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| − | [[Image:Three-wise-men-in-the-desert.gif|right]] | + | [[image:Ravennamagi.jpg|thumb|250px|The Three Magi offering gifts. Romanesque [[mosaic]] from the [[Basilica]] of St. Apollinarius in Ravenna, [[Italy]].]] |
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| − | In [[Christianity|Christian]] tradition, the '''Magi''', also known as the '''Three Wise Men''' or '''Kings from the east''', are [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] judicial [[astrologers]] who according to [[Matthew 2:1]] came "from the east to [[Jerusalem]]", to worship the [[Infant Jesus]], him "that is born King of the Jews". Thus the magi that came from the east, from the [[Persian Empire]], were the world's first religious figures to worship him. Among their gifts were [[chrism]]atic herbs for anointing him the [[Christ]].
| + | The word '''Magi''' refers to a class of ancient [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] astrologer-priests who once lived in the Persian Empire. Today, the word is most commonly used in Christian circles to denote the ''Three Wise Men'' (Magi), who came "from the East to [[Jerusalem]]," following a bright star, to worship the Infant [[Jesus]] (Matthew 2:1). It is said that among their gifts were gold, frankincense, and myrrh. In this way, the Magi were the first people to symbolically acknowledge Jesus as the "King of the Jews." The journey of the Magi is still commemorated today in nativity scenes and Christmas carols, and they are seen as personifications of both generosity and dedication. Yet, despite their prominence in the birth narrative of Jesus, the fate of the Magi is elusive and it can be questioned why they did not return later in life to worship and attend Jesus if they truly ascertained his alleged [[God|divinity]]. |
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| − | A '''Magus''' (plural '''Magi''', from Latin, via [[Greek language|Greek]] μάγος ; [[Old English language|Old English]]: '''Mage'''; from [[Old Persian]] ''maguš'') was a member of the Magi tribe from ancient [[Medes|Media]], (inhabitants of [[Persia]])[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/medes], who were responsible for the religious and funerary practices. Later they accepted the [[Zoroastrianism|zoroastrian]] religion, however, not without changing the original message of its founder, [[Zarathustra]]. They became the guardians of religion under the three persian empires. The best known Magi are the "[[Three Wise Men|Wise Men from the East]]", in the [[Bible]]. And, of whom [[Marco Polo]] wrote that he had seen their graves in what is today the district of Saveh, in [[Tehran]], [[Iran]]. In English, the term may refer to a [[shamanism|shaman]], [[sorcery|sorcerer]], or [[wizard]]; it is the origin of the English words [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and magician.
| + | The word Magi is the origin of the English words [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and magician. |
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| − | The Gospel is not clear that there were in fact three Magi or when exactly did they visit Jesus; only that there were more than one Magus, and three gifts. Nevertheless, the number of Magi is usually extrapolated from the gifts, and as such the [[Three Wise Men]] are a staple of Christian [[Nativity scene]]s. While the European names have gotten the most publicity, other faith traditions have widely different versions.
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| − | ==The meaning of ''magi''==
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| − | ''Magi'' is a transliteration of the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''magos'' (''μαγος'' pl. ''μαγοι''), which is a deravative from [[Old-Persian]] Magupati. The term is a specific occupational title referring to the [[Zoroastrian]] priest-kings of the late [[Persian Empire]].
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| − | [[image:Adoration.jpg|thumb|320px|left|Adoration of the Magi by [[Fra Angelico]] and [[Filippo Lippi]]]]
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| − | :''"The three pagan kings were called Magi not because they were magicians but because of the great science of [[astrology]] which was theirs. Those whom the Hebrews called scribes and the Greeks, philosophers, and the Latins, wise men, the Persians called Magi. And the reason that they were called kings is that in those days it was the custom for the philosophers and wise men to be rulers."'' —[[Ludolph of Saxony]] (died 1378), ''Vita Christi''.
