Maori

Māori
Te Puni, nineteenth-century Māori chief
Total population	approx. 680,000
Regions with significant populations	New Zealand, Australia, United Kingdom, United States, Canada
Language	Māori, English
Religion	Māori religion, Christianity

The word Māori refers to the indigenous people of New Zealand and their language. Both are a hybrid of various Polynesian cultures, and are thought to have arrived in New Zealand more than one thousand years ago. The Maori people are well known for their distinctive traditional full-body and facial tatooing. They have a unique status in the world as indigenous people who have full legal rights and are actually one of the main tourist attractions of their country, promoting tourism and a good economy.

Terms

In the Māori language the word māori means "normal," "natural" or "ordinary." In legends and other oral traditions, the word distinguished ordinary mortal human beings from deities and spirits. Māori has cognates in other Polynesian languages such as the Hawaiian 'Maoli,' the Tahitian 'Maohi,' and the Cook Islands Māori which all share similar meanings. The contemporary English meanings are "native," "indigenous" or "aboriginal."

Early European visitors to the islands of New Zealand referred to the people they found there variously as "Indians," "aborigines," "natives" or "New Zealanders." Māori remained the term used by Māori to describe themselves in a pan-tribal sense. In 1947, the Department of Native Affairs was renamed the Department of Māori Affairs to recognise this.

The term Tangata whenua (literally, "people of the land") is often used by Māori to describe themselves in such a way that emphasises their relationship with a particular area of land — a tribe may be tangata whenua in one area, but not another. The term can also be used to describe Māori as a whole in relation to New Zealand as a whole.

Māori origins

It is thought that New Zealand was one of the last areas on Earth to be settled by humans. Archaeological and linguistic evidence (Sutton 1994) suggests that probably several waves of migration came from Eastern Polynesia to New Zealand between AD 800 and 1300. Māori origins relate to those of their Polynesian ancestors. Māori oral history describes the arrival of the ancestors from Hawaiki (a mythical homeland in tropical Polynesia) by large ocean-going canoes (waka; see Māori migration canoes. Migration accounts vary among Māori tribes (iwi), whose members can identify with different waka in their genealogies or whakapapa.

No credible evidence exists of human settlement in New Zealand prior to the Polynesian voyagers; on the other hand, compelling evidence from archaeology, linguistics, and physical anthropology indicates that the first settlers came from East Polynesia and became the Māori.

Culture

Language

The Māori language is known as Te Reo Māori, or shortened to Te Reo (literally, the language). It is an official language of New Zealand. Originally from eastern Polynesia, it is closely related to Tahitian and Cook Islands Māori; slightly less closely to Hawaiian and Marquesan; and more distantly to the languages of Western Polynesia, including Samoan, Niuean and Tongan.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, it looked like Te Reo as well as other aspects of Māori life would disappear. In the 1980's however, to government sponsored schools taught Te Reo as well as main-line schools, educating those of European descent as well as Māori. Since then, Te Reo is universally known within Māori communities and has many phrases that are in universal use. Some of these include:

• Kia ora — Hello, (to one person)
• Kia ora tatou — Hello everyone
• Tena koe — Greetings to you (to one person)
• Tena koutou — Greeting to you all
• Haere mai — Welcome
• Nau mai — Welcome
• Kei te pehea koe? — How’s it going?
• Kei te pai — Good
• Tino pai — Really good
• Haere ra — Farewell
• Ka kite ano — Until I see you again (Bye)
• Hei konei ra — See you later

There was originally no native writing system for Māori. Some say that the petroglyphs once used by the Māori developed into a script similar to the Rongorongo of Easter Island, but there is no evidence that these petroglyphs ever evolved into a true system of writing. Some distinctive markings among the kōwhaiwhai (rafter paintings) of meeting houses were used as mnemonics in reciting whakapapa (genealogy) but again, there was no systematic relation between marks and meanings.

Missionaries brought the Roman alphabet around 1814, and Professor Samuel Lee of Cambridge University worked with chief Hongi Hika and his junior relative Waikato to systematize the written language in 1820. The resultant phonetic spellings were remarkably successful. Written Māori has changed little since then. Literacy was an exciting new concept that the Māori embraced enthusiastically and which most Māori had mastered by 1830

Spirituality

Carving used to be a tapu art, subject to the rules and laws of tapu. The pieces of wood falling aside as the carver worked were never thrown away, neither were they used for the cooking of food. Women were not permitted near the carvings. The history, traditions, language and religion of the Māori make up an integral part of the carving art. To the Māori, all things possess a spirit (wairua), and a mauri (life force). Felling a tree was to cut down a descendant of Tane, the god of forests and of man. Before committing such an act, a karakia (ritual incantation) was recited by the Tohunga, in order to ensure that the act of felling an offspring of Tane could be carried out safely.

