Difference between revisions of "Sufism" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Sufism''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: تصوف, taṣawwuf), a part of [[Islamic studies]], is a [[Mysticism|mystic]] [[tradition]] of [[Islam]] based on the pursuit of spiritual truth as it is gradually revealed to the heart and mind of the Sufi (one who practices Sufism).
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'''Sufism''' (from Arabic (صوف), ''Suf'' meaning "wool") is a [[Mysticism|mystical]] tradition of [[Islam]] dedicated to experiencing [[Allah]]/[[God]] as the epitome of divine [[Love]]. Sufis can be associated with [[Shi'a Islam]], [[Sunni Islam]], other currents of Islam, or a combination of multiple traditions. Emerging duing the eighth century C.E. in the [[Middle East]], though having earlier precedents, Sufism subsequently developed into several different orders known as ''Tariqas.'' The most famous of these orders is the Mevlevi tradition associated with the [[poet]] and mystic, [[Rumi|Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi]].
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It might also be referred to as Islamic mysticism. While other branches of Islam generally focus on [[exoteric]] aspects of religion, Sufism is mainly focused on the direct perception of [[Truth]] or [[God]] through mystic practices based on divine love. Sufism embodies a number of [[culture]]s, philosophies, central teachings and bodies of [[esoteric knowledge]].
 
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Sufis are active in a diverse range of brotherhoods and sisterhoods, with a wide diversity of thought. Sufi orders ("[[tariqa]]s") can be [[Shi'a Islam]], [[Sunni Islam]], both or neither.  
 
  
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Sufis believe that excessive rationalism blocks human understanding of God's immersive and loving nature. Consequently, they focus on directly experiencing God through ecstatic practice in order to efface the obstructing self. Sufis have endured persecution over the years due to their unconventional and controversial approach to Allah, which has been perceived by some to be blasphemous.
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In recent times, the teachings of Sufism have spread to the West and Sufi writings have become best-selling works.
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[[Image:Whirling_Dervishes,_Konya,_Turkey,_RMO.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Whirling Dervishes perform near the Mevlevi Museum in Konya, Turkey.]]
 
==Etymology==
 
==Etymology==
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A few etymologies for the word ''Sufi'' have been suggested.
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There are several possible etymologies for the word ''Sufi'' (تصوف), which are indicated below:
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One etymological theory states that the root word of Sufi is the Arabic word saaf (صاف), meaning pure, clean or blank. This etymology refers to the emphasis of Sufism on purity of heart and soul.
 
  
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Another view is that the word originates from Suf (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, implying a cloak and refers to the simple cloaks the original Sufis wore.  
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*The conventional view is that the term originates from ''Suf'' (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, referring to the simple cloaks that the early ascetics wore. However, not all Sufis wear cloaks or clothes of wool.  
  
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Others have suggested the origin of the word Sufi is from "Ashab al-Suffa" ("Companions of the Veranda") or "Ahl al-Suffa" ("People of the Veranda"). who were a group of Muslims during the time of the Prophet Muhammad who spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque devoted to prayer .
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*Another possible etymology is that the root word of Sufi comes from the Arabic word ''safa'' (صفا), meaning "purity." This approach places the emphasis of Sufism on purity of heart and soul.  
  
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The Greek words Sophos/Sophia, literally meaning wisdom or enlightenment, have also sometimes been asserted as the source of the word Sufi. Although this etymology has now largely been discredited, it was popular amongst orientalists in the early 20th Century. This origin was also advocated by [[Biruni]].
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*Another suggested origin is from "Ashab al-Suffa" ("Companions of the Veranda") or "Ahl al-Suffa" ("People of the Veranda"), who were a group of Muslims during the time of the Prophet Muhammad that spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque devoted to prayer.
  
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Most Sufis agree with the first definition, while most scholars tend to adhere to the second or third. The two were combined by the acclaimed Sufi, Junayd al-Baghdadi (d. 920 C.E.) in the famous saying, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity...."
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*A final etymology, advanced by the tenth-century author Al-Biruni, is that the word ''Sufiya'' is linked with the Greek term for 'Wisdom' - 'Sophia.'
  
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[[Idries Shah]] writes in "The Way of the Sufi" about the word Sufi being said to have no etymology.
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==History==
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==History of Sufism==
 
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{{main|History of Sufism}}
 
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The history of Sufism can be divided into the following principal periods:
 
 
===Origins===
 
===Origins===
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According to the history of Sufism as told by Sufi masters themselves, Sufism originates in the esoteric teaching of the Prophet [[Muhammad]] during his 23 year prophetic career. Almost all traditional Sufi schools or orders trace their orgins or "chains of transmission" back to the Prophet [[Muhammad]], either through his cousin and son-in-law Imam [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] or through caliph [[Abu Bakr]].  From their point of view, since the Prophet Muhammad was sent as a "mercy to all the worlds" (all creatures/species/all things existent), his message was naturally and necessarily manifold, attuned to the capacities of the hearts of his listeners, and the esoteric teaching was only given to those of his immediate companions who had the capacity to contain the direct experiential gnosis of God (Allah), and was then passed on from them from teacher to student through the centuries to modern times.  Tradition includes among these early sufis a group known as ''Ahl as-Suffa'' ("People of the Bench") who lived lives of poverty and piety, many of whom were of foreign origin (like [[Bilal]] from [[Ethiopia]], [[Salman the Persian|Salman]] from [[Persia]] and [[Suhaib]] from [[Rome]]).
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Sufism is said to have originated during the time of Prophet [[Mohammad]] (seventh century C.E.). Almost all traditional Sufi orders trace their "chains of transmission" back to the Prophet via his cousin and son-in-law ''[[Ali ibn Abi Talib]]'' (except the Naqshbandi order which traces its origin to caliph [[Abu Bakr]]). Each order believes that Sufi teachings were passed on from teacher to student through the centuries.  
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Some scholars believe that Sufism was essentially the result of Islam evolving in a more mystic direction. For example, [[Annemarie Schimmel]] proposes that Sufism in its early stages of development meant nothing but the interiorization of Islam. And [[Massignon|Louis Massignon]] states: "It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development."
 
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===The great Masters of Sufism===
 
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At a time when Iraq was the center of the Muslim Caliphate and an intellectual crucible and crossroads of various influences, there were mystical circles in cities such as Basra and Baghdad, and Sufism appears in the historical record as a discipline and school bearing this name. The Sufis dispersed throughout the Middle East, particularly in the areas previously under Byzantine influence and control. This period was characterised by the practice of an '''apprentice ([[murid]])''' placing himself under the spiritual direction of a '''Master ([[shaykh]] or pir)''', as exemplified in the original Prophetic model. Schools started to form around some famous masters, such as [[Junayd]] in Baghdad and [[Al-Tustari]] in Basra. These were developed in a very open and public way, and were then written up as treatises concerning such topics as: mystical experience, education of the heart to rid itself of baser instincts, the love of God, and especially the approach towards Allah through a series of progressive stages or stations '''([[maqaam]])''' and states '''([[haal]]).''' These schools were formed by reformers in reaction to the disappearance of values and manners in the society of the time, which was marked by a material prosperity that was seen as eroding the spiritual life. The Qur'anic verses which were the favourites of the Sufis included:
 
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[[Image:Bastam ghabr.jpg|thumb|right|The Bastami Complex in Bastam, [[Semnan Province]] of [[Iran]], contains the shrine of ''Mohammad ibn [[Jafar Sadiq]]'', the tomb of [[Bayazid]], his [[monastery]], the [[Iwan]] of [[Öljeitü]], the tomb of [[Mahmud Ghazan]], the Congregation Mosque, the tower of ''Kashaneh'', and the Shahrukhiya seminary, bath, and [[Zurkhaneh]], dating from before the [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuki]] era, at the earliest.]]
 
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:"We [God] are closer to him [man] than his jugular vein."
 
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:"Say, surely we belong to God and to Him do we return."
 
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:"He is the First and the Last and the Manifest and the Hidden."
 
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:"God is the light of the heavens and the earth."''
 
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[[Hasan Ul-Basri]] is regarded as the first mystic in Islam. [[Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya|Rabia]] was renowned for her love and passion for God.  [[Junayd]]  was the first theorist of Sufism, known for his teachings on ‘[[fanaa]] and [[baqaa]]’, the state whereby the annihilation of the self occurs in the divine presence and is accompanied by a great clarity towards the world of phenomena. In addition to these famous names Soulami (325-416 C.E.) quotes more than one hundred Shaykhs (spiritual masters) in his book ‘Tabaqat’. The most famous of them are: Foudail Bin Ayad, Dhu Nun Al Misri, [[Abou Ben Adhem|Ibrahim Bin Adham]], Sari Saqti, Al Harith Al Muhassibi, [[Bayazid Bastami]], Marouf Khalkhi and Ibrahim Al Khawass. The revolution of religious thought engendered through the Sufism of this time did not go without causing some reactions. Certain attitudes of the Sufis were not considered to be very orthodox.  The crisis culminated in the famous case of [[Al Hallaj]], who was executed for making what were considered to be heretical remarks in public whilst in a state of spiritual intoxication (sukr).
 
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===Formalisation of Philosophies of Sufism===
 
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[[image:tomb_of_rumi_at_konya_turkey.jpg|right|thumb|Rumi's adorned tomb in [[Konya]], [[Turkey]]]]
 
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Sufism was now recognized and understood by virtue of the spiritual values that it propagates, and because of the intellectual efforts of the great thinkers of this time. These scholars used all due discretion when they addressed matters of high spirituality. They respected the social and cultural hierarchies of their time, and spoke to everyone according to their level of understanding.
 
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This time was marked primarily by a proliferation in the number of treaties on Sufism and in particular by the personality of [[Al Ghazali]], considered by some as the greatest philosopher of Sufism. His works influenced influential Western thinkers such as [[Kant]]. His famous treatises - the "Reconstruction of Religious Sciences," the "Alchemy of Happiness," and other works - set out to convince the Islamic world that Sufism and its teachings originated from the Qur'an, and were compatible with mainstream Islamic thought and theology. It was Al Ghazali who bridged the gap between traditional and mystical Islam. It was around 1000 C.E. that the early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations. Another very important Sufi of that period was [[Ibn Arabi]] . Ibn Arabi was a contemporary of the Andalusian philosopher Ibn Rushd ([[Averroes]]). The relations and relationship between this exceptional trio ( Ghazali, Ibn Rushd and Ibn Arabi ) is worthy of study. Ibn Arabi met with Ibn Rushd and attended his burial. At their first meeting, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) was an elderly man renowned for his books of learning and Ibn Arabi was a young man known as a ‘wali’ (saint). Contrary to the traditional view that a man must pass through three stages (sharia, tariqa and haqiqah) to reach realization, Ibn Arabi received the ‘fath’ (literally ‘the opening’ or direct Gnostic knowledge) when he was barely ten years old. It was only thereafter that he followed the tariqa (the spiritual way) and acquired book knowledge. Ibn Rushd is to some extent the ‘father’ of modernistic thought, and Ghazali and Ibn Arabi the ‘fathers’ of post-modernist thought.
 
