Difference between revisions of "Muhammad Ali Dynasty" - New World Encyclopedia
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==Modernization and British Occupation== | ==Modernization and British Occupation== | ||
| − | Under the Muhammad Ali Dynasty, a process of modernization took place that raised Egypt's status internationally and greatly improved the nation's infrastructure including a post service, [[railway]], new harbor installations and schools. However, paying for these as well as wars bankrupted the state, opening the way for British and French intervention to oversee Egypt's finances. Part of the arrangement was for the Khedive, Ibrahim Pasha, to delegate authority to a [[parliament]], in which the Finance Minister and the Minister of Works were European (Cromer was Finance Minister). Known as Dual Control, this arrangement began in 1878. Ismail, however, was soon replaced by his son, Tewfik. In May, 1892 a military revolt began against European rule. France decided not to assist with crushing the rebellion, which the British did by sending an occupation force. This marked the beginning of de facto British rule. British troops remained in Egypt from 1882 until 1965. | + | Under the Muhammad Ali Dynasty, a process of modernization took place that raised Egypt's status internationally and greatly improved the nation's infrastructure including a post service, [[railway]], new harbor installations, irrigation systems, canals and schools. Factroies were built to produce as much material locally as possible instead of relying on imports. However, paying for these as well as wars bankrupted the state, opening the way for British and French intervention to oversee Egypt's finances. Part of the arrangement was for the Khedive, Ibrahim Pasha, to delegate authority to a [[parliament]], in which the Finance Minister and the Minister of Works were European (Cromer was Finance Minister). Known as Dual Control, this arrangement began in 1878. Ismail, however, was soon replaced by his son, Tewfik. In May, 1892 a military revolt began against European rule. France decided not to assist with crushing the rebellion, which the British did by sending an occupation force. This marked the beginning of de facto British rule. British troops remained in Egypt from 1882 until 1965. |
| + | |||
| + | The legal system and the education system under the Muhammad Ali Dynasty was greatly influenced by France. Although Napoleon did not stay in Egypt very long, he left behind a part of [[science|scientists]] and [[scholars]]. Traffic was two-way; they studied [[Ancient Egypt]] and Egyptians studied them, or rather their learning. Elite Egyptians began to study in France, sometimes sent by the government to acquire specific skills while French became the language of polite society. | ||
==Governance== | ==Governance== | ||
| − | Elections were held for the 1881 Parliament but this was suspended after the British occupation. A new General Assembly was created in 1883. In 1913, this became the Legislative Assembly. This was suspended during World War I. Following independence, a new constitution became effective, with elected upper and lower chambers. Technically, the Kings (the title changed in 1922) were constitutional monarchs but they did their best to rule autocratically, constantly dismissing governments and choosing their own nominees instead of those who could command votes in the house. It was this interference in constitutional governance, especially by Farouk, that led to the dissolution of the monarchy. The monarchy lost touch with the people, becoming increasingly unpopular. The " | + | Elections were held for the 1881 Parliament but this was suspended after the British occupation. A new General Assembly was created in 1883. In 1913, this became the Legislative Assembly. This was suspended during World War I. Following independence, a new constitution became effective, with elected upper and lower chambers. Technically, the Kings (the title changed in 1922) were constitutional monarchs but they did their best to rule autocratically, constantly dismissing governments and choosing their own nominees instead of those who could command votes in the house. It was this interference in constitutional governance, especially by Farouk, that led to the dissolution of the monarchy. The monarchy lost touch with the people, becoming increasingly unpopular. The period "1923-1952 witnessed the succession of 40 cabinets and cabinet reshuffles" which did little to establish political stability.<ref>[http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Pub/magazin/fall1999/110212000000000008.htm Egypt a Civilization of Law and Legislation.] Egypt State Information Service. Retrieved December 19, 2008.</ref> |
Revision as of 03:35, 19 December 2008
| Muhammad Ali Dynasty (Alawiyya Dynasty) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
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| Country | Egypt and Sudan | ||
| Titles | Wāli, self-declared as Khedive (1805-1867) Khedive officially recognized (1867-1914) Sultan (1914-1922) King (1922-1953) | ||
| Founder | Muhammad Ali Pasha | ||
| Final ruler | Fuad II | ||
| Current head | Fuad II | ||
| Founding year | 1805: Muhammad Ali's consolidation of power | ||
| Deposition | 1953: Abolition of monarchy following Egyptian Revolution | ||
| Ethnicity | Egyptian of Albanian-Macedonian descent. | ||
The Muhammad Ali Dynasty Usrat Muhammad 'Ali) was the ruling dynasty of Egypt and Sudan from the 19th to the mid-20th Century. It is named after Muhammad Ali Pasha, regarded as the founder of modern Egypt. It was also more formally known as the Alawiyya Dynasty al-Usra al-'Alawiyya), although it should not be confused with ruling the Alawiyya Dynasty of Morocco, to which it has no relation. Because a majority of the rulers from this dynasty bore the title Khedive, it was often referred to by contemporaries as the 'Khedival Dynasty'.