The history, traditions, language and religion of the Māori make up an integral part of the carving art. To the Māori, all things possess a spirit (wairua), and a mauri (life force).

Arts

Traditional arts such as carving, weaving, kapa haka (group performance), whaikorero (oratory) and moko (tattoo) are common throughout the country. Practitioners often follow the techniques of their ancestors, but today Māori also includes contemporary arts such as film, television, poetry, theater, and hip-hop.

Pre-European Māori stories and legends were handed down orally and through weavings and carvings. Some surviving Te Toi Whakairo, or carving, is over 500 years old. Tohunga Whakairo are the great carvers - the master craftsmen. A master carver is highly considered. The Māori believed that the gods created and communicated through the Tohunga Whakairo. Carving has been a tapu art, subject to the rules and laws of tapu. Pieces of wood that fell aside as the carver worked were never thrown away, neither were they used for the cooking of food. Women were not permitted near Te Toi Whakairo.

Te Toi Whakairo differs from other Polynesian carving in that they prefer curves to straight lines. Many have distinctive koru spiral forms, similar to that of a curving stalk, or a bulb. The koru form represents the basis of the red, white and black rafter patterns. Various forms are often seen in the carving. Manaia is a side-faced and sometimes birdlike figure. This figure also exists in teh Easter Islands, Hawaii, and South America. There is speculation about where the form originated, but some consensus that about 2,000 years early Polynesians and South Americas had some cultural exchanges.

Marakihau is a deep sea taniwha (monster) and various ocean gods. It has a human form, but includes a long tongue that helped the Marakihau monsters swallow up canoes or men. Quite often a type of crown form was situated on the top of the head. In older carvings, there are many one-eyed human faces. The lizard is the only animal represented in Māori carving and is revered. Unlike other depictions, the form of the lizard is never deformed.

Māori weave baskets, floor mats, skirts and cloaks from New Zealand flax (phormium tenax). From the flax. There are more than fifty different varieties of this flax, and Māori know exactly which is good for what usage. The first Polynesians brought the art of weaving and plaiting to New Zealand. Weaving techniques adapted, however, primarily because of the cooler climate. These are still used today.

Tattoos

Tattooing came to New Zealand from other eastern Polynesian cultures, but is unique in that it is carved into the skin. This is done first, and next a chisel is dipped into a sooty type pigment such as burnt Kauri gum or burnt vegetable caterpillars. Then this is tapped into the skin. It is an extremely painful and long process. Leaves from the native Karaka tree are placed over the swollen tattoo cuts to hasten the healing process. Wars were frequent in the past, and warriors had little time for recuperation. During the tattooing process, flute music and chant poems were performed to help soothe the pain. There were also certain prohibitions during the process. For the facial tattoo in particular, sexual intimacy and the eating of solid foods were forbidden. Liquid food and water was drained into a wooden funnel, ensuring that no contamination would contact the wounds.

The head is considered the most sacred part of the body, and most tatoos are facial with more on men than women. Because tattooing causes blood to run, the "tohunga-ta-oko"(tattoo craftsmen) are very tapu (sacred)people. All high-ranking Māori were tattooed, and those who went without tattoos were seen as people of no social status. Tattooing commenced at puberty, with many rites and rituals. The tattoo marked both rites of passage and important events in a person's life. The full faced tattoo is very time consuming, and a good tattoo craftsman carefully studies a person's bone structure before commencing his art.

Although the tattoos were mainly facial, the North Auckland warriors included swirling double spirals on both buttocks, often leading down their legs until the knee. Women were not as extensively tattooed as the men. Their upper lips were outlined, usually in dark blue. The nostrils were also very finely incised. The chin moko (pattern) was always the most popular, and continues to be practiced.

Moko is like an identity card, or passport. For men, the Moko showed rank, status and their ferocity or virility. The position of power and authority could be instantly recognized in his Moko. Certain other outward signs, combined with a particular Moko, would define the "identity card" of a person. Since it was a great insult not to recognize someone of high rank, this could lead to "utu" (vengeance).