  
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The [[Malamatiyya]] (the blameworthy) order can be considered a proto-Sufi order that arose in the 9th century CE before the crystallization of the Sufi orders.
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Some scholars argue that Sufism evolved from an interiorization of Islam, such as Louis Massignon who states: "It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development."<ref>Louis Massignon, ''Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane'' (Paris: Vrin, 1954), 104.</ref> Sufism may also have emerged from the practice of Muslim [[asceticism]]. People of ascetic temperaments were found throughout Muslim communities early in the history of Islam.<ref name=waines> Waines, 2003</ref> These ascetics focused on introspection and maintained a strict control over their life and behavior. They followed a lifestyle of modesty, temperance, contentment and the denial of luxury. Their practices included fasting, wearing light clothing in the depths of winter, or withdrawing themselves from the world.<ref>Melchert, 1996</ref> Other theories have been suggested for the origins of Sufism, which link it to outside non-Muslim influences.<ref>A number of scholars perceive influences from pre-Islamic and non-Islamic schools of [[mysticism]] and philosophy on Sufism such as [[Gnosticism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Hinduism]]. [http://www.khamush.com/sufism/persian_sufism.htm The Persian Sufis] Retrieved June 3, 2008.</ref>
  
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===Propagation of Sufism===
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===Development===
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[[Image:data_durbar_(9).JPG|thumb|170px||[[Data Durbar Complex]] in [[Pakistan]] , Mausoleum of [[Data Ganj Bakhsh]]]]
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If early Sufism arose out of the practice of asceticism&mdash;the turning away from worldly life to concentrate on prayer to Allah&mdash;then it likely resulted in being limited to a small number of devoted practitioners. However, by the middle of the ninth century, Sufi mysticism started to burgeon. One major figure and catalyst in its growth was the female mystic [[Rabiah al-Adawiyah]] (died 801), who emphasized the absolute love for Allah above everything else. The shift of Sufism from asceticism to divine love captured the attention of the masses and elites, and soon Sufism began to flourish in Baghdad spreading then to [[Persian Empire|Persia]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[North Africa]], and Muslim Spain.<ref name=waines/>
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[[Image:ShahRukne_Alam_2.jpg |thumb|170px||Mausoleum of Shah Rukn-e-Alam in [[Multan]],[[Pakistan]]]]
 
  
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It was during 1200 - 1500 C.E. that Sufism enjoyed a period of intense activity in various parts of the Islamic world. Hence this period is considered as the "Classical Period" or the "Golden Age" of Sufism. Lodges and [[hospice]]s soon became not only places to house Sufi students and novices but also places for "spiritual retreat" for practising Sufis and other mystics. This period is characterized by the propagation of Sufism starting from its centre in Baghdad in Iraq, from where it spread towards [[Persian Empire|Persia]] , [[India]] , [[North Africa]] & [[Muslim Spain]]. It is characterized by tests of conciliation between Sufism and the other Islamic sciences (sharia, fiqh, etc.) and starting of the Sufi brotherhoods (turuq).  
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Figures such as Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm Bin Hian, Hasan Ul-Basri and Sayid Ibn Ul Mussib are regarded as the first mystics in Islam. Rabia was a female Sufi and known for her love and passion for God.  
  
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One of the first orders to originate in this period was the [[Yasawi]] order, named after Khwajah [[Ahmed Yesevi]] in modern Kazakhstan. The [[Kubrawiya]] order, originating in Central Asia, was named after [[Najmeddin Kubra]], known as the "saint-producing shaykh" , since a number of his disciples became great shaykhs themselves. The most prominent Sufi master of this era is [[Abdul Qadir Jilani]], the founder of the [[Qadiriyyah]] order in Iraq. Others included [[Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi|Rumi]], founder of the [[Mevlevi]] order in Turkey, [[Shihabuddin Yahya as-Suhrawardi|Sahabuddin Suharwardi]] in Asia minor, [[Moinuddin Chishti]] in India . Although each order had a regional flavour, their fundamental teachings and practices remained substantially the same.
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===Golden Age===
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[[Image:Turkey.Konya008.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Rumi`s tomb in Konya.]]
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From 1200-1500 C.E., Sufism experienced an era of increased activity in various parts of the Islamic world. This period (especially the thirteenth century) is considered to be the "Golden Age" of Sufism. At this time, many of the major figures in the history of Sufism were alive and writing their monumental classics of Sufi [[literature]] and [[poetry]].  
  
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After having gained influence over the whole of the central Islamic world, the [[brotherhood]]s (turuq) became the focus for Islam in the new territories that came under Muslim domination or influence. This included the [[Malay archipelago|Indo-Malay]] territories in the East, and [[West Africa]] and [[Andalusia]] in the West. The brotherhoods made a significant contribution throughout the centuries in presenting the true face of Islam – the Islam of beauty and love.
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The Sufis dispersed throughout the Middle East, particularly in the areas previously under Byzantine influence and control. This period was characterized by the practice of an apprentice ''(murid)'' placing himself under the spiritual direction of a Master (shaykh or pir). Schools were developed, concerning themselves with the topics of mystical experience, education of the heart to rid itself of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through progressive stages ''(maqaam)'' and states ''(haal)''. The schools were formed by reformers who felt their core values and manners had disappeared in a society marked by material prosperity that they saw as eroding the spiritual life. Additionally, many Sufi brotherhoods ''(turuq)'' flourished with lodges and hospices that became places for practicing Sufis and other mystics to stay and retreat. One of the first Sufi orders was the Yasawi order, named after Khwajah Ahmed Yesevi in modern [[Kazakhstan]]. Another order, called the Kubrawiya order, originated in Central Asia. The most prominent Sufi master of this era is Abdul Qadir Jilani, the founder of the Qadiriyyah order in Iraq. Others included [[Rumi|Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi]], founder of the [[Mevlevi]] order in Turkey, Sahabuddin Suharwardi in Asia minor, and Moinuddin Chishti in India.  
  
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Sufism not only represented a practical and specific stream of religious thought, but also played an important cultural role in Islam.  It played an important role in the development of literature, in [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Urdu]]. Sufism also appears in other art forms, such as dance and music (like [[Qawwali]] ) and the [[Indo-Persian]] miniatures which decorate the [[Philosopher's stone]]s in verse and prose). It became an integral and fundamental element of religious thought and Islamic sensitivities, and became fully absorbed into the culture of the time.
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As Sufism grew and as the Mongol empire expanded from Persia through Central Asia, Sufis absorbed ideas from local people who followed such ancient traditions as [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Vedanta]], [[Gnosticism]], [[Buddhism]], or [[Shamanism]].<ref>White, 1965; Schwartz, 2002</ref> Thus Sufism came to bridge gaps between the Muslim population and rulers and the local people they ruled over.<ref>Schwartz, 2002</ref>
  
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===Modern Sufism===
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===Modern Period===
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In the modern period, Sufism has started to reemerge, and has tens of millions of followers in Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and West Africa; hundreds of millions more across the world follow Sufi ways.<ref name=tell>Tell, 2002</ref>
  
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This period includes the effects of modern thoughts , science & philosophy on Sufism, and the advent of Sufism to the [[Western World|West]]. Important Sufis of this period include [[Inayat Khan]] , [[Idries Shah]], [[Bawa Muhaiyaddeen]], [[Muzaffer Ozak]], [[Javad Nurbakhsh]], [[Muhammad Madani Miya Ashrafi al-Jilani]], [[Hisham Kabbani]] , [[Khawaja Shams ud din Azeemi]] , [[Nuh Ha Mim Keller]], [[Abdullah Harraiyy]], [[Samuel L. Lewis]] and [http://www.sufimaster.org Shaykh Sidi Muhammad al-Jamal] who have in great measure been responsible for the continued introduction and spread of the Sufi path in the modern West.
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In recent times, Sufism has spread to the West and the writings of Sufi masters and poets have become best-selling works.<ref name=tell/> Additionally, there has been a growth of non-traditional Sufi movements in the West. Some examples are Universal Sufism movement, the Mevlevi Order of America, the Golden Sufi Center, the Sufi Foundation of America, and Sufism Reoriented.
  
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==Influences==
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==Sufi Philosophy==
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A number of scholars perceive influences on Sufism from pre-Islamic and non-Islamic sources and schools of [[mysticism]] and philosophy. Some of these new perspectives originate from the synthesis of Persian civilization with Islam [http://www.khamush.com/sufism/persian_sufism.htm], an emphasis on spiritual aspects of Islam as a reaction against the prevailing impersonal, formal and hypocritical practice of religion [http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/sufism/67134], and possibly the incorporation of ideas and practices from other mystic systems such as [[Gnosticism]] and [[Hinduism]] into Islam. The evidence in support of non-Islamic influences in formation of Sufism includes the existence of similarities between Sufism and mystic systems outside Islam. Some Muslim and Western scholars believe that these theories show errors and biases of [[Orientalism|orientalist]]s, especially in the early 20th century [http://www.unc.edu/~cernst/articles/wheeler.doc]. There are also claims regarding [[ancient Egypt]]ian roots of Sufism which are not widely accepted.[http://www.egypt-tehuti.org/articles/sufism.html],[http://www.kheper.net/topics/Islamic_esotericism/Universal_Sufism.htm]
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Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such may be compared to other forms of religious [[mysticism]]. Sufis make extensive use of [[parable]], [[allegory]], and [[metaphor]] to express divine longing and mystical experience. The following allegory helps to explain the Sufi approach to God:
  
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Others oppose the idea of extensive non-Islamic influences on Sufism and believe that these theories are based on misunderstanding Islam as a harsh and sterile religion, incapable of developing mysticism.[http://meti.byu.edu/mysticism_chittick.html]
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:"There are three ways of knowing a thing. Take for instance a flame. One can be told of the flame, one can see the flame with his own eyes, and finally one can reach out and be burned by it. In this way, we Sufis seek to be burned by God."
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Those who adopt a [[phenomenological]] approach to mysticism believe that an argument can be made for concurent lines of thought througout [[mysticism]], regardless of interaction[http://www.csp.org/experience/james-varieties/james-varieties16.html].
 