Introduction
Muhammad Ali was an Albanian commander of the Ottoman army that was sent to drive Napoleon Bonaparte's forces out of Egypt, but upon the French withdrawal, he seized power himself and forced the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II to recognize him as Wāli, or Governor (Arabic: والي) of Egypt in 1805.
Muhammad Ali transformed Egypt into a regional power which he saw as the natural successor to the decaying Ottoman Empire. He summed up his vision for Egypt in these words:
"I am well aware that the (Ottoman) Empire is heading by the day toward destruction...On her ruins I will build a vast kingdom...up to the Euphrates and the Tigris."
At the height of his power, Muhammad Ali and his son Ibrahim Pasha's military strength did indeed threaten the very existence of the Ottoman Empire as he sought to supplant the Ottoman's with his own. Ultimately, the intervention of the Great Powers prevented Egyptian forces from marching on Constantinople. After this, his dynasty's rule would be limited to Africa. Muhammad Ali had conquered Sudan in the first half of his reign and Egyptian control would be consolidated and expanded under his successors, most notably Ibrahim Pasha's son Ismai'l I.
Khedivate and British Occupation
Though Muhammad Ali and his descendants used the title of Khedive in preference to the lesser Wāli, this was not recognized by the Ottoman Porte until 1867 when Sultan Abdul-Aziz officially sanctioned its use by Isma'il Pasha and his successors. In contrast to his grandfather's policy of war against the Porte, Ismai'l sought to strengthen the position of Egypt and Sudan and his dynasty using less confrontational means, and through a mixture of flattery and bribery, Ismai'l secured official Ottoman recognition of Egypt and Sudan's virtual independence. This freedom was severely undermined in 1879 when the Sultan colluded with the Great Powers to depose Ismai'l in favor of his son Tewfik. Three years later, Egypt and Sudan's freedom became little more than symbolic when Great Britain invaded and occupied the country, ostensibly to support Khedive Tewfik against his opponents in Ahmed Orabi's nationalist government. While the Khedive would continue to rule over Egypt and Sudan in name, in reality, ultimate power resided with the British Consul General. Famously, Baring, Evelyn, 1st Earl of Cromer was in office from 1883, soon after the Briish occupation, until 1907. Egypt was considered of strategic significance to protect Britain's interest in the Suez Canal and the route to the jewel in Britain's colonial crown, India.
In defiance of the Egyptians, the British proclaimed Sudan to be an Anglo-Egyptian Condominium, a territory under joint British and Egyptian rule rather than an integral part of Egypt. This was continually rejected by Egyptians, both in government and in the public at large, who insisted on the "unity of the Nile Valley," and would remain an issue of controversy and enmity between Egypt and Britain until Sudan's independence in 1956.