The position of the moko also indicates attributes of the bearer. For men, the center of the forehead indicates rank, around the brows shows position, the eyes and nose areas show hapu rank, the first and second marriages are shown on the temples, the individuality under the nose, teh work in the cheek area, and the birth status on the jaw. Ancestry is shown on each side of the face with the left generally being for the father's side and the right the mother's. This was to be determined before the moko could be devised. If one side of a person's ancestry had no rank, then that side of the face would have no Moko design. Likewise if, in the center forehead area there is no Moko design, this means the wearer either has no rank, or has not inherited rank.

Sports

Games, and all arts of pleasure, were an integral part of Māori life. Games were not restricted to a time or a place. This was particularly evident during Matariki festivities of the New Year. Throughout pre-European New Zealand, the great Matariki Festivals were the annual catalyst for a broad spectrum of games development, invention and experimentation.

Without exception, historically the greatest emphasis was on kite flying. In kite flying, there is a highly symbolic connection to Matariki – a small cluster of stars, also known as Pleiades. Kites were historically seen as connectors between this, the marking of the new year, and between the heavens and earth.

There were many different types of kites, with many purposes. Men women and children of all status participated in the testing and development of new kites. Manu Tangata were used to physically pickup people – in addition to Matariki displays they are recalled as having been used by attackers to gain entry to pa fortifications and also as a means of escape from besiegement.

Ki-o-Rahi is a traditional, pre-European Māori ball game that is played on a circular field. It is a fast running contact sport, involving imaginative handling and swift inter passing of a "ki" (ball). Before the arrival of Europeans, Ki-o-Rahi was played by Māori throughout Aotearoa/New Zealand. Often different tribes would play different adaptations of the game and even invite other tribes to join them in warfare through the presentaion of a ki.

With the multiple influences of the missionaries, other European influence and the wars most native leisure activity had disappeared by 1870. This is about the same time that Rugby was introduced, which Māori took to enthusiastically and have participated in professional play for their teams in New Zealand. The Ki-o-Rahi was revived during World War I, and is played in a modifed version today.

One fascinating aspect of Ki-o-Rahi is the negotiation of specific rules to be used at that particular game. Also, each team picks on referee, and if they both agree during the game they may change the rules during the play.

Society

Māori protocol begins with the greeting of visitors to a marae (Māori meeting grounds). This formal welcome is called powhiri and begins with wero (challenge). A warrior from the tangata whenua (hosts) challenges the manuhiri (guests) with a weapon like taiaha(a spear), and then lays down a token offering for them(often a small branch). The manuhiri then will pick it up. This shows their interdependency and acceptance of hospitality. Some kuia (women) from the tangata whenua (hosts) will perform a karanga (call/chant) to the manuhiri. Women from the manuhiri will then respond as they move onto the marae in front of their men. Once inside the wharenui (meeting house) on the marae, mihimihi (greetings) and whaikorero (speeches) are made. To reinforce the good wishes of the speeches, waiata (songs) may be sung. It is usual for the manuhiri then present a koha (gift) to the tangata whenua after greeting the hosts with a hongi — the ceremonial touching of noses. After the powhiri, kai (food) may be shared.

Māori have traced their lineages for some time using whakapapa rakau (a genealogical, carved staff) to count up to 18 successive generations in its carving. Most original whakapapa rakau averaged over a meter in length. Whakapapa is the actual recital of genealogy. Genealogy is described with this term "Whakapapa". "Papa" is a reference to something broad and flat. "Whakapapa" means taking place in layers, which is how the various orders of genealogies are seen according to the Māori. The rakau in whakapapa rakau is the staff itself being used when the whakapapa recital is taking place. These are wooden sticks, with knobs running down the shaft. The knobs on the genealogical staff serve to help the memory when a person is reciting the whakapapa - the knobs representing the different ancestry.

The Māori trace their descent back to the arrival of the first canoes from Hawaiiki (presumably near to Hawaii. The most famous wakas (canoes) were the Arawa, the Tainui and the Mataatua. A descendant is an "Uri", and the word "waka" means both "canoe" and/or "tribe" in the social sense of the word. Each waka is separated into "iwi" (tribes), being descended from each individual crew member. The whanau is a group of closely related persons from related tribes or sub-tribes. A number of whanau grouped together would become a sub-tribe, or hapu. When a hapu group came together, to form a tribe, it became "iwi". A prefix to a tribal name would indicate the tribe, such as "Ngati" Toa.