  
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Some Western scholars with a mystic tendency go on to say that :
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Sufis understand the Prophet [[Mohammed]]’s saying, “God was, and nothing was Him” to mean that God’s existence is supreme to all others. God alone possesses reality and provides the reality to everything else in the world (Chittick, 2000, p. 12). People who sense this special perception within themselves and who work to transcend ordinary human constraints can further develop their minds to “know” God (Hardin, 1973). The ninth-century mystic Nubian Dhu al-Nun al-Misri clearly expressed what was to become the backbone of Sufi philosophy by saying, “Let him direct his soul to the greatness of God, for then it will dissolve and become pure. Whoever regards the power of God, his own power goes away, for all souls are poor next to his awesomeness” (Melchert, 1996). His disciple, Al-Kharraz, (890 – 891 C.E.), was the first to speak of ''f’ana'' (annihilation) and ''baqa'' (remaining) to describe how Sufis sought to lose consciousness of their own self to properly live in full contemplation of the divine’s existence (Melchert, 1996).
  
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"Of all the strands of thought, tradition and belief that make up the Islamic universe, Sufism in its doctrinal aspect stands out as the most intact, the most purely Islamic: the central strand" [http://www.kheper.net/topics/Islamic_esotericism/introduction.htm]
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Building on these notions, Sufism developed several key doctrines including ''Wahdat'' (meaning "Unity"), which affirms the Oneness of Allah ''(tawhid)'', and ''Tawakkal'' (meaning "absolute trust in God"). The former doctrine is predicated on the belief that all phenomena are manifestations of a single reality called ''Wujud'' (being), or ''al-Haq'' (Truth, God). The essence of being/Truth/God is devoid of every form and quality, and hence unmanifested, yet it is inseparable from every form and phenomenon either material or spiritual. It is often understood to imply that every phenomenon is an aspect of Truth and at the same time attribution of existence to it is false. The chief aim of all Sufis is to let go of all notions of duality, including the individual self and realize this divine unity. In this way, Sufis seek to directly connect with the divine. [[Junayd]] was among the first theorist of Sufism; he concerned himself with ‘fanaa’ and ‘baqaa’, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning worldly phenomena.
  
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The distinction is quite key, as Islam is not generally seen to be a faith [[inclusive]] of [[interdenominationalism]], yet Sufism is sometimes seen to be the exception to this.
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===Sufism and Love===
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The Sufis believe that the highest form of human love is the pure love for the Divine. Humans can achieve this love if they give themselves entirely to the Allah's will (Abdin, 2004). Sufis consider love for family, friends, material goods, or even Paradise all to be distractions from the love of God (Chittick, 2000). The heart of a believer should be so overflowing with God’s love that there is no other room for any other emotion in it (Abdin, 2004). Affirming this sentiment, the great female Sufi Rabi’a Al Adawiyya said, “I love God: I have no time left in which to hate the devil.” (Abdin, 2004). Love allows the believer to seize the spiritual beauty of God that is present in all things, and therefore love God in all things and love all things through God (Abdin, 2004).  
  
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Some Sufi orders emphasize the influence of some pre-Islamic traditions on ethics of Sufism[http://nimatullahi.org/us/DJN.html#Chivalry].
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Sufis believe that love is a projection of the essence of [[God]] to the [[universe]]. The most famous and respected of the Sufi poets, Jalaludin Rumi, wrote extensively of love and the overwhelming joy of joining with the divine:
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:“What would happen, youth, if you became a lover like me –
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:Every day madness, every night weeping.
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:His image not out of your eyes for an instant –
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:Two hundred lights in your eyes from that face.
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:You would cut yourself off from your friends,
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:You would wash your hands of the world:
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:“I have detached myself from myself,
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:I have become totally Yours.
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:“When I mix with these people, I am water with oil,
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:Outwardly joined, inwardly separate.”
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:Leaving behind all selfish desires, you would become mad,
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:But not any madness a doctor could cure.
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:If for an instant the physicians tasted this heartache,
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:They would escape their chains and tear up their books.  
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:Enough! Leave all this behind, seek a mine of sugar!
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:Become effaced in that sugar like milk in pastry.” (Chittick, 2000, p. 72)
  
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==Basic beliefs==
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==Sufi Devotional Practices==
  
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The central concept in Sufism is [[love]]. [[Dervish]]es&mdash;the name given to initiates of sufi orders&mdash;believe that love is a projection of the essence of [[God]] to the [[universe]].They believe that God desires to recognize [[beauty]], and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God looks at himself within the dynamics of nature. This is substantiated using the famous [[Hadith Qudsi]] (extra-Qur'anic utterance of God): ''"I was a hidden treasure, and I wanted to be known, so I created Creation."'' Since they believe that everything is a reflection of God, Sufis try to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly, and to open arms even to what is considered the most evil one. The Sufi conception of divine love is not restricted to what the term "love of God" implies, it also includes human loves with a perspective that views everything a manifestation of God.
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Remembrance of [[Allah]], or ''dhikr'', forms the backbone of Sufi practices (Waines, 2003). Repeating the name of God is a form of dhikr, which is thought to be a direct manifestation of the divine on a human level. Additionally, [[poetry]], [[dancing]] and [[music]] are devotional tools used by Sufis to remind the seeker of God’s presence. These practices were also used to heighten awareness and concentration of one’s inner mind, and were a central part of Sufism from the early days.  
  
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The central doctrine of Sufism, sometimes called ''Wahdat'' or Unity, is the Sufi understanding of [[Tawhid]]. Put very simply [[Tawhid]] states that all phenomena are manifestations of a single reality, or ''Wujud'' (being), which is indeed ''al-Haq'' (Truth, God). The essence of being/Truth/God is devoid of every form and quality, and hence unmanifest, yet it is inseparable from every form and phenomenon either material or spiritual. It is often understood to imply that every phenomenon is an aspect of Truth and at the same time attribution of existence to it is false.
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As Sufi devotional practices evolved over the centuries, a more elaborate system developed that aimed to facilitate moving the seeker through seven stages of consciousness (Semaan, 1979; Safi, 2003). In the first stage, Sufi followers were to give themselves over to service of their brethren and to following the law. In the second stage, Sufis were to practice righteous actions as prescribed by the [[Qur'an|holy Qur'an]], and the further rigors of asceticism. Through these practices, Sufis aimed to be imbued with the knowledge of an inner light. The third stage sought the experience of ecstasy in the presence of God moving towards the sixth stage of finding union with God. Finally, in the seventh stage, the Sufi reaches annihilation&mdash;the self is extinguished and no longer exists independently from God (Semaan, 1979). The one who has reached the pinnacle of these stages is said to be a ''Mu’min'', or pure believer, who can communicate directly with God (Safi, 2003). At the seventh stage, the Sufi is said to see everything as a manifestation of God and is stripped of all notions of culture, race and ideology (Safi, 2003).
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The chief aim of all Sufis then is to let go of all notions of [[Dualism#.22Eastern.22 or .22mystic.22 usage|duality]] (and therefore of the individual [[Self (philosophy)|self]] also), and realize the divine [[Tawhīd|unity]] which is considered to be the truth.
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:“It is then and only then…that the human being steps into the true radiance and beauty of God Consciousness, which recognizes no differences in the human family” (Safi, 2003, p. 239)
  
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[[Ibn Arabi]] describes this doctrine in a poetic language:
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Virtually all Sufis also distinguish ''Lataif-e-Sitta'' (The Six Subtleties) that designate the spiritual centers of sensory perception that lie dormant in an individual (i.e. Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa). Sufis seek to activate and awaken these centers. The purification of the elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God's love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God's attributes (Dhikr), and completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi and Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties and the transformative results from their activation, the basic Sufi psychology bears some resemblance to the schemata of [[kabbalah]] and the [[Tantra|tantric]] [[chakra]] system.
  
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:''It is He who is revealed in every face, sought in every sign, gazed upon by every eye, worshipped in every object of worship, and pursued in the unseen and the visible. Not a single one of His creatures can fail to find Him in its primordial and original nature.''
 
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Sufis teach in personal groups, believing that the intervention of the master is necessary for the growth of the pupil. They make extensive use of [[parable]]s, [[allegory]], and [[metaphor]]s, and it is held by Sufis that meaning can only be reached through a process of seeking the truth, and knowledge of oneself.
 
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Although philosophies vary between different Sufi orders, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such may be compared to various forms of [[mysticism]] such as [[Zen Buddhism]] and [[Gnosticism]].
 
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The following metaphor, credited to an unknown Sufi scholar, helps describe this line of thought.
 
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:''There are three ways of knowing a thing. Take for instance a flame. One can be told of the flame, one can see the flame with his own eyes, and finally one can reach out and be burned by it. In this way, we Sufis seek to be burned by God.''
 
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A large part of [[Muslim literature]] comes from the Sufis, who created great books of [[poetry]] (which include for example the ''[[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]]'', the ''[[Conference of the Birds]]'' and the ''[[Masnavi]]''), all of which contain profound and abstruse teachings of the Sufis.
 
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==Sufi Concepts==
 
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{{main|Sufi philosophy}}
 
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===Lataif-e-sitta (The Six Subtleties) ===
 
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Drawing from Qur'anic verses, virtually all Sufis distinguish [[Lataif-e-Sitta]] (The Six Subtleties), '''Nafs, Qalb, Sirr, Ruh, Khafi & Akhfa'''. These lataif (sing : latifa) designate various psychospiritual "organs" or, sometimes, faculties of sensory and suprasensory perception. In a rough assessment, they might appear to correlate with [[gland]]s, [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, [[Chinese traditional medicine]], or [[Tantra|tantric]] [[chakras]].
 
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In general, sufic development involves the awakening, in a certain order, of these spiritual centers of perception that lie dormant in every person. Each center is associated with a particular color and general area of the body, and oft times with a particular prophet, and varies from Order to Order. The help of a guide is considered necessary to help activate these centers. The activation of all these centers is part of the inner methodology of the sufi way or "Work". After undergoing this process, the dervish is said to reach a certain type of "completion" or becomes a Complete person.
 