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| − | Some older translations, such as the [[King James Version]], translated Magi as "Wise Men". This is an archaic phrase meaning magicians or ''magi,'' with connotations of philosophers, scientists, and esteemed personages of a realm. Today the full meaning is forgotten and thus almost all contemporary translations use the Greek-derived term Magi.
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| − | In [[Herodotus]] the word ''magoi'' was held by aristocrats of the [[Medes|Median]] nation and specifically to [[Zoroastrian]] astronomer-priests. They were also known for slaying and enslaving demons. Since the passage in Matthew implies that they were observers of the stars, most conclude the intended meaning is "Zoroastrian priests", the addition "from the East" naturally referring to Persia. Indeed, [[Wycliffe]]'s translation of the Gospel reads not "wise men" but "astrologers"; during the fourteenth century, "astrology" encompassed both astrology and [[astronomy]].
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| − | In the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]], the same Greek word ''magos'' that is translated as "wise men" in the ''Gospel of Matthew'' is translated as "[[Sorcery|sorcerer]]" in the account of "[[Elymas]] the sorcerer" in ''[[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]'' 13. [http://www.blueletterbible.org/tmp_dir/words/s/1113230895-2558.html] This Greek word also identifies [[Simon Magus]] in Acts 8.
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| | ==Etymology== | | ==Etymology== |
| − | ===Persian===
| + | ''Magi'' is a transliteration of the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''magos'' (''μαγος'' pl. ''μαγοι''), which is a derivative from Old Persian ''maguš.'' The term is a specific occupational title referring to the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] priests of the late [[Persian Empire]]. The Greek word is attested from the fifth century <small>B.C.E.</small> as a direct loan from the term ''maguš,'' which is a Persian ''u''-stem adjective from an Indo-Iranian root ''*magh,'' "powerful, rich." This root (''*magh-'') appears to have expressed ability, which is also seen in Attic Greek ''mekhos'' (cf. mechanics) and in Germanic ''magan'' (English ''may''), ''magts.'' The original significance of the name for the Magi thus seems to have been "the powerful." [[Avestan]] has the related terms ''maga'' and ''magauuan,'' meaning "sacrifice" and "sacrificer" and the modern Persian ''Mobed'' is derived from an Old Persian compound ''magu-pati,'' "lord priest." |
| − | The Greek word is attested from the [[5th century B.C.E.]] ([[Ancient Greek]]) as a direct loan from [[Old Persian]] ''maguš''. The Persian word is a ''u''-stem adjective from an [[Indo-Iranian]] root ''*magh'' "powerful, rich" also continued in [[Sanskrit]] ''magha'' "gift, wealth", ''magha-vant'' "generous" (a name of [[Indra]]). [[Avestan]] has ''maga'', ''magauuan'', probably with the meanings "sacrifice" and "sacrificer". The [[PIE]] root (''*magh-'') appears to have expressed power or ability, continued e.g. in [[Attic Greek]] ''mekhos'' (cf. [[mechanics]]) and in [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] ''magan'' (English ''may''), ''magts'' (English ''might'', the expression "might and magic" thus being a ''[[figura etymologica]]''). The original significance of the name for the Median priests thus seems to have been "the powerful". [[Persian language|Modern Persian]] ''Mobed'' is derived from an [[Old Persian]] compound ''magu-pati'' "lord priest". | |
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| − | ===Greek use of ''magos''===
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| − | While in [[Herodotus]], ''magos'' refers to either a member of the tribe of the [[Medes]] (1.101), or to one of the [[Zoroaster|Zoroastrian]] [[Persian]] priests who could interpret dreams (7.37), it could also be used for any enchanter or wizard, and especially to charlatans or quacks (see also [[goetia]]), especially by philosphers such as [[Heraclitus]] who took a sceptical view of the art of an enchanter, and in comic literature ([[Lucian]]'s ''[[Lucios or the Ass]]''). In [[Hellenism]], ''magos'' started to be used as an adjective, meaning "magical", as in ''magas techne'' "ars magica" (e.g. used by [[Philostratus]]).