The most important festival would be To Māori, the appearance of Matariki and Puanga (Rigel) to signal the end of one year, and the beginning of the next. Traditionally Māori have recognised the rise of Matariki as the time to celebrate the New Year. Towards the end of May each year, Matariki rises in the lightening dawn, at the same place on the horizon as the rising sun. The Māori New Year celebrations are held on the sighting of the next new moon. Matariki celebrations were held after the crops had been harvested and stored, whereupon hakari(huge feasts)and Nga-Mahi-a-te-Rehia (merry-making) continued for several weeks during respite from cultivation. Their calendar thus has an odd cycle when taken in the perspective of the contemporary calendar followed by the western world.

Here are the some Māori New Year dates, which herald in Matariki celebrations : Year Date

• 2006 27 june
• 2007 16 june
• 2008 05 june
• 2009 24 june
• 2010 14 june
• 2011 04 june
• 2012 21 june
• 2013 10 june
• 2014 28 june

Interactions with Europeans before 1840

First European impression of Māori, at "Murderers' Bay"

European settlement of New Zealand occurred relatively recently. New Zealand historian Michael King in The Penguin History Of New Zealand describes the Māori as "the last major human community on earth untouched and unaffected by the wider world."

The early European explorers, including Abel Tasman (who arrived in 1642) and Captain James Cook (who first visited in 1769), reported encounters with Māori. These early reports described the Māori as a fierce and proud warrior race. Inter-tribal warfare occurred frequently in this period, with the victors enslaving or in some cases eating the vanquished.

From as early as the 1780s, Māori encountered European sealers and whalers; some even crewed on the foreign ships. A continuous trickle of escaped convicts from Australia and deserters from visiting ships also exposed the indigenous New Zealand population to outside influences.

By 1830, estimates placed the number of Pākehā (Europeans) living among the Māori as high as 2,000. The newcomers' status varied from slaves through to high-ranking advisors, from prisoners to those who abandoned European culture and identified themselves as Māori. Many Māori valued Pākehā for their ability to describe European skills and culture and their ability to obtain European items in trade, particularly weaponry. These Europeans "gone native" became known as Pākehā Māori. When Pomare led a war party against Titore in 1838, he had 132 Pākehā mercenaries among his warriors. Frederick Edward Maning, an early settler, wrote two colourful contemporaneous accounts of life at that time and a little later, which have become classics of New Zealand literature: Old New Zealand and History of the War in the North of New Zealand against the Chief Heke.

During this period the acquisition of muskets by those tribes in close contact with European visitors destabilised the existing balance of power between Māori tribes, and there ensued a period of bloody inter-tribal warfare, known as the Musket Wars, which resulted in the effective extermination of several tribes and the driving of others from their traditional territory. European diseases also killed a large but unknown number of Māori during this period. Estimates vary between ten and fifty percent of their population.

In the 1830's, with increasing European missionary activity and conversion, as well as the perceived European lawlessness within their own settlements, the British Crown, as a predominant world power, came under pressure to intervene.

1840 to 1890

Ultimately this led to Britain dispatching William Hobson with instructions to take possession of New Zealand. Before he arrived, Queen Victoria annexed New Zealand by royal proclamation in January 1840. On arrival in February, Hobson negotiated the Treaty of Waitangi with the northern chiefs. Many other Māori chiefs (though by no means all) subsequently signed this treaty. It made the Māori British subjects in return for a guarantee of property rights and tribal autonomy.

Both parties entered the Treaty-based partnership with enthusiasm, despite regrettable exceptional incidents. Māori formed substantial businesses, supplying food and other products for domestic and overseas markets.

Among the first Europeans to learn the Māori language and record Māori mythology was George Grey, Governor of New Zealand from 1845 to 1855 and 1861 to 1868. It is no wonder that in 1851, Herman Melville used a character in his classic novel, "Moby Dick" who is undoubtably patterned after the Maori. The mysterious Queequeg, who sports the traditional Maori tatooing is portrayed as a savage cannibal. The intrigue that he elicits from the Europeans in both his savage and civilized behavior, and being very strong, intelligent and prescient reflects the general intrigue with which Europeans regarded the Maori.