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These six "organs" or faculties: Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa, and the purificative activities applied to them, contain the basic orthodox Sufi philosophy. The purification of the elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God's love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God's attributes (Dhikr), and completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi & Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties and the transformative results from their activation, the basic Sufi psychology is outlined and bears some resemblance to the schemata known as the [[kabbalah]] or to some the Indian [[chakra]] system.
 
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Man gets acquainted with the lataif one by one by [[Muraqaba]] (Sufi Meditation), [[Dhikr]] (Remembrance of God) and purification of one's psyche/life from negative thinking patterns (fear, depression), negative emotions (hate, contempt, anger, lust) and negative practices (hurting others  psychologically or physically). Loving God and loving/helping every human being irrespective of his race, religion or nationality, and without consideration for any possible reward, is the key to ascension according to Sufis.
 
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===Sufi cosmology===
 
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{{main|Sufi cosmology}}
 
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Although there is no consensus with regard to [[Sufi cosmology]], one can disentangle various threads that led to the crystallization of more or less coherent cosmological doctrines. Reading various authoritative texts, one can see that practitioners of Sufism were not much bothered with inconsistencies and contradictions that have arisen due to juxtaposition and superposition of at least three different cosmographies: Ishraqi visionary universe as expounded by Suhrawardi Maqtul, Neoplatonic view of cosmos cherished by Islamic philosophers like Ibn Sina/Avicenna and Sufis like Ibn al-Arabi, and Hermetic-Ptolemaic spherical geocentric world. All these doctrines (each one of them claiming to be impeccably orthodox) were freely mixed and juxtaposed, frequently with confusing results &ndash; a situation one encounters in other esoteric doctrines, from Hebrew [[Kabbalah]] and Christian [[Gnosticism]] to [[Vajrayana]] [[Buddhism]] and Trika [[Shaivism]]. The following cosmological plan is usually found in various Sufi texts:
 
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See also: ''[[Plane (cosmology)]] [[Esoteric cosmology]]''.
 
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==Sufi practices==
 
 
===Muraqaba===
 
===Muraqaba===
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{{main|Muraqaba}}
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''Muraqaba'' (Persian: Tamarkoz) is the word used by many Sufis when referring to the practice of [[meditation]]. The Arabic word literally means "to observe, guard or control one's thoughts and desires." In some Sufi orders, ''muraqaba'' may involve concentrating one's mind on the names of God, on a verse of the Qur'an, or on certain Arabic letters that have special significance.
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Muraqaba is the word used by many Sufis when referring to the practice of [[meditation]]. The [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word literally means observe, guard or control, in this context referring to controlling and guarding one's thoughts and desires. In some Sufi orders (such as some of the [[Shadhili]] orders) muraqaba may involve concentrating one's mind on the [[99 Names of God|names of God]], or on a verse of the [[Qur'an]], or on certain [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic letters]] that have special significance. Muraqaba in other orders (such as some among the [[Naqshbandi]]) may involve the  Sufi aspirant focusing on his or her [[murshid]], while others (such as the [[Azeemia]] order) imagine certain colors to achieve different spiritual states.
 
  
 
===Dhikr===
 
===Dhikr===
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''Dhikr'' is the remembrance of God commanded in the Qur'an for all [[Muslims]]. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from [[hadith]] literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God is considered dhikr.
  
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[[Dhikr]] is the remembrance of God commanded in the [[Qur'an]] for all [[Muslims]]. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from [[hadith]] literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God is considered dhikr.
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It is interesting to note that the practice of Muraqaba and Dhikr have very close resemblance with the practices of the Jewish mystics. Muraqaba is very similar to the Merkavah practice, which is one of the meditations used by Kabbalists to attain higher states of consciousness. Kabbalists also use a practice called Zakhor which in Hebrew literally means remembrance. Zakhor serves the same purpose in Kabbalah as Dhikr serves in Sufism. Another thing to notice here is that there is not only similarity in practice but also a strong similarity in the spelling and sounding of the words in Sufism and Kabbalah. This may imply that the Sufi mystical system has its origins in [[Judaism]] and its mystical tradition the [[Kabbala]].
  
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The [[Sufi]] orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies. Each order or lineage within an order has one or more forms for group dhikr, the [[liturgy]] of which may include [[recitation]], [[singing]], [[instrumental music]], [[dance]], [[costume]]s, [[incense]], [[meditation]], [[religious ecstasy|ecstasy]], and [[trance]]. (Touma 1996, p.162). Dhikr in a group is most often done on Thursday and/or Sunday nights as part of the institutional practice of the orders.
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Some Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, the [[liturgy]] of which may include [[recitation]], [[singing]], [[instrumental music]], [[dance]], [[costume]]s, [[incense]], [[meditation]], ecstasy, and trance. (Touma 1996, p.162).
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===Hadhra===
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''Hadhra'' is a dance associated with [[dhikr]] practiced primarily in the Arab world. The word Hadhra means Presence in Arabic. Sometimes the Sufi songs, or dances are performed as an appeal for the Presence of God, his prophets, and angels.
  
 
===Qawwali===
 
===Qawwali===
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[[Qawwali]] is a form of the devotional Sufi music common in [[Pakistan]] and North [[India]].
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''[[Qawwali]]'' is a form of devotional Sufi music common in [[Pakistan]], North [[India]], [[Afganistan]], [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]. It is known for its secular strains. Some of its modern-day masters have included [[Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]] and the [[Sabri Brothers]].
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===Sama===
 
  
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[[Sufi whirling#Sama|Sama]] or Sema' (Arabic "listening") refers to [[Sufi]] worship practices involving music and dance (see ''[[Sufi whirling]]''). In [[Uyghur]] culture, this includes a dance form also originally associated with Sufi ritual. See [[Qawwali#Origins|Qawwali origins]] and [http://www.osa.co.uk/qawwali_history.html ''Origin and History of the Qawwali''], [[Adam Nayyar]], [[Lok Virsa|Lok Virsa Research Centre]], [[Islamabad]], 1988.
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===Sema===
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''Sema'' refers to Sufi worship practices involving music and dance. In Uyghur culture, this includes a dance form also originally associated with Sufi ritual.<ref> See Qawwali origins and ''Origin and History of the Qawwali'', Adam Nayyar, Lok Virsa Research Centre, Islamabad, 1988. </ref> The Mevlevi order, founded by [[Rumi]], became famous for their whirling dance (El-Zein, 2000). Along with anticipation and anguish, the dance of the whirling dervish symbolizes the exhilaration that comes from the search for divine love (El-Zein, 2000; Tell, 2002). The whirling movements of the dervishes are performed to the sound of a reed and drum; the intensity of the movement mounts as the Sufis attempt to transcend their body and rational consciousness (Tell, 2002). Their dance is said to be symbolic of the universal cosmic dance that was begun and is sustained by the divine music of love (And, 1977; Omaima, 1994).
  
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==Orders of Sufism==
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===Khalwa===
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{{main|Tariqa}}
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Khalwa refers to a form of retreat, once widespread but now less common. A ''khalwa'' may be prescribed by the ''shaykh'' (spiritual advisor) of the ''murid'' or ''talib'' (student). Muslims believe that most of the prophets, and also Maryam (Mary) the mother of [[Islamic view of Jesus|Issa]] (Jesus), lived in some form of seclusion at some point in their life. Muhammad, for example, used to retreat to the cave where he received his first inspiration&mdash;but had been going there for many years prior to his meeting with the angel Gabriel. Similar examples include Moses' going into seclusion for 40 days in a cave in Mt. Sinai. Mary was in seclusion in the Jewish temple for a year, where only Zakariya was permitted to see her.
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===Traditional orders===
 
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The traditional Sufi orders all emphasize the role of Sufism within Islam. Therefore the [[Sharia]] (tradional Islamic law) and the [[Sunnah]] (customs of the Prophet) are seen as crucial for any Sufi aspirant. Among the oldest and most well known of the Sufi orders are the [[Shadhili]], [[Jerrahi]], [[Qadiri]], [[Naqshbandi]], [[Mevlevi]], [[Chishti]] and the [[Ashrafi]]. One proof traditional orders assert is that almost all the famous Sufi masters of the Islamic Caliphate times were also experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) in courts. Most of the greatest Scholars of Islam such as Imam Ghazzali, Imam Suyuti, Imam Nawawi and others were also practitioners of Sufism and great supporters of the discipline so long as adherents did not transgress the limits and disobey the Sharia. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and live correct with Sufism one must be a practicing Muslim obeying the Sharia.
 
  
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For a longer list of Sufi orders see: [[:Category:Sufi orders|Sufi orders]]
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==Sufi Literature and Poetry==
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Sufism has produced a large body of [[poetry]] in Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Kurdish, Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi. Its poetic gems can be found in every major Islamic culture and literature. Notable Sufi writers include Ibn al-Farid, Ibn Arabi, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, Farid Ud-Din Attar, Abdul Qader Bedil, Bulleh Shah, Amir Khusro, Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Sachal Sarmast and Sultan Bahu.
  
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===Non-Traditional Sufi Groups===
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A significant part of Persian literature comes from Sufism, which produced great works of poetry such as the ''Walled Garden of Truth'', ''Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam'', the ''Conference of the Birds'' and the ''Masnavi'', all of which contain teachings of the Sufis. It was around 1000 C.E.. that the early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations.  
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There also exist some Sufi groups that do not exist within the framework of Islam, or that pay little attention (even in name) to the [[Qur'an]] or the traditional [[Sharia]] and [[Sunnah]]. These can be generally categorized as non-traditional Sufi groups. In the [[Indian Subcontinent]] there exist several syncretic Sufi groups that have blurred the boundary between [[Islam]] and [[Hinduism]] (see for example [[Sai Baba of Shirdi]] or [[Kabir Das]]). (Also, see [[Sikhism]] below). In West Africa, the [[Mourides]] of [[Senegal]] don't observe the [[Salah|Islamic prayer]] or other traditional [[Five Pillars of Islam|Islamic rituals]], as they are instead encourage to do work in the service of their [[murshid]] (spiritual guide).
 