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| − | ===English language===
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| − | The plural ''Magi'' entered the English language in ca. [[1200]], referring to the Magi mentioned in Matthew 2:1, the singular being attested only considerably later, in the late [[14th century]], when it was borrowed from [[Old French]] in the meaning ''magician'' together with ''magic''.
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| − | ==Traditional names for the Three Magi==
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| − | The names of the Magi do not appear anywhere in the Gospel accounts nor do they state anywhere that the Magi were three in number. The traditional view that there were three Magi because there were three gifts given to the child does not take into account that there were more gifts given to the child that night. Mathew 2:10 mentions that the treasure the Magi presented included gifts as well as gold, frankincense and myrrh. These last three gifts, because of their price and significance, became worthy of note.
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| − | According to Western folklore dating back to the seventh century, the traditional names given to the Magi are: Caspar (or Gaspar), Melchior and Balthasar (or Balthazar).
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| − | In the Eastern church, various names are given for the three. For example, the [[Syrian]] Christians use ''[[Avesta#Vendidad|Larvandad]], [[Ahura Mazda|Hormisdas]], and Gushnasaph.'' These names are likely of Persian origin; this does not, of course, guarantee their authenticity.
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| − | Other cultures have different names. In Ethiopian Christianity, for instance, they are ''Karsudan'', ''Hor and Basanater''. :Names: ''Hor, Basanater, and Karsudan'' :Source: The ''[[Book of Adam]]'', an apocryphal [[Ethiopia]]n textThe Armenians have Kagba, Badadilma, etc. (cf. ''Acta Sanctorum'', May, I, 1780).
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| − | None of these names are obviously Persian or are generally agreed to carry any ascertainable meaning, although Caspar is also sometimes given as Gaspar, a variant of the Persian ''Jasper'' - "Master of the Treasure" - from which the name of the mineral [[jasper]] is derived.
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| − | There is an account that his real name was Rustaham-Gondofarr Suren-Pahlav of the [[Suren-Pahlav Clan]], the ruler of the eastern-greater [[Iran]], who ruled between 10B.C.E. to AD17, the vast empire of the [[Saka]] at the time of [[Arsacid dynasty]]. Another candidate for the origin of the name Caspar appears in the [[Acts of St. Thomas]] as [[Gondophares]] (AD 21-c.47) a.k.a. Gudapharasa (from which 'Caspar' derives via 'Gaspar'). He was also a Suren, and declared independence from Parthia to become the first [[Indo-Parthian]] king. He is likely to be a descendant of the first Gondofarr (i.e. Rustaham-Gondofarr). Since the latter Gondophares was allegedly visited by [[St Thomas the Apostle]], Christian legend may have fixed on his ancestor Gondofarr as a suitable Magus to worship the infant Christ.
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| − | ==History in the Persian Empire==
| + | According to the Greek writer [[Herodotus]], the word ''magos'' was held by aristocrats of the [[Medes|Median]] nation and specifically to Zoroastrian astronomer-priests. In Herodotus' writings, the term ''magos'' usually referred to a member of the tribe of the Medes (1.101) who could interpret dreams (7.37). However, with the spread of [[Hellenism]], ''magos'' started to be used as an adjective, meaning "magical," as in ''magas techne,'' "ars magica" (e.g. used by Philostratus). |
| − | According to [[Herodotus]], the Magi were the sacred [[caste]] of the [[Medes]]. They organized [[Persian Empire|Persian]] society after the fall of [[Assyria]] and [[Babylon]]. Their power was curtailed by Persian Emperor [[Cyrus the Great]], founder of the [[Persian Empire]], and by his son [[Cambyses II]]; the Magi revolted against Cambyses and set up a rival claimant to the throne, one of their own, who took the name of [[Smerdis]]. Smerdis and his forces were defeated by the Persians under [[Darius I of Persia|Darius I]]. The sect of the Magi continued in Persia, though its influence was limited after this political setback. | |
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| − | During the Classical era (555 b.c.- 300 C.E.), some Magi migrated westward[http://www.farsinet.com/wisemen/magi.html], settling in Greece, and then Italy. For more than a century, [[Mithraism]], a religion derived from Persia, was the largest single religion in Rome. The Magi were likely involved in its practice.