In the 1860s, disputes over questionable land purchases and the attempts of Māori in the Waikato to establish what some perceived as a rival British-style system of royalty led to the New Zealand land wars. Although these resulted in relatively few deaths, the colonial government confiscated large tracts of tribal land as punishment for what they termed as rebellion (although the military action was initiated by the Crown against its own citizens), in some cases without reference to whether the tribe involved actually participated in the warfare. Some tribes actively fought against the Crown, while others (known as kupapa) fought in support of the Crown.

A passive resistance movement developed at the settlement of Parihaka in Taranaki, but Crown troops dispersed its participants in 1881.

With the loss of much of their land, Māori went into a period of decline, and by the late 19th century most people believed that the Māori population would cease to exist as a separate race and become assimilated into the European population.

Revival

The predicted decline of the Māori population did not occur; instead there was a recovery. Despite a substantial level of intermarriage between the Māori and European populations, many Māori retained their cultural identity. There are a number of discourses as to the meaning of Maori and who or who is not Maori. The Maori population is not monolithic and no one political or tribal authority can seek to speak on behalf of all Maori.

From the late nineteenth century, a number of successful Māori politicians emerged. These men, such as James Carroll, Apirana Ngata, Te Rangi Hiroa and Maui Pomare were skilled in the arts of Pākehā politics; at one point Carroll was Acting Prime Minister. This group, known as the Young Māori Party aimed to revitalize their people after the devastation of the previous century. For them this involved Māori adopting European ways of life such as Western medicine and education. However Ngata in particular also wished to preserve traditional Māori culture, especially the arts. Ngata was a major force behind the revival of arts such as kapa haka and carving. He also enacted a program of land development which helped many iwi retain and develop their land.

During World War I, [Princess Te Puea] encouraged some Māori not to enlist. She supported Kingitanga (the Māori king movement) and the revival of numerous native pastimes and cultural activities, including sports.

Since the 1960s, the Māori have secured their cultural revival. Government recognition of the growing political power of Māori combined with political activism have led to a limited redress for unjust confiscation of land and for the violation of other property rights. The State set up the Waitangi Tribunal, a body with the powers of a Commission of Inquiry, to investigate and make recommendations on such issues. Significantly, because of the manner in which it was empowered, the Tribunal cannot make binding rulings. However, as a result of the redress paid to many iwi (tribes), Māori now have significant interests in the fishing and forestry industries. Tensions remain however, with complaints from Māori that the settlements are being made at a level of between 1 and 2.5 cents on the dollar of the value of the lands that were confiscated. The Government is not obliged to accept the findings of the Waitangi Tribunal, and has rejected some of them, the most recent and widely-debated example being the New Zealand foreshore and seabed controversy.

Once Were Warriors, a 1994 film adapted from a 1990 novel, brought the plight of some urban Māori to a wide audience. It became the highest grossing film in New Zealand that year and received international acclaim, winning several international film prizes. While some Māori feared that viewers would consider the violent male characters an accurate portrayal of Māori men, most film critics praised it as exposing the raw side of domestic violence on an international stage. Some Maori opinion, particularly feminist, welcomed the debate on domestic violence that film enabled.

In many areas of New Zealand, Māori language lost its role as a living community language (used by significant numbers of people) in the post-World War II years. In tandem with calls for sovereignty and the righting of social injustices from the 1970s onwards, many New Zealand schools now teach Māori culture and language, and pre-school kohanga reo (literally: "language nests") have started which teach tamariki (young children) exclusively in Māori. These now extend right through secondary schools (kura tuarua). In 2004 Māori Television, a government-funded TV station committed to broadcasting primarily in te reo, began broadcasting. Māori language, enjoys the equivalent status de jure as English in government and law, although the language continues to be marginalized in mainstream use. At the time of the 2006 Census, Maori was the second-most widely spoken language after English, with 4% of New Zelanders able to speak Maori to at least a conversational level. As of 2006, Māori politicians have seven designated Māori seats in the Parliament of New Zealand (and they may and do stand in and win the General seats), and consideration and consultation with Māori have become routine requirements for many New Zealand councils and government organisations. There has been regular debate as to the relevancy and legitimacy of the Maori electoral roll, although currently neither of the two major political parties intend to abolish it.

Despite significant social and economic advances during the twentieth century, Māori tend to cluster in the lower percentiles in most health and education statistics and in labor-force participation, as well as featuring disproportionately highly in criminal and imprisonment statistics. As with many indigenous cultures from around the world, Māori suffer both institutional and direct racism. For example, in December 2006, vandals sprayed racist graffiti on ancient Māori rock art at the Raincliff Historic Reserve in South Canterbury.