  
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The [[Sidi]]s of Gujarat migrated from [[East Africa]] to India in the [[twelfth century]].
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Sufi poets describe the experience of God’s presence in beautiful, unconventional and even shocking ways, which could offend the conventionally pious (Omaima, 1994). Realizing that language was an inadequate and even dangerous way of describing their spiritual journey, Sufis became careful in using language to express themselves (Waines, 2003). The words of Sufis often can not be understood through their surface meaning alone and they emphasized the inner meaning of these words as giving one’s self to God:
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:[However], The allegorical and often abstruse language used by Sufis in their texts when interpreted by unqualified people opens avenues for many misunderstandings. eg. The concept of divine unity Wahdat-ul-wujood which critics consider equivalent to [[pantheism]] and therefore incompatible with Islam. Sufi masters in many of their introductory texts caution aspirants from reading and interpreting texts by themselves. They hold that the subject can only be taught by a master to a student under strict guidance and supervision owing to its delicate nature.
  
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In recent decades there has also been a growth of such non-traditional Sufi movements in the West. Some examples are [[Universal Sufism]] movement, the [http://www.hayatidede.org/ Mevlevi Order of America], the [http://www.goldensufi.org/ Golden Sufi Center], the [http://www.sufifoundation.org/ Sufi Foundation of America], [[Sufism Reoriented]]. For more about non-tradtional Western Sufism read  [http://www.uga.edu/islam/sufismwest.html#Quasi "Sufism, the West, and Modernity" on the website of Dr Alan Godlas].
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==Orders of Sufism==
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Sufis do not define Sufism as a school of legal jurisprudence (or Madhab). Often what distinguishes a person as a Sufi is their association with a Sufi order. Among the oldest and most well known of the Sufi orders (tariqas) are the Qadiri, Chisti, Oveyssi, Shadhili, Jerrahi, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi, Mevlevi and the Ashrafi. Classic Sufi tariqas insist on adherence to one of the four Madhabs of Fiqh and one of the two orthodox schools of Aqida. In this sense, traditional practitioners of Sufism do not see it as a sectarian group but just as a form of training necessary to cultivate spirituality and Ihsan in their lives.  
  
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====Universal Sufism====
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Sufism was traditionally considered the systematization of the spiritual component of Islam. It dealt with matters of the heart (just as Fiqh dealt with the body and Aqida dealt with the intellect). Many of the greatest Islamic scholars wrote treatises on the subject (eg. [[Al-Ghazali]]'s ihya ulum-aldeen (احياء علوم الدين), Imam Nawawi's Bustan al-Arifeen etc.). Almost all the famous Sufi masters of the Islamic Caliphate times were also experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and live correct with Sufism one must be a practicing Muslim obeying the Sharia. Many of the traditional scholars who were part of famous Islamic institutions (eg. Al-Azhar) like [http://www.sufiway.net/ar_awliya_ibnataillah.html Ibn Ata'illah] were Sufi masters. Even today, many of the traditional Islamic universities like Al-Azhar endorse Sufism as a part of the religion of Islam.<ref name=rott>Nuh Ha Mim Keller, ''Reliance of the traveler'': “we certify that the above-mentioned translation corresponds to the Arabic original and confirms to the practice and faith of the orthodox Sunni community (ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama'a).”</ref>
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{{main|Universal Sufism}}
 
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Sufism is usually seen in relation to Islam and is largely practiced by Muslims. However, there is also a major line of non-Islamic or offshoot-Islamic Sufi thought that sees Sufism as predating Islam and being a [[Universalism|universal]] philosophy, that is independent of the [[Qur'an]] and the teachings of Prophet [[Muhammad]]. This view of Sufism has been popular in the [[Western world]] but is opposed by traditional Sufis who practice it within the framework of Islam as the science of Sufism was always practiced as a discipline in Islam and could never be separated from it. [[Inayat Khan]] founded [[Universal Sufism]], and [[Idries Shah]] advocated similar concepts.
 
  
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There is also an attempt to reconsider Sufism in contemporary Muslim thought from within. According to this view, Sufism represents the core sense of Islam that gives insight to God and His creation.
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However, Sufism emphasizes non-quantifiable matters (like states of the heart). The authors of various Sufi treatises often used allegorical language which could not be read by an unknowledgeable person to describe these states (eg. likened some states to intoxication which is forbidden in Islam). This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some Sufi groups emerged that considered themselves above the [[Sharia]] and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars. An example of such a deviant sufi was Abu Hilman.<ref>[http://www.sunnah.org/history/Scholars/abd_alqahir_albaghadadi.htm Abu Hilman] Retrieved June 3, 2008.</ref> One of the most vocal critics of such deviations from the Islamic creed was Ibn Taymiya.<ref> For a detailed essay on the role that Sufism plays in traditional Islam, please refer to [http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/sufitlk.htm Place of Tasawwuf in traditional Islam] Retrieved June 3, 2008.</ref>
  
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==Traditional Islamic schools of thought and Sufism==
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==Persecution and Controversy==
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The relationship between orthodox Islam and Sufism is complicated due to the variety of Sufi orders and their histories. According to the followers of Sufism, early scholars of Islam had positive attitudes towards Sufism. For example, [[Al-Ghazali]] defended Sufis as true Muslims. Later, there were some scholars who considered some aspects of Sufism [[heresy]]. Eventually puritanical Muslims attacked Sufis, saying their poetry and music were infections from [[Christianity]] and [[Hinduism]] and were antithetical to the principles of Islam (Dalrymple, 2004). The poetic raptures of Sufis were also considered suspect; at times, they were misinterpreted as insane ravings or even as blasphemy (Waines, 2003). Some Sufis were executed for their preaching; other Sufis saw their shrines destroyed; and still others were forced underground in countries like Saudi Arabia, where mysticism and the worship of saints are labeled as apostasy (Khan, 2005). Authorities expelled Abu Sulayman al-Darani from Damascus when he said he had seen and heard angels (Melchert, 1996). Abu Yazid was also forced into several years of exile from the city of Bastam after he claimed that, like Muhammad, he had ascended to the heavens (Melchert, 1996). Abu Hamzah recognized the voice of God in the cawing of a crow, for which authorities expelled him from Tarsus (Melchert, 1996).
  
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Islam traditionally consists of a number of [[madhhab]]s (i.e of [[Sunni]], [[Shi'a]] and of their subdivisions). Sufis do not define Sufism as a madhhab. What distinguishes a person as a Sufi is practicing Sufism, usually through association with a Sufi order.  Belief in Sufism is not sufficient for being recognized as a Sufi. These facts lead to some ambiguity because Sufism has characteristics of a [[tradition]] and, for example, use of the term "Sufi Islam" is generally accepted.
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The controversy surrounding Sufism is perhaps best exemplified by [[Mansur al-Hallaj]], who identified himself by one of the names of Allah&mdash;‘Ana Al-haqq,’ which means “I am the truth, I am the Reality or I am God.” These words had him branded as a blasphemer, and authorities in Baghdad ordered him to execution (Chittick, 2000; Tell, 2002; Waines, 2003; Abdin, 2004). Mansur al-Hallaj's statement is indicative of his intensity love of God, which reached its utmost limit when he realized that nothing but God existed (Chittick, 2000; Tell, 2002). The Sufi poet [[Rumi]] explained al-Hallaj's controversial statement this way: If al-Hallaj'shad said, “You are God and I am the servant,” that would have created duality by reaffirming his own existence. If Hallaj had said, “He is the Real,” that too is duality, for there can’t be “He” without “I.” Hence, Hallaj said, “I am the Real” to acknowledge other than God, nothing else existed. Rumi writes, “Hallaj had been annihilated, so those were the words of the Real” (Chittick, 2000, p. 17).
  
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[[William Chittick|W. Chittick]] explains the position of Sufism and Sufis this way:
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While critics have thought of Sufism as a belief system that is alien to Islam, supporters of Sufism have argued that its tradition is in fact grounded in three themes that repeatedly appear in the Qu’ran, which are “submission” (Islam), “faith” (Iman), and “doing the beautiful” (Ihsan). Sufism takes “doing the beautiful” as its especial domain, which is based on submission and faith (Chittick, 2000).
  
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:''In short, Muslim scholars who focused their energies on understanding the normative guidelines for the body came to be known as jurists, and those who held that the most important task was to train the mind in achieving correct understanding came to be divided into three main schools of thought: theology, philosophy, and Sufism. This leaves us with the third domain of human existence, the spirit. Most Muslims who devoted their major efforts to developing the spiritual dimensions of the human person came to be known as Sufis''
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==Notes==
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<references/>
  
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The relationship between traditional Islamic scholars and Sufism is complicated due to the variety of Sufi orders and their history.
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==References==
  
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In the history of Sufism, the founders and early scholars of the schools (madhhabs) had positive attitudes towards Sufism, for example [[Imam Hambal]] used to  visit the Sufi master [[Bishr al Hafi]] frequently[http://www.crescentlife.com/spirituality/early_scholars_on_sufism.htm]. Later, there were some scholars who considered some aspects of Sufism rank [[heresy]] as well as those like [[Al-Ghazali]] who defended Sufis as true Muslims. In time, even the controversal words of [[Al-Hallaj]] came to be accepted by some scholars.
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* Abdin, A. "Love in Islam." ''European Judaism'', 37 (2004), 92-102.  
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* Chittick, W. ''Sufism: a Short Introduction.'' Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000.
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Today, most Muslims hold Tasawwuf, in the sense of Sufi doctrines and philosophies, to be the science of the heart or gnosis (as distinct from other branches of Islamic knowledge which are [[exoteric]] in nature) and appreciate Sufis for their extensive contributions to Islamic arts and philosophy. Many Muslims who are not themselves Sufis are influenced by Sufi teachings.
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* Dalrymple, W. "The ecstasy of God’s dancers." ''New Statesman'', 133, (2004), 22-25.  
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* El-Zein, A. "Spiritual consumption in the United States: the Rumi phenomenon." ''Spiritual Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations'', 11 (2000), 71-86.  
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Modern criticism of Sufism by Muslims has different aspects, the most important being criticizing the lifestyle of some Sufis like the wandering dervishes, and holding rigid beliefs in Sufi Shaykhs.
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* Hardin, N. "Doris Lessing and the Sufi way." ''Contemporary Literature'', 14 (1973), 565-581.
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* Khan, A. "The path ahead." ''Maclean’s'', 118 (2005), 38-39.
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Some Muslim movements (such as [[Salafism]], alternatively called [[Wahabism]], a [[fundamentalist]] Islamic movement) hold Sufism to be a form of [[Bid'ah|reprehensible innovation]] influenced by unislamic sources [http://www.allaahuakbar.net/sufism/index.htm], [http://www.qss.org/articles/sufism/sufi7.html]. Although some [[Islamic scholars]] hold their view on the issue to be baseless and assert the position that Sufi spirituality is essentially Islamic, adherents of Sufism argue the necessity of mysticism in Islamic practice and a figurative interpretation of their religion. [http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/sufitlk.htm]
+
* Loutfy, N., and G. Berguno. "The existential thoughts of the Sufis." ''Existential Analysis: Journal of the Society for Existential Analysis'', 16 (2005), 144-155.
−
 