| + | Some translations of the Bible, such as the [[King James Version]] and the [[New Revised Standard Version]], render ''magos'' as "Wise Men." Yet, the same Greek word is rendered as "[[Sorcery|sorcerer]]" or [[magician]] in the account of "Elymas" the sorcerer in [[Acts of the Apostles]] 13 [http://www.blueletterbible.org/tmp_dir/words/s/1113230895-2558.html]. The term is also used to identify [[Simon Magus]] in Acts 8. |
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| − | The ''[[Book of Jeremiah]]'' (39:3, 39:13) gives a title ''rab mag'' "chief magus" to the head of the Magi, [[Nergal Sharezar]] ([[Septuagint]], [[Vulgate]] and [[KJV]] mistranslate ''Rabmag'' as a separate character). It's also believed by Christians that the Jewish prophet Daniel was "rab mag" and entrusted a Messianic vision (to be announced in due time by a "star") to a secret sect of the Magi for its eventual fulfillment (Daniel 4:9; 5: 11).
| + | Since the passage in Matthew implies that they were observers of the stars, most conclude that the intended meaning of ''magos'' is "astrologer-priests." Indeed, [[John Wycliffe]]'s (c. 1330–1384 <small>C.E.</small>) translation of the Gospel reads not "wise men" but "astrologers" because in ancient times "[[astrology]]" encompassed both astrology and [[astronomy]]. Ludolph of Saxony (died 1378) thus wrote: |
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| − | ==The Maga in India==
| + | <blockquote>The three pagan kings were called Magi not because they were magicians but because of the great science of astrology which was theirs. Those whom the Hebrews called scribes and the Greeks, philosophers, and the Latins, wise men, the Persians called Magi. And the reason that they were called kings is that in those days it was the custom for the philosophers and wise men to be rulers (''Vita Christi'').</blockquote> |
| − | The Zoroastrians form a very small religious minority in [[India]], many of whom are [[Parsi]]s. After invading Arabs succeeded in taking [[Ctesiphon]] in 637, [[Islam]] largely superseded Zoroastrianism, and the power of the Magi faded. Many (but not all) of the mages fled the advent of Islam in Persia, or Iran, by emigrating to India, settling in western principalities which form the modern states of [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharastra]]. As one can only be Zoroastrian by birth, the number of Parsis and [[Zoroaster|Zoroastrians]] in the world is shrinking, and the remaining population risks passing down genetic defects as with any small community. Suffice to say Parsis are very rare, and Magi are even rarer.
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| − | ==In Christianity== | + | ==Historical Background== |
| − | As judicial [[astrologers]], the Magi were known for the respect of spiritual light and rejection of spiritual darkness. They were also respected in the ancient world for their work in casting out demons and sending them to the netherworlds. As wise men, they were history's first astronomers. As kings, they were potentates within the neighboring Persian empire to the east. But more importantly, they were priests. And as priests, they followed their religious symbol (the star) to the birthplace of a king. And as a god, he would be the same [[monotheism|one God]] which the Zoroastrian [[revealed religion]] venerated.