Sultanate and Kingdom
In 1914, Khedive Abbas II sided with the Ottoman Empire which had joined the Central Powers in the First World War, and was promptly deposed by the British in favor of his uncle Husayn Kamil. The legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty over Egypt and Sudan, which had for all intents and purposes ended in 1805, was officially terminated, Husayn was declared Sultan of Egypt and Sudan, and the country became a British Protectorate. With nationalist sentiment rising, Britain formally recognized Egyptian independence in 1922, and Husayn's successor, Sultan Fuad I, substituted the title of King for Sultan. However, British occupation and interference in Egyptian and Sudanese affairs persisted. Of particular concern to Egypt was Britain's continual efforts to divest Egypt of all control in Sudan. To both the King and the nationalist movement, this was intolerable, and the Egyptian Government made a point of stressing that Fuad and his son King Farouk I were "King of Egypt and Sudan."
Although the Dynasty's power was only nominal, from the end of the nineteenth century as Ottoman power weakened and nationalist and pan-Arabist movements gained momentum, members of the dynasty contemplated the possibility of replacing the Ottomans as Caliph;
there were persistent rumors that he [the Khedive] planned taking the Sultan's place as temporal and spiritual lord - Sultan and Caliph - of the Arabic speaking provinces of the empire, thereby splitting the empire in half. A variant was the rumor that he planned to annex the Moslem holy places in Arabia and establish a caliph there under his protection.[1]
The British, already contemplating the demise of the Ottoman Empire, were quite happy with these possibilities, understanding "that the achievement of any such plan would bring greatly enlarged authority to themselves."[2] According to Fromkin, the British at this time thought they could "capture Islam" by arranging, after World War I for "their own nominee nominee" who would be an Arab whom they could "insulate ... from the influence of Britain's European rivals" since the British Navy could easily control the "coastline of the Arabian peninsula." Once they had installed their choice of caliph, the British could "gain control of Islam."[3] Although the ambitions of the Egyytian Khedives did not succeed, it was from their base in Egypt that the British encouraged the Arab Revolt during World War I and promised the Sharif of Mecca an Arab state.
Modernization and British Occupation
Under the Muhammad Ali Dynasty, a process of modernization took place that raised Egypt's status internationally and greatly improved the nation's infrastructure including a post service, railway, new harbor installations, irrigation systems, canals and schools. Factroies were built to produce as much material locally as possible instead of relying on imports. However, paying for these as well as wars bankrupted the state, opening the way for British and French intervention to oversee Egypt's finances. Part of the arrangement was for the Khedive, Ibrahim Pasha, to delegate authority to a parliament, in which the Finance Minister and the Minister of Works were European (Cromer was Finance Minister). Known as Dual Control, this arrangement began in 1878. Ismail, however, was soon replaced by his son, Tewfik. In May, 1892 a military revolt began against European rule. France decided not to assist with crushing the rebellion, which the British did by sending an occupation force. This marked the beginning of de facto British rule. British troops remained in Egypt from 1882 until 1965.
The legal system and the education system under the Muhammad Ali Dynasty was greatly influenced by France. Although Napoleon did not stay in Egypt very long, he left behind a part of scientists and scholars. Traffic was two-way; they studied Ancient Egypt and Egyptians studied them, or rather their learning. Elite Egyptians began to study in France, sometimes sent by the government to acquire specific skills while French became the language of polite society.
Governance
Elections were held for the 1881 Parliament but this was suspended after the British occupation. A new General Assembly was created in 1883. In 1913, this became the Legislative Assembly. This was suspended during World War I. Following independence, a new constitution became effective, with elected upper and lower chambers. Technically, the Kings (the title changed in 1922) were constitutional monarchs but they did their best to rule autocratically, constantly dismissing governments and choosing their own nominees instead of those who could command votes in the house. It was this interference in constitutional governance, especially by Farouk, that led to the dissolution of the monarchy. The monarchy lost touch with the people, becoming increasingly unpopular. The period "1923-1952 witnessed the succession of 40 cabinets and cabinet reshuffles" which did little to establish political stability.[4]
Dissolution
The reign of Farouk was characterized by ever increasing nationalist discontent over the British occupation, royal corruption and incompetence, and the disastrous 1948 Arab-Israeli War. All these factors served to terminally undermine Farouk's position and paved the way for the Revolution of 1952. Farouk did not help matters by his flamboyant and expensive life-style even though many Egyptians experienced poverty and by his constant interference in parliamant, appointing a string of minority governments. Farouk was forced to abdicate in favor of his infant son Ahmed-Fuad who became King Fuad II, while administration of the country passed to the Free Officers Movement under Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser. The infant king's reign lasted less than a year and on June 18 1953, the revolutionaries abolished the monarchy and declared Egypt a republic, ending a century and a half of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty's rule and thousands of years of monarchy in one form or another.