+
* Melchert, C. "The transition from asceticism to mysticism at the middle of the ninth century C.E." ''Studia Islamica'', 83 (1996), 51-70.  
−
Although Sufism as a whole is approved in Islamic thought, there is a tendency to distinguish between different Sufi thoughts and practices in terms of their conformity with [[Shari'a]] and hence the introduction of an ''Islamic'' or ''authentic'' form of Sufism by religious authorities.[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&cid=1119503545786]
+
* Omaima, A. "Abrogation of the mind in the poetry of Jalal al-Din Rumi." ''Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics'', 14 (1994), 37-63.
−
 
+
* Safi, O. ''Progressive Muslims: on justice, gender and pluralism.'' Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2003.  
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For example in Shi'a Islam, a form of Sufism held to be in conformity with [[Shari'a]] is called [[Irfan]] (lit. ''gnosis'').[http://al-islam.org/LWM/],[http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/islamic_gnosis_wisdom/]
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* Semaan, K. "Islamic mysticism in modern Arabic poetry and drama." ''International Journal of Middle East Studies''. 1979, 517-531.  
−
 
+
* Shah, Idries. ''The Sufis''. 1971. ISBN 0385079664
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==See also==
+
* &mdash;&mdash;&mdash;. ''The Way of the Sufi''. 1991. ISBN 0140192522
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{{Wikibooks|Sufism}}
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* Shah, Omar Ali. ''The Rules of Secrets of the Naqshbandi Order''. 1998. ISBN 2909347095
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*[[Haqiqa]]
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* Tell, C. '"A poet and a mystic: Jalaluddin Rumi." ''Social Education'', 66 (2002), 204-210.  
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*[[List of Sufism related topics]]
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* Waines, D. ''An Introduction to Islam.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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*[[List of famous Sufis]]
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* White, C. "Sufism in Medieval Hindi literature." ''History of Religions'', 5 (1965), 114-132.
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*[[Nazar ill'al-murd]]
 
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*[[Spiritual healing]]
 
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*[[Theosophy]]
 
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==Sources==
 
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* [http://www.ibnarabisociety.org/IbnArabi.html Articles on mysticism of Ibn Arabi] from Ibn Arabi Society
 
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* [http://meti.byu.edu/mysticism_chittick.html Mysticism in Islam] a lecture by W.Chittick
 
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* [http://www.suite101.com/welcome.cfm/sufism A spiritual approach to Sufism]
 
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* [http://www.kheper.net/topics/Islamic_esotericism/Sufism.htm Sufism] From a site dedicated to various esoteric systems
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
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* [http://www.Islam786.com]
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===Tariqa websites and general links===
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* [http://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/Sufism.html Sufism . Sufis . Sufi Orders] Dr. Alan Godlas, University of Georgia
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All links retrieved February 26, 2023.
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* [http://www.sufism.20m.com/sufi.htm Sufism & Sufi Orders in Islam]
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* [http://www.jerrahi.org/ The Helvati-Jerrahi Sufi Order]
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*[http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/sufitlk.htm The place of Tasawwuf in traditional Islam] by [[Nuh Ha Mim Keller]]
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* [http://www.mtoshahmaghsoudi.org/ The Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi Order]
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*[http://www.sunna.info/Lessons/islam_343.html Sufisim vs Sufi Claimers]
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* [http://www.naqshbandi.org/ The Naqshabandi Sufi Order]
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* [http://muslim-canada.org/sufi/ The Sufi Study Circle] of the University of Toronto associated with Chishti order of Sufism
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* [http://www.qadiri-rifai.org/ The Qadri-Rifai Sufi Order]
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* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/features/sufi/index.shtml BBC - Religion & Ethics - Sufism]
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* [http://www.sufism.org/ The Mevlevi Order]
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* [http://www.tasawwuf.org/ The Islamic Science of Spirituality (Sufism)] Audio and articles on  Sufism
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* [http://www.mtopublications.com M.T.O. Shahmaghsoudi Sufi Publications]
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* [http://www.khamush.com/sufism/index.html A site dedicated to Rumi & Sufis]
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*[http://www.sufiassociation.org M.T.O. Sufi Association]
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* [http://www.sufimeditations.net/ Online magazine of Sufi Meditation (Muraqaba) and Healing]
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* [http://www.tamarkoz.org Tamarkoz (the Art of Sufi Meditation)]
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*[http://islamonline.net/english/Contemporary/2002/08/Article03.shtml “Sufism”: A Tradition of Transcendental Mysticism] (Islamonline)
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*[http://www.sufipsychology.org Sufi Psychology Association]
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* [http://www.penkatali.org/ Divine Feminine in Sufism] by a feminist Sufi
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* [http://www.khamush.com Sufism, Rumi]  
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* [http://www.sufism.org/society/articles/women.html Women & Sufism] by Camille Adams Helminski
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* [http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/pspa/al-ahbash.html A Sufi response to Islamism]
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* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/Sufism/ DMOZ . Sufism]
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* [http://www.bmf.org A Modern Sufi Shaikh, Bawa Muhaiyaddeen]
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* [http://world.std.com/~habib/sufi.html#websites Sufi-related resources on the Internet]
 
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* [http://www.theuniversel.net/lessons/200306_lesson.cfm?Selected=Lessons&CFID=4281&CFTOKEN=89021241 Sufism & Buddhism]
 
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===Online resources===
 
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* [http://www.azeemiaspirituallibrary.coms.ph/LIST_BOOK.htm  Azeemia spiritual library] Books on sufism from silsila-e-azeemia
 
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* [http://www.fonsvitae.coms/MG1.html www.fonsvitae.com] Classic Sufi texts in translation
 
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* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/isl/index.htm  www.sacred-texts.com] Some books by Rumi, Saadi, Kabir, Khayyam & Ghazali
 
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* [http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual_and_devotional_poets/sufi/ Collection of Sufi Poetry]
 
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* [http://www.liberalislam.net/birds.html Excerpts from 'The Conference of the Birds'] by Fariduddin-al-Attar
 
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* [http://www.islam.co.za/abdalqadirjilani/default.htm][http://www.al-baz.com/][http://www.quranicstudies.com/listbook1.html] Excrepts/Books by [[Abdul Qadir Jilani]]
 
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*[http://www.ibn-arabi.com/][http://www.ibnarabisociety.org/Library.html] Excrepts/Books  by [[Ibn Arabi]]
 
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* [http://bewley.virtualave.net/ Fusus al Hikm][http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/ABewley/HomePage.html Futuhaat-e-makkiya] and other books
 
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* [http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Podcasts/Fall%20of%20Adam%20podcast.html Sufi views on Adam's Fall] William Chittick lecture on Ahmad Samani
 
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*[http://www.irfanokulu.net sufism/tasavvuf]Abd Al Kader Jilani-Ibn Arabi-Mewlana Jelal Ad-Din Rumi
 
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* [http://www.tasawwuf.org Website of Shaykh Zulfiqar Ahmed (db)]
 
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* [http://www.sacredlearning.org Website of Shyakh Husain Abdul Sattar (db)]
 
  
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===Imams on Sufism===
 
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*[http://www.crescentlife.com/spirituality/early_scholars_on_sufism.htm Early scholars on Sufism]
 
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*[http://www.islaam.org/Tasawwuf/Tasa_12.htm Statments of Sufiya]
 
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* [http://www.sunnah.org/tasawwuf/scholar.htm Ideas of the Imams of different madhabs about Sufism]
 
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*[http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/pspa/al-ahbash.html A Sufi response to Islamism]
 
  
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{{Sufism}}
 
  
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Latest revision as of 13:45, 28 April 2023

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Sufism (from Arabic (صوف), Suf meaning "wool") is a mystical tradition of Islam dedicated to experiencing Allah/God as the epitome of divine Love. Sufis can be associated with Shi'a Islam, Sunni Islam, other currents of Islam, or a combination of multiple traditions. Emerging duing the eighth century C.E. in the Middle East, though having earlier precedents, Sufism subsequently developed into several different orders known as Tariqas. The most famous of these orders is the Mevlevi tradition associated with the poet and mystic, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi.

Sufis believe that excessive rationalism blocks human understanding of God's immersive and loving nature. Consequently, they focus on directly experiencing God through ecstatic practice in order to efface the obstructing self. Sufis have endured persecution over the years due to their unconventional and controversial approach to Allah, which has been perceived by some to be blasphemous.

In recent times, the teachings of Sufism have spread to the West and Sufi writings have become best-selling works.

Whirling Dervishes perform near the Mevlevi Museum in Konya, Turkey.

Etymology

There are several possible etymologies for the word Sufi (تصوف), which are indicated below:

  • The conventional view is that the term originates from Suf (صوف), the Arabic word for wool, referring to the simple cloaks that the early ascetics wore. However, not all Sufis wear cloaks or clothes of wool.
  • Another possible etymology is that the root word of Sufi comes from the Arabic word safa (صفا), meaning "purity." This approach places the emphasis of Sufism on purity of heart and soul.
  • Another suggested origin is from "Ashab al-Suffa" ("Companions of the Veranda") or "Ahl al-Suffa" ("People of the Veranda"), who were a group of Muslims during the time of the Prophet Muhammad that spent much of their time on the veranda of the Prophet's mosque devoted to prayer.
  • A final etymology, advanced by the tenth-century author Al-Biruni, is that the word Sufiya is linked with the Greek term for 'Wisdom' - 'Sophia.'

History

Origins

Sufism is said to have originated during the time of Prophet Mohammad (seventh century C.E.). Almost all traditional Sufi orders trace their "chains of transmission" back to the Prophet via his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib (except the Naqshbandi order which traces its origin to caliph Abu Bakr). Each order believes that Sufi teachings were passed on from teacher to student through the centuries.