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| − | Moreover, the Gospel of Matthew records the Magi as the first religious figures to worship Christ. Indeed of their three gifts, the last is the most important: [[myrrh]]. Myrrh was an herb that was mixed with oil to make a [[chrism]], that is the ointment marking Jesus as a royal figure, a healer, and the divine ''Christ''. This means that the Magi arrived at the stable with knowledge of the religious and cosmic importance of Christ's birth.
| + | The Magi were the sacred [[caste]] of the [[Medes]] from ancient Media (inhabitants of [[Persia]] [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/medes]), who were responsible for the religious and funerary practices, and who eventually accepted the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religion. |
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| − | For this reason, the story of the Magi is particularly respected and popular among many Christians. In [[Christianity]], the visit of the Magi to [[Jesus]] as a child is commemorated by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]]s and other [[Christian]] sects (not [[Eastern Orthodox]]) on the [[Christianity|Christian]] observance of [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]], January 6. This visit is frequently treated in Christian art and literature as [[The Journey of the Magi]].
| + | The Magi organized Persian society after the fall of [[Assyria]] and [[Babylonian Empire|Babylon]]. However, their power was curtailed by Persian Emperor [[Cyrus the Great]] (c 585 – 529 <small>B.C.E.</small>), founder of the [[Persian Empire]], and by his son Cambyses II; the Magi revolted against Cambyses and set up a rival claimant to the throne, one of their own, who took the name of Smerdis. Smerdis and his forces were defeated by the Persians under [[Darius I of Persia|Darius I]]. The sect of the Magi continued in Persia, though its influence was limited after this political setback. |
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| − | Upon this kernel of information Christians embroidered many circumstantial details about the magi. One of the most important changes was their rising from [[astrologers]] to kings. The general view is that this is linked to Old Testament prophesies that have the messiah being worshipped by kings in [[Isaiah 60:3]], [[Psalm 72:10]], and [[Psalm 68:29]]. Early readers reinterpreted Matthew in light of these prophecies and elevated the magi to kings. Mark Allan Powell rejects this view. He argues that the idea of the magi as kings arose considerably later in the time after [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] and the change was made to endorse the role of Christian monarchs. By 500 C.E. all commentators adopted the prevalent tradition of the three were kings, and this continued until the [[Protestant Reformation]].
| + | During the Classical era (555 <small>B.C.E.</small> – 300 <small>C.E.</small>), some Magi migrated westward [http://www.farsinet.com/wisemen/magi.html], settling in [[Greece]], and then [[Italy]]. For more than a century, [[Mithraism]], a religion derived from Persia, was the largest single religion in Rome. The Magi were likely involved in its practice. |
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| − | In a hymn of the late 4th-century [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]n poet [[Prudentius]], the three gifts have already gained their medieval interpretation as prophetic [[emblem]]s of Jesus' identity, familiar in the carol "We Three Kings" ([[John Henry Hopkins, Jr.]], 1857). The [[frankincense]], an incense used in temple worship, speaks of Jesus' priesthood. The gold speaks of Jesus' kingship. The [[myrrh]], a spice or balm used in preparing bodies for burial, speaks of Jesus' atoning death.
| + | The [[Book of Jeremiah]] (39:3, 39:13) gives a title ''rab mag'' ("chief magus") to the head of the Magi, Nergal Sharezar. It is also believed by Christians that the Jewish [[prophet]] [[Daniel]] was "rab mag" and entrusted a Messianic vision (to be announced in due time by a "star") to a secret sect of the Magi for its eventual fulfillment (Daniel 4:9; 5:11). |
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| − | Though the [[Qu'ran]] omits Matthew's episode of the magi, it was well known in Arabia. The muslim encyclopedist [[al-Tabari]], writing in the 9th century, gives the familiar symbolism of the gifts of the magi; he gives as his source the later 7th century writer Wahb ibn Munabbih. [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198006/we.three.kings.of.orient.were.htm]
| + | After invading Arabs succeeded in taking Ctesiphon in 637, [[Islam]] largely superseded Zoroastrianism, and the power of the Magi faded. Many (but not all) of the Magi fled the advent of Islam in Persia by emigrating to India, settling in western principalities that form the modern states of Gujarat and Maharastra. As one can only be Zoroastrian by birth, the number of Parsis and [[Zoroaster|Zoroastrians]] in the world is shrinking. Suffice to say Parsis are very rare, and Magi are even rarer. |
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| − | :''Main article: [[Star of Bethlehem]]''.
| + | ==Accounts of the Magi in Christianity== |
| − | The star that was rising in the East, familiar in iconology and legend as the [[Star of Bethlehem]] was interpreted by hearers of ''Matthew'' as the fulfillment of the "[[Star Prophecy]]" from the ''[[Book of Numbers]] 24:17:
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| − | :—''There shall come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab, and destroy all the children of Sheth.''
