr.

It is interesting to note that the practice of Muraqaba and Dhikr have very close resemblance with the practices of the Jewish mystics. Muraqaba is very similar to the Merkavah practice, which is one of the meditations used by Kabbalists to attain higher states of consciousness. Kabbalists also use a practice called Zakhor which in Hebrew literally means remembrance. Zakhor serves the same purpose in Kabbalah as Dhikr serves in Sufism. Another thing to notice here is that there is not only similarity in practice but also a strong similarity in the spelling and sounding of the words in Sufism and Kabbalah. This may imply that the Sufi mystical system has its origins in Judaism and its mystical tradition the Kabbala.

Some Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, the liturgy of which may include recitation, singing, instrumental music, dance, costumes, incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance. (Touma 1996, p.162).

Hadhra

Hadhra is a dance associated with dhikr practiced primarily in the Arab world. The word Hadhra means Presence in Arabic. Sometimes the Sufi songs, or dances are performed as an appeal for the Presence of God, his prophets, and angels.

Qawwali

Qawwali is a form of devotional Sufi music common in Pakistan, North India, Afganistan, Iran and Turkey. It is known for its secular strains. Some of its modern-day masters have included Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and the Sabri Brothers.

Sema

Sema refers to Sufi worship practices involving music and dance. In Uyghur culture, this includes a dance form also originally associated with Sufi ritual.[8] The Mevlevi order, founded by Rumi, became famous for their whirling dance (El-Zein, 2000). Along with anticipation and anguish, the dance of the whirling dervish symbolizes the exhilaration that comes from the search for divine love (El-Zein, 2000; Tell, 2002). The whirling movements of the dervishes are performed to the sound of a reed and drum; the intensity of the movement mounts as the Sufis attempt to transcend their body and rational consciousness (Tell, 2002). Their dance is said to be symbolic of the universal cosmic dance that was begun and is sustained by the divine music of love (And, 1977; Omaima, 1994).

Khalwa

Khalwa refers to a form of retreat, once widespread but now less common. A khalwa may be prescribed by the shaykh (spiritual advisor) of the murid or talib (student). Muslims believe that most of the prophets, and also Maryam (Mary) the mother of Issa (Jesus), lived in some form of seclusion at some point in their life. Muhammad, for example, used to retreat to the cave where he received his first inspiration—but had been going there for many years prior to his meeting with the angel Gabriel. Similar examples include Moses' going into seclusion for 40 days in a cave in Mt. Sinai. Mary was in seclusion in the Jewish temple for a year, where only Zakariya was permitted to see her.

Sufi Literature and Poetry

Sufism has produced a large body of poetry in Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Kurdish, Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi. Its poetic gems can be found in every major Islamic culture and literature. Notable Sufi writers include Ibn al-Farid, Ibn Arabi, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, Farid Ud-Din Attar, Abdul Qader Bedil, Bulleh Shah, Amir Khusro, Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Sachal Sarmast and Sultan Bahu.

A significant part of Persian literature comes from Sufism, which produced great works of poetry such as the Walled Garden of Truth, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, the Conference of the Birds and the Masnavi, all of which contain teachings of the Sufis. It was around 1000 C.E. that the early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations.

Sufi poets describe the experience of God’s presence in beautiful, unconventional and even shocking ways, which could offend the conventionally pious (Omaima, 1994). Realizing that language was an inadequate and even dangerous way of describing their spiritual journey, Sufis became careful in using language to express themselves (Waines, 2003). The words of Sufis often can not be understood through their surface meaning alone and they emphasized the inner meaning of these words as giving one’s self to God:

[However], The allegorical and often abstruse language used by Sufis in their texts when interpreted by unqualified people opens avenues for many misunderstandings. eg. The concept of divine unity Wahdat-ul-wujood which critics consider equivalent to pantheism and therefore incompatible with Islam. Sufi masters in many of their introductory texts caution aspirants from reading and interpreting texts by themselves. They hold that the subject can only be taught by a master to a student under strict guidance and supervision owing to its delicate nature.

Orders of Sufism

Sufis do not define Sufism as a school of legal jurisprudence (or Madhab). Often what distinguishes a person as a Sufi is their association with a Sufi order. Among the oldest and most well known of the Sufi orders (tariqas) are the Qadiri, Chisti, Oveyssi, Shadhili, Jerrahi, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi, Mevlevi and the Ashrafi. Classic Sufi tariqas insist on adherence to one of the four Madhabs of Fiqh and one of the two orthodox schools of Aqida. In this sense, traditional practitioners of Sufism do not see it as a sectarian group but just as a form of training necessary to cultivate spirituality and Ihsan in their lives.