Some scholars argue that Sufism evolved from an interiorization of Islam, such as Louis Massignon who states: "It is from the Qur’an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development."[1] Sufism may also have emerged from the practice of Muslim asceticism. People of ascetic temperaments were found throughout Muslim communities early in the history of Islam.[2] These ascetics focused on introspection and maintained a strict control over their life and behavior. They followed a lifestyle of modesty, temperance, contentment and the denial of luxury. Their practices included fasting, wearing light clothing in the depths of winter, or withdrawing themselves from the world.[3] Other theories have been suggested for the origins of Sufism, which link it to outside non-Muslim influences.[4]

Development

If early Sufism arose out of the practice of asceticism—the turning away from worldly life to concentrate on prayer to Allah—then it likely resulted in being limited to a small number of devoted practitioners. However, by the middle of the ninth century, Sufi mysticism started to burgeon. One major figure and catalyst in its growth was the female mystic Rabiah al-Adawiyah (died 801), who emphasized the absolute love for Allah above everything else. The shift of Sufism from asceticism to divine love captured the attention of the masses and elites, and soon Sufism began to flourish in Baghdad spreading then to Persia, Pakistan, India, North Africa, and Muslim Spain.[2]

Figures such as Uwais al-Qarni, Harrm Bin Hian, Hasan Ul-Basri and Sayid Ibn Ul Mussib are regarded as the first mystics in Islam. Rabia was a female Sufi and known for her love and passion for God.

Golden Age

Rumi`s tomb in Konya.

From 1200-1500 C.E., Sufism experienced an era of increased activity in various parts of the Islamic world. This period (especially the thirteenth century) is considered to be the "Golden Age" of Sufism. At this time, many of the major figures in the history of Sufism were alive and writing their monumental classics of Sufi literature and poetry.

The Sufis dispersed throughout the Middle East, particularly in the areas previously under Byzantine influence and control. This period was characterized by the practice of an apprentice (murid) placing himself under the spiritual direction of a Master (shaykh or pir). Schools were developed, concerning themselves with the topics of mystical experience, education of the heart to rid itself of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through progressive stages (maqaam) and states (haal). The schools were formed by reformers who felt their core values and manners had disappeared in a society marked by material prosperity that they saw as eroding the spiritual life. Additionally, many Sufi brotherhoods (turuq) flourished with lodges and hospices that became places for practicing Sufis and other mystics to stay and retreat. One of the first Sufi orders was the Yasawi order, named after Khwajah Ahmed Yesevi in modern Kazakhstan. Another order, called the Kubrawiya order, originated in Central Asia. The most prominent Sufi master of this era is Abdul Qadir Jilani, the founder of the Qadiriyyah order in Iraq. Others included Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, founder of the Mevlevi order in Turkey, Sahabuddin Suharwardi in Asia minor, and Moinuddin Chishti in India.

As Sufism grew and as the Mongol empire expanded from Persia through Central Asia, Sufis absorbed ideas from local people who followed such ancient traditions as Zoroastrianism, Vedanta, Gnosticism, Buddhism, or Shamanism.[5] Thus Sufism came to bridge gaps between the Muslim population and rulers and the local people they ruled over.[6]

Modern Period

In the modern period, Sufism has started to reemerge, and has tens of millions of followers in Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and West Africa; hundreds of millions more across the world follow Sufi ways.[7]

In recent times, Sufism has spread to the West and the writings of Sufi masters and poets have become best-selling works.[7] Additionally, there has been a growth of non-traditional Sufi movements in the West. Some examples are Universal Sufism movement, the Mevlevi Order of America, the Golden Sufi Center, the Sufi Foundation of America, and Sufism Reoriented.

Sufi Philosophy

Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such may be compared to other forms of religious mysticism. Sufis make extensive use of parable, allegory, and metaphor to express divine longing and mystical experience. The following allegory helps to explain the Sufi approach to God:

"There are three ways of knowing a thing. Take for instance a flame. One can be told of the flame, one can see the flame with his own eyes, and finally one can reach out and be burned by it. In this way, we Sufis seek to be burned by God."

Sufis understand the Prophet Mohammed’s saying, “God was, and nothing was Him” to mean that God’s existence is supreme to all others. God alone possesses reality and provides the reality to everything else in the world (Chittick, 2000, p. 12). People who sense this special perception within themselves and who work to transcend ordinary human constraints can further develop their minds to “know” God (Hardin, 1973). The ninth-century mystic Nubian Dhu al-Nun al-Misri clearly expressed what was to become the backbone of Sufi philosophy by saying, “Let him direct his soul to the greatness of God, for then it will dissolve and become pure. Whoever regards the power of God, his own power goes away, for all souls are poor next to his awesomeness” (Melchert, 1996). His disciple, Al-Kharraz, (890 – 891 C.E.), was the first to speak of f’ana (annihilation) and baqa (remaining) to describe how Sufis sought to lose consciousness of their own self to properly live in full contemplation of the divine’s existence (Melchert, 1996).

Building on these notions, Sufism developed several key doctrines including Wahdat (meaning "Unity"), which affirms the Oneness of Allah (tawhid), and Tawakkal (meaning "absolute trust in God"). The former doctrine is predicated on the belief that all phenomena are manifestations of a single reality called Wujud (being), or al-Haq (Truth, God). The essence of being/Truth/God is devoid of every form and quality, and hence unmanifested, yet it is inseparable from every form and phenomenon either material or spiritual. It is often understood to imply that every phenomenon is an aspect of Truth and at the same time attribution of existence to it is false. The chief aim of all Sufis is to let go of all notions of duality, including the individual self and realize this divine unity. In this way, Sufis seek to directly connect with the divine. Junayd was among the first theorist of Sufism; he concerned himself with ‘fanaa’ and ‘baqaa’, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning worldly phenomena.

Sufism and Love

The Sufis believe that the highest form of human love is the pure love for the Divine. Humans can achieve this love if they give themselves entirely to the Allah's will (Abdin, 2004). Sufis consider love for family, friends, material goods, or even Paradise all to be distractions from the love of God (Chittick, 2000). The heart of a believer should be so overflowing with God’s love that there is no other room for any other emotion in it (Abdin, 2004). Affirming this sentiment, the great female Sufi Rabi’a Al Adawiyya said, “I love God: I have no time left in which to hate the devil.” (Abdin, 2004). Love allows the believer to seize the spiritual beauty of God that is present in all things, and therefore love God in all things and love all things through God (Abdin, 2004).

Sufis believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. The most famous and respected of the Sufi poets, Jalaludin Rumi, wrote extensively of love and the overwhelming joy of joining with the divine:

“What would happen, youth, if you became a lover like me –
Every day madness, every night weeping.
His image not out of your eyes for an instant –
Two hundred lights in your eyes from that face.
You would cut yourself off from your friends,
You would wash your hands of the world:
“I have detached myself from myself,
I have become totally Yours.
“When I mix with these people, I am water with oil,
Outwardly joined, inwardly separate.”
Leaving behind all selfish desires, you would become mad,
But not any madness a doctor could cure.
If for an instant the physicians tasted this heartache,
They would escape their chains and tear up their books.
Enough! Leave all this behind, seek a mine of sugar!
Become effaced in that sugar like milk in pastry.” (Chittick, 2000, p. 72)

Sufi Devotional Practices

Remembrance of Allah, or dhikr, forms the backbone of Sufi practices (Waines, 2003). Repeating the name of God is a form of dhikr, which is thought to be a direct manifestation of the divine on a human level. Additionally, poetry, dancing and music are devotional tools used by Sufis to remind the seeker of God’s presence. These practices were also used to heighten awareness and concentration of one’s inner mind, and were a central part of Sufism from the early days.

As Sufi devotional practices evolved over the centuries, a more elaborate system developed that aimed to facilitate moving the seeker through seven stages of consciousness (Semaan, 1979; Safi, 2003). In the first stage, Sufi followers were to give themselves over to service of their brethren and to following the law. In the second stage, Sufis were to practice righteous actions as prescribed by the holy Qur'an, and the further rigors of asceticism. Through these practices, Sufis aimed to be imbued with the knowledge of an inner light. The third stage sought the experience of ecstasy in the presence of God moving towards the sixth stage of finding union with God. Finally, in the seventh stage, the Sufi reaches annihilation—the self is extinguished and no longer exists independently from God (Semaan, 1979). The one who has reached the pinnacle of these stages is said to be a Mu’min, or pure believer, who can communicate directly with God (Safi, 2003). At the seventh stage, the Sufi is said to see everything as a manifestation of God and is stripped of all notions of culture, race and ideology (Safi, 2003).

“It is then and only then…that the human being steps into the true radiance and beauty of God Consciousness, which recognizes no differences in the human family” (Safi, 2003, p. 239)

Virtually all Sufis also distinguish Lataif-e-Sitta (The Six Subtleties) that designate the spiritual centers of sensory perception that lie dormant in an individual (i.e. Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa). Sufis seek to activate and awaken these centers. The purification of the elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God's love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh) fortified by emptying of egoic drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God's attributes (Dhikr), and completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi and Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties and the transformative results from their activation, the basic Sufi psychology bears some resemblance to the schemata of kabbalah and the tantric chakra system.

Muraqaba

Muraqaba (Persian: Tamarkoz) is the word used by many Sufis when referring to the practice of meditation. The Arabic word literally means "to observe, guard or control one's thoughts and desires." In some Sufi orders, muraqaba may involve concentrating one's mind on the names of God, on a verse of the Qur'an, or on certain Arabic letters that have special significance.

Dhikr

Dhikr is the remembrance of God commanded in the Qur'an for all Muslims. To engage in dhikr is to have awareness of God according to Islam. Dhikr as a devotional act includes the repetition of divine names, supplications and aphorisms from hadith literature, and sections of the Qur'an. More generally, any activity in which the Muslim maintains awareness of God is considered dhikr.

It is interesting to note that the practice of Muraqaba and Dhikr have very close resemblance with the practices of the Jewish mystics. Muraqaba is very similar to the Merkavah practice, which is one of the meditations used by Kabbalists to attain higher states of consciousness. Kabbalists also use a practice called Zakhor which in Hebrew literally means remembrance. Zakhor serves the same purpose in Kabbalah as Dhikr serves in Sufism. Another thing to notice here is that there is not only similarity in practice but also a strong similarity in the spelling and sounding of the words in Sufism and Kabbalah. This may imply that the Sufi mystical system has its origins in Judaism and its mystical tradition the Kabbala.