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| − | The Star Propecy was a [[Messiah|Messianic]] reading applied by radical Jews and early Christians to the text from the [[Book of Numbers]]. It was familiar to contemporaries, one which [[Josephus]] applied to his patron [[Vespasian]]. | + | [[Image:Three-wise-men-in-the-desert.gif|right|The Three Wise Men Following the Star to Bethlehem.]] |
| | + | According to the [[Gospel of Matthew]], the Magi were the first religious figures to worship Christ. It is said the Magi traveled from the east following a bright star that lead them to [[Jerusalem]]. They first visited [[Herod the Great|Herod]] (appointed as a vassal king of [[Judea]] by the [[Roman Empire]]), asking him where the new king could be found. Herod, showing his knowledge of local prophesy, sent them to [[Bethlehem]], and asked that they return when they had found him (Matthew 2:1–8). There, they appeared before the infant [[Jesus]], and offered him gifts of [[gold]], [[frankincense]], and [[myrrh]] (Matthew 2:11). Of these three gifts, the last is the most important: Myrrh was an herb that was mixed with oil to make a [[chrism]], the ointment marking Jesus as a royal figure, a king. Accordingly, the three gifts are interpreted as prophetic emblems of Jesus' identity: (1) Frankincense was an incense used in temple worship and speaks of Jesus' priesthood. (2) Gold speaks of Jesus' kingship. (3) Myrrh, was a spice or balm used in preparing bodies for burial, speaks of Jesus' atoning death. |
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| − | The Star of Bethlehem is often depicted moving across the heavens as a [[comet]] with a tail. In the gospel account, the star was not alone in identifying Bethlehem: an interpretation of the ''[[Book of Isaiah]]'' presented before Herod also identified Bethlehem as the natal place for a coming king, the Jewish Messiah, a descendant or "son" of King David. The clearest prophecy of Bethlehem as the birthplace of the Messiah is found in Micah 5:2 "But you, Bethlehem Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times." [[Book of Micah]].)
| + | After offering the gifts, the Magi were warned in a divine dream not to go back to Herod, and so returned to Persia by another route. This infuriated Herod and resulted in his massacre of the [[Holy Innocents]] (Matthew 2:12, 16–18). |
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| − | ==[[Saint Matthew|St Matthew's]] account==
| + | As judicial [[astrologers]], the Magi were known for the respect of spiritual light and rejection of spiritual darkness. The star that was rising in the east, was interpreted by hearers of Matthew as the fulfillment of the "[[Star Prophecy]]" from the [[Book of Numbers]] 24:17:—“There shall come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab, and destroy all the children of Sheth." However, the Star Prophecy was not alone in identifying Bethlehem as the natal place for a coming king: an interpretation of the Book of [[Isaiah]] presented before Herod also identified Bethlehem as the birthplace of the Jewish Messiah, who would be a descendant or "son" of King [[David]]. Yet, again, the clearest prophecy of Bethlehem as the birthplace of the Messiah is found in [[Micah]] 5:2, "But you, Bethlehem Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times." |
| − | The ''[[Gospel of Matthew]]'', written between 60 and 65 C.E., is the only source for the event. According to his account, the Magi first visited [[Herod the Great|Herod]] (appointed as a vassal king of [[Judea]] by the [[Roman Empire]]), asking him where the new King could be found. Herod, showing his knowledge of local prophesy, sent them to Bethlehem, and asked that they return when they had found him ([[Matthew 2:1]]–[[Matthew 2:8]]). There, they appeared before the infant [[Jesus]], noting that they observed his star—the [[Star of Bethlehem]]— rising in the east (other possible translation: his star in the [[ascendant]]), and offered him gifts of [[gold]], [[frankincense]], and [[myrrh]] ([[Matthew 2:11]]). The Magi were warned in a divine dream not to go back to Herod, and so returned to Persia by another route. This infuriated Herod and resulted in his [[Massacre of the Innocents|massacre]] of the [[Holy Innocents]] ([[Matthew 2:12]], and [[Matthew 2:16|16]]-[[Matthew 2:18|18]]).