Business and intellectual property

In 2001, a dispute concerning the popular LEGO toy line "Bionicle" arose between Danish toymaker Lego Group and several Māori tribal groups, fronted by lawyer Maui Solomon, along with several members of an online discussion forum (Aotearoa Cafe). The Bionicle product-line allegedly used many words appropriated from Māori language, imagery and folklore. The dispute ended in an amicable settlement. Initially the Lego Group refused to withdraw the product, saying it had drawn the names from many cultures, but later agreed that it had taken the names from Māori and agreed to change certain names or spellings to help set the toy line apart from the Māori legends. This, however, did not prevent the many Bionicle users from continuing to use the disputed words, resulting in the popular Bionicle website BZPower coming under a denial-of-service attack for four days by an attacker using the name Kotiate.

In 2005, a worldwide survey suggested that Māori have the world's fourth-highest rate of entrepreneurship. The incident with the Lego Group also shows the capacity to utilize the newest technology that some in their iwi's have acquired. The success of the Tamaki Maori Village theme park also illustrates the ingenuity of some Maori. This is a pre-European Maori village 15 minutes south of Rotorua. This has become a major attraction in New Zealand tourism. They employ 120 staff and ahve and excess of $8.5 million in sales every year. The business has won countless business and tourism awards, including New Zealand's Supreme Tourism Award and Ernst and Young Entrepreneur of the Year Award. All this contrasts with the fact that Māori as a whole remain one of the poorer population groups in New Zealand.

The Law Commission has started its own project to develop a legal framework for Māori who want to manage communal resources and responsibilities. The voluntary system, due for presentation to Parliament in May 2006, proposes an alternative to existing companies, incorporations, and trusts – where they do not appear sensitive to Māori needs^{[citation needed]} – in which tribes and hapu and other groupings can interact with the legal system. The proposed legislation, under the proposed name of the Waka Umanga Act/Māori Corporations Act, would provide a model adaptable to suit the needs of individual iwi. It is likely that the current Government coalition will not support the Bill in its unamended form and if the final Act should pass into law, it will be significantly less radical in its departure from the current legal personalities afforded by British/New Zealand law.

Notes

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Australian Bureau of Statistics (2004). Australians' Ancestries: 2001. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics, Catalogue Number 2054.0. [1]
• Biggs, Bruce (1994). "Does Māori have a closest relative?" In Sutton (Ed.)(1994), pp. 96 - 105.
• Hiroa, Te Rangi (Sir Peter Buck) (1974). The Coming of the Māori. Second edition. First published 1949. Wellington: Whitcombe and Tombs.
• Irwin, Geoffrey (1992). The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonisation of the Pacific. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Simmons, D.R. (1997). Ta Moko, The Art of Māori Tattoo. Revised edition. First published 1986. Auckland: Reed.
• Statistics Canada (2003). Ethnic Origin (232), Sex (3) and Single and Multiple Responses (3) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2001 Census - 20% Sample Data.. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Cat. No. 97F0010XCB2001001. [2]
• Statistics New Zealand (2005). Estimated resident population of Māori ethnic group, at 30 June 1991-2005, selected age groups by sex. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand. [3]
• Sutton, Douglas G. (Ed.) (1994). The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press.
• United States Census Bureau (2003). Census 2000 Foreign-Born Profiles (STP-159): Country of Birth: New Zealand. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau. [4]
• Walrond, Carl (2005). Māori overseas, Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. [5]
• Wānanga Ahu-Rewa Ngatira marae (1940)

External links

• Aotearoa Cafe, a discussion-forum about Māori history, politics and art.
• Aotearoa Māori Internet Organisation, an online discussion board.
• culture.co.nz, directory of important Māori websites.
• maori.info; provides summaries of major aspects of Māori culture.
• korero.maori.nz, an interactive Māori language resource site.
• maori.org.nz, a large Māori website covering a wide range of topics.
• Māori-related news headlines, from the Te Karere Ipurangi news portal.
• Māori Sovereignty Yahoo group, an active online discussion group (membership required).
• Māori theology, by the late Michael Shirres.
• Ta Moko, a website about moko (Māori body art).
• Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand; includes information on Māori New Zealanders.

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