Some Sufi orders engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies, the liturgy of which may include recitation, singing, instrumental music, dance, costumes, incense, meditation, ecstasy, and trance. (Touma 1996, p.162).

Hadhra

Hadhra is a dance associated with dhikr practiced primarily in the Arab world. The word Hadhra means Presence in Arabic. Sometimes the Sufi songs, or dances are performed as an appeal for the Presence of God, his prophets, and angels.

Qawwali

Qawwali is a form of devotional Sufi music common in Pakistan, North India, Afganistan, Iran and Turkey. It is known for its secular strains. Some of its modern-day masters have included Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and the Sabri Brothers.

Sema

Sema refers to Sufi worship practices involving music and dance. In Uyghur culture, this includes a dance form also originally associated with Sufi ritual.[8] The Mevlevi order, founded by Rumi, became famous for their whirling dance (El-Zein, 2000). Along with anticipation and anguish, the dance of the whirling dervish symbolizes the exhilaration that comes from the search for divine love (El-Zein, 2000; Tell, 2002). The whirling movements of the dervishes are performed to the sound of a reed and drum; the intensity of the movement mounts as the Sufis attempt to transcend their body and rational consciousness (Tell, 2002). Their dance is said to be symbolic of the universal cosmic dance that was begun and is sustained by the divine music of love (And, 1977; Omaima, 1994).

Khalwa

Khalwa refers to a form of retreat, once widespread but now less common. A khalwa may be prescribed by the shaykh (spiritual advisor) of the murid or talib (student). Muslims believe that most of the prophets, and also Maryam (Mary) the mother of Issa (Jesus), lived in some form of seclusion at some point in their life. Muhammad, for example, used to retreat to the cave where he received his first inspiration—but had been going there for many years prior to his meeting with the angel Gabriel. Similar examples include Moses' going into seclusion for 40 days in a cave in Mt. Sinai. Mary was in seclusion in the Jewish temple for a year, where only Zakariya was permitted to see her.

Sufi Literature and Poetry

Sufism has produced a large body of poetry in Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Kurdish, Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi. Its poetic gems can be found in every major Islamic culture and literature. Notable Sufi writers include Ibn al-Farid, Ibn Arabi, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, Farid Ud-Din Attar, Abdul Qader Bedil, Bulleh Shah, Amir Khusro, Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Sachal Sarmast and Sultan Bahu.

A significant part of Persian literature comes from Sufism, which produced great works of poetry such as the Walled Garden of Truth, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, the Conference of the Birds and the Masnavi, all of which contain teachings of the Sufis. It was around 1000 C.E. that the early Sufi literature, in the form of manuals, treatises, discourses and poetry, became the source of Sufi thinking and meditations.

Sufi poets describe the experience of God’s presence in beautiful, unconventional and even shocking ways, which could offend the conventionally pious (Omaima, 1994). Realizing that language was an inadequate and even dangerous way of describing their spiritual journey, Sufis became careful in using language to express themselves (Waines, 2003). The words of Sufis often can not be understood through their surface meaning alone and they emphasized the inner meaning of these words as giving one’s self to God:

[However], The allegorical and often abstruse language used by Sufis in their texts when interpreted by unqualified people opens avenues for many misunderstandings. eg. The concept of divine unity Wahdat-ul-wujood which critics consider equivalent to pantheism and therefore incompatible with Islam. Sufi masters in many of their introductory texts caution aspirants from reading and interpreting texts by themselves. They hold that the subject can only be taught by a master to a student under strict guidance and supervision owing to its delicate nature.

Orders of Sufism

Sufis do not define Sufism as a school of legal jurisprudence (or Madhab). Often what distinguishes a person as a Sufi is their association with a Sufi order. Among the oldest and most well known of the Sufi orders (tariqas) are the Qadiri, Chisti, Oveyssi, Shadhili, Jerrahi, Naqshbandi, Nimatullahi, Mevlevi and the Ashrafi. Classic Sufi tariqas insist on adherence to one of the four Madhabs of Fiqh and one of the two orthodox schools of Aqida. In this sense, traditional practitioners of Sufism do not see it as a sectarian group but just as a form of training necessary to cultivate spirituality and Ihsan in their lives.

Sufism was traditionally considered the systematization of the spiritual component of Islam. It dealt with matters of the heart (just as Fiqh dealt with the body and Aqida dealt with the intellect). Many of the greatest Islamic scholars wrote treatises on the subject (eg. Al-Ghazali's ihya ulum-aldeen (احياء علوم الدين), Imam Nawawi's Bustan al-Arifeen etc.). Almost all the famous Sufi masters of the Islamic Caliphate times were also experts in Sharia and were renowned as people with great Iman (faith) and excellent practice. Many were also Qadis (Sharia law judges) in courts. They held that Sufism was never distinct from Islam and to fully comprehend and live correct with Sufism one must be a practicing Muslim obeying the Sharia. Many of the traditional scholars who were part of famous Islamic institutions (eg. Al-Azhar) like Ibn Ata'illah were Sufi masters. Even today, many of the traditional Islamic universities like Al-Azhar endorse Sufism as a part of the religion of Islam.[9]

However, Sufism emphasizes non-quantifiable matters (like states of the heart). The authors of various Sufi treatises often used allegorical language which could not be read by an unknowledgeable person to describe these states (eg. likened some states to intoxication which is forbidden in Islam). This usage of indirect language and the existence of interpretations by people who had no training in Islam or Sufism led to doubts being cast over the validity of Sufism as a part of Islam. Also, some Sufi groups emerged that considered themselves above the Sharia and discussed Sufism as a method of bypassing the rules of Islam in order to attain salvation directly. This was disapproved of by traditional scholars. An example of such a deviant sufi was Abu Hilman.[10] One of the most vocal critics of such deviations from the Islamic creed was Ibn Taymiya.[11]

Persecution and Controversy

The relationship between orthodox Islam and Sufism is complicated due to the variety of Sufi orders and their histories. According to the followers of Sufism, early scholars of Islam had positive attitudes towards Sufism. For example, Al-Ghazali defended Sufis as true Muslims. Later, there were some scholars who considered some aspects of Sufism heresy. Eventually puritanical Muslims attacked Sufis, saying their poetry and music were infections from Christianity and Hinduism and were antithetical to the principles of Islam (Dalrymple, 2004). The poetic raptures of Sufis were also considered suspect; at times, they were misinterpreted as insane ravings or even as blasphemy (Waines, 2003). Some Sufis were executed for their preaching; other Sufis saw their shrines destroyed; and still others were forced underground in countries like Saudi Arabia, where mysticism and the worship of saints are labeled as apostasy (Khan, 2005). Authorities expelled Abu Sulayman al-Darani from Damascus when he said he had seen and heard angels (Melchert, 1996). Abu Yazid was also forced into several years of exile from the city of Bastam after he claimed that, like Muhammad, he had ascended to the heavens (Melchert, 1996). Abu Hamzah recognized the voice of God in the cawing of a crow, for which authorities expelled him from Tarsus (Melchert, 1996).

The controversy surrounding Sufism is perhaps best exemplified by Mansur al-Hallaj, who identified himself by one of the names of Allah—‘Ana Al-haqq,’ which means “I am the truth, I am the Reality or I am God.” These words had him branded as a blasphemer, and authorities in Baghdad ordered him to execution (Chittick, 2000; Tell, 2002; Waines, 2003; Abdin, 2004). Mansur al-Hallaj's statement is indicative of his intensity love of God, which reached its utmost limit when he realized that nothing but God existed (Chittick, 2000; Tell, 2002). The Sufi poet Rumi explained al-Hallaj's controversial statement this way: If al-Hallaj'shad said, “You are God and I am the servant,” that would have created duality by reaffirming his own existence. If Hallaj had said, “He is the Real,” that too is duality, for there can’t be “He” without “I.” Hence, Hallaj said, “I am the Real” to acknowledge other than God, nothing else existed. Rumi writes, “Hallaj had been annihilated, so those were the words of the Real” (Chittick, 2000, p. 17).

While critics have thought of Sufism as a belief system that is alien to Islam, supporters of Sufism have argued that its tradition is in fact grounded in three themes that repeatedly appear in the Qu’ran, which are “submission” (Islam), “faith” (Iman), and “doing the beautiful” (Ihsan). Sufism takes “doing the beautiful” as its especial domain, which is based on submission and faith (Chittick, 2000).

Notes

  1. ↑ Louis Massignon, Essai sur les origines du lexique technique de la mystique musulmane (Paris: Vrin, 1954), 104.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Waines, 2003
  3. ↑ Melchert, 1996
  4. ↑ A number of scholars perceive influences from pre-Islamic and non-Islamic schools of mysticism and philosophy on Sufism such as Gnosticism, Judaism, and Hinduism. The Persian Sufis Retrieved June 3, 2008.
  5. ↑ White, 1965; Schwartz, 2002
  6. ↑ Schwartz, 2002
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Tell, 2002
  8. ↑ See Qawwali origins and Origin and History of the Qawwali, Adam Nayyar, Lok Virsa Research Centre, Islamabad, 1988.
  9. ↑ Nuh Ha Mim Keller, Reliance of the traveler: “we certify that the above-mentioned translation corresponds to the Arabic original and confirms to the practice and faith of the orthodox Sunni community (ahl al-Sunna wa al-Jama'a).”
  10. ↑ Abu Hilman Retrieved June 3, 2008.
  11. ↑ For a detailed essay on the role that Sufism plays in traditional Islam, please refer to Place of Tasawwuf in traditional Islam Retrieved June 3, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

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  • Dalrymple, W. "The ecstasy of God’s dancers." New Statesman, 133, (2004), 22-25.
  • El-Zein, A. "Spiritual consumption in the United States: the Rumi phenomenon." Spiritual Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 11 (2000), 71-86.
  • Hardin, N. "Doris Lessing and the Sufi way." Contemporary Literature, 14 (1973), 565-581.
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  • Melchert, C. "The transition from asceticism to mysticism at the middle of the ninth century C.E." Studia Islamica, 83 (1996), 51-70.
  • Omaima, A. "Abrogation of the mind in the poetry of Jalal al-Din Rumi." Alif: Journal of Comparative Poetics, 14 (1994), 37-63.
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  • Semaan, K. "Islamic mysticism in modern Arabic poetry and drama." International Journal of Middle East Studies. 1979, 517-531.
  • Shah, Idries. The Sufis. 1971. ISBN 0385079664
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External links

Tariqa websites and general links

All links retrieved February 26, 2023.

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