Sufism was traditionally considered the systematization of the spiritual component of Islam. It dealt with matters of the heart (just as Fiqh dealt with the body and Aqida dealt with the intellect). Many of the greatest Islamic scholars wrote treatises on the subject (eg. Al-Ghazali's ihya ulum-aldeen (احياء علوم الدين), Imam Nawawi's Bustan al-Arifeen etc.). Almost all the famous Sufi masters of the Islamic Caliphate times were also experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and live correct with Sufism one must be a practicing Muslim obeying the Sharia. Many of the traditional scholars who were part of famous Islamic institutions (eg. Al-Azhar) like Ibn Ata'illah were Sufi masters. Even today, many of the traditional Islamic universities like Al-Azhar endorse Sufism as a part of the religion of Islam.[9]

However, Sufism emphasizes non-quantifiable matters (like states of the heart). The authors of various Sufi treatises often used allegorical language which could not be read by an unknowledgeable person to describe these states (eg. likened some states to intoxication which is forbidden in Islam). This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some Sufi groups emerged that considered themselves above the Sharia and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars. An example of such a deviant sufi was Abu Hilman.[10] One of the most vocal critics of such deviations from the Islamic creed was Ibn Taymiya.[11]

Persecution and Controversy

The relationship between orthodox Islam and Sufism is complicated due to the variety of Sufi orders and their histories. According to the followers of Sufism, early scholars of Islam had positive attitudes towards Sufism. For example, Al-Ghazali defended Sufis as true Muslims. Later, there were some scholars who considered some aspects of Sufism heresy. Eventually puritanical Muslims attacked Sufis, saying their poetry and music were infections from Christianity and Hinduism and were antithetical to the principles of Islam (Dalrymple, 2004). The poetic raptures of Sufis were also considered suspect; at times, they were misinterpreted as insane ravings or even as blasphemy (Waines, 2003). Some Sufis were executed for their preaching; other Sufis saw their shrines destroyed; and still others were forced underground in countries like Saudi Arabia, where mysticism and the worship of saints are labeled as apostasy (Khan, 2005). Authorities expelled Abu Sulayman al-Darani from Damascus when he said he had seen and heard angels (Melchert, 1996). Abu Yazid was also forced into several years of exile from the city of Bastam after he claimed that, like Muhammad, he had ascended to the heavens (Melchert, 1996). Abu Hamzah recognized the voice of God in the cawing of a crow, for which authorities expelled him from Tarsus (Melchert, 1996).

The controversy surrounding Sufism is perhaps best exemplified by Mansur al-Hallaj, who identified himself by one of the names of Allah—‘Ana Al-haqq,’ which means “I am the truth, I am the Reality or I am God.” These words had him branded as a blasphemer, and authorities in Baghdad ordered him to execution (Chittick, 2000; Tell, 2002; Waines, 2003; Abdin, 2004). Mansur al-Hallaj's statement is indicative of his intensity love of God, which reached its utmost limit when he realized that nothing but God existed (Chittick, 2000; Tell, 2002). The Sufi poet Rumi explained al-Hallaj's controversial statement this way: If al-Hallaj'shad said, “You are God and I am the servant,” that would have created duality by reaffirming his own existence. If Hallaj had said, “He is the Real,” that too is duality, for there can’t be “He” without “I.” Hence, Hallaj said, “I am the Real” to acknowledge other than God, nothing else existed. Rumi writes, “Hallaj had been annihilated, so those were the words of the Real” (Chittick, 2000, p. 17).

While critics have thought of Sufism as a belief system that is alien to Islam, supporters of Sufism have argued that its tradition is in fact grounded in three themes that repeatedly appear in the Qu’ran, which are “submission” (Islam), “faith” (Iman), and “doing the beautiful” (Ihsan). Sufism takes “doing the beautiful” as its especial domain, which is based on submission and faith (Chittick, 2000).

Notes

  1. ↑ Louis Massignon, Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane (Paris: Vrin, 1954), 104.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Waines, 2003
  3. ↑ Melchert, 1996
  4. ↑ A number of scholars perceive influences from pre-Islamic and non-Islamic schools of mysticism and philosophy on Sufism such as Gnosticism, Judaism, and Hinduism. The Persian Sufis Retrieved June 3, 2008.
  5. ↑ White, 1965; Schwartz, 2002
  6. ↑ Schwartz, 2002
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Tell, 2002
  8. ↑ See Qawwali origins and Origin and History of the Qawwali, Adam Nayyar, Lok Virsa Research Centre, Islamabad, 1988.
  9. ↑ Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Reliance of the traveler: “we certify that the above-mentioned translation corresponds to the Arabic original and confirms to the practice and faith of the orthodox Sunni community (ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama'a).”
  10. ↑ Abu Hilman Retrieved June 3, 2008.
  11. ↑ For a detailed essay on the role that Sufism plays in traditional Islam, please refer to Place of Tasawwuf in traditional Islam Retrieved June 3, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

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  • Dalrymple, W. "The ecstasy of God’s dancers." New Statesman, 133, (2004), 22-25.
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  • Hardin, N. "Doris Lessing and the Sufi way." Contemporary Literature, 14 (1973), 565-581.
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  • Loutfy, N., and G. Berguno. "The existential thoughts of the Sufis." Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis, 16 (2005), 144-155.
  • Melchert, C. "The transition from asceticism to mysticism at the middle of the ninth century C.E." Studia Islamica, 83 (1996), 51-70.
  • Omaima, A. "Abrogation of the mind in the poetry of Jalal al-Din Rumi." Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics, 14 (1994), 37-63.
  • Safi, O. Progressive Muslims: on justice, gender and pluralism. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003.
  • Semaan, K. "Islamic mysticism in modern Arabic poetry and drama." International Journal of Middle East Studies. 1979, 517-531.
  • Shah, Idries. The Sufis. 1971. ISBN 0385079664
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External links

Tariqa websites and general links

All links retrieved February 26, 2023.

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