Reigning members of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty (1805-1953)
Wālis, self-declared as Khedives (1805-1867)
- Muhammad Ali (9 July 1805-1 September 1848)
- Ibrahim (reigned as Wāli briefly during his father's incapacity) (1 September 1848 - 10 November 1848)
- Muhammad Ali (restored) (10 November 1848 - 2 August 1849)
- Abbas I (2 August 1849 - 13 July 1854)
- Sa‘id I (13 July 1854 - 18 January 1863)
- Ismai'l I (18 January 1863 - 8 June 1867)
Khedives (1867-1914)
- Ismai'l I (8 June 1867 - 26 June 1879)
- Tewfik I (26 June 1879 - 7 January 1892)
- Abbas II (8 January 1892 - 19 December 1914)
Sultans (1914-1922)
- Husayn I (19 December 1914 - 9 October 1917)
- Fuad I (9 October 1917 - 16 March 1922)
Kings (1922-1953)
- Fuad I (16 March 1922 - 28 April 1936)
- Farouk I (28 April 1936 - 26 July 1952)
- Prince Muhammad Ali Tewfik (Chairman Council of Regency during Farouk I's minority) (28 April 1936 - 29 July 1937)
- Fuad II (26 July 1952 - 18 June 1953)
- Prince Muhammad Abdul Moneim (Chairman Council of Regency during Fuad II's minority) (26 July 1952 - 18 June 1953)
Non ruling members
- Prince Mustafa Fazl Pasha
- Prince Mohammed Ali Tewfik
- Prince Muhammad Abdul Moneim
- Princess Fawzia Shirin
- Muhammad Ali, Prince of Said
- Narriman Sadek
- Nazli Sabri
- Mahmud Dramali Pasha
See also
- Muhammad Ali Dynasty family tree
- List of monarchs of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty
- History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty
- History of Sudan under Muhammad Ali and his successors
Bibliography
- ʻAbbās, and Amira El Azhary Sonbol. 1998. The last Khedive of Egypt: memoirs of Abbas Hilmi II. Reading, UK: Ithaca Press. ISBN 9780863722080
- Daly, M. W. 1998. The Cambridge history of Egypt. Volume 2, Modern Egypt, from 1517 to the end of the twentieth century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780511004223
- Fromkin, David. 1989. A peace to end all peace: creating the modern Middle East, 1914-1922. New York: H. Holt. ISBN 9780805008579
- Hassan, Hassan. 2000. In the house of Muhammad Ali: a family album, 1805-1952. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 9789774245541
- Mackesy, Piers. 2002. British victory in Egypt, 1801 the end of Napoleon's conquest. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780203324981
- Stadiem, William. 1991. Too rich: the high life and tragic death of King Farouk. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 9780881846294
- Tugay, Emine Foat. 1974. Three centuries; family chronicles of Turkey and Egypt. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780837171173
- Vatikiotis, P. J., and P. J. Vatikiotis. 1991. The history of modern Egypt: from Muhammad Ali to Mubarak. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9780801842146
External links
- The Royal House of Mehmet Ali. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
- Family tree of the House of Mohammed Aly. Retrieved 2008-08-19.
- The Royal Order of the Crown of Egypt (in German). Retrieved 2008-08-19.
Credits
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- ↑ Fromkin, page 84.
- ↑ Fromkin, page 84.
- ↑ Fromkin, page 98.
- ↑ Egypt a Civilization of Law and Legislation. Egypt State Information Service. Retrieved December 19, 2008.