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| − | Matthew's [[Gospel]] does not mention their exact number, but since three gifts were mentioned, they were thus often entitled the '''Three Wise Men''' or later '''Three Kings'''. Alternate traditions have as few as two and as many as twelve visiting Jesus.
| + | ==Traditional Names for the Three Magi== |
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| − | Neither their names nor their number are given: the [[Greek language|Greek]] text refers to them merely as "Magi from the East" (μαγοι απο ανατολων). Although the word ''magi'' in Greek, (μαγοι) is neutral in gender, the magi class was restricted to adult men.
| + | The traditional names of the Magi in the West are Caspar (or Gaspar), Melchior, and Balthasar (or Balthazar). Caspar is sometimes given as Gaspar, a variant of the Persian ''Jasper''—"Master of the Treasure"—from which the name of the mineral jasper is derived. However, other cultures have different names for the Magi. For example, the Syrian Christians use Larvandad, Hormisdas, and Gushnasaph, and in Ethiopian Christianity the Magi are named Karsudan, Hor, and Basanater. |
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| − | Since ancient magi were Persian, and since the lands to the east were the Persian Empire, the ethnicity and religion of the ''magoi'' intended by the author of ''Matthew'' is not an open question. [[Raymond E. Brown]] is convinced that the text demonstrates that they were [[gentiles]], as they are portrayed as referring to the Jews as a foreign people, and show no knowledge of scripture. Almost all scholars agree with this view.
| + | The names of the Magi do not appear anywhere in the New Testament nor do the Gospels state specifically that the Magi were three in number. According to Christian tradition, it is generally accepted that there were three Magi because three gifts were given to the infant Jesus; however, many gifts were given to the child that night as well as gold, frankincense, and myrrh. These last three gifts, because of their price and significance, became worthy of note. |
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| − | There is no support in the New Testament for the belief that the birth of the Messiah occurred at the winter solstice, save that the shepherds were in the pasture with their sheep. Judea's [[Mediterranean_climate|Mediterranean climate]] has mild winters reaching their coolest in late February. Thus December nights can be quite balmy and warm enough to graze sheep on grass that has grown with winter rains. During the hot months, conditions can be quite barren and the grasses dry. But the end of December was the time when the perennial grasses began to turn green again and the annual grasses had sprouted anew.
| + | ==The Magi Depicted in Art and Literature== |
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| − | ===When did the magi see Jesus?===
| + | [[image:Adoration.jpg|thumb|320px|right|''Adoration of the Magi'' by Fra Angelico and [[Filippo Lippi]]]] |
| − | | + | The account of the visit of the Magi in the Gospel of Matthew has been a popular topic for Christian [[art]] and [[literature]]. The scene has been found in the earliest Christian pictorial art, and it was a popular tableau in the [[Renaissance]]. The Three Wise Men are most frequently portrayed in the scene of the [[Adoration of the Magi]] and less often in the scene of the Journey of the Magi. More generally they appear in popular [[nativity scene]]s and other [[Christmas]] decorations that have their origins in the Neapolitan variety of the Italian ''presepio'' or nativity crèche; they are featured in Menotti's opera ''[[Amahl and the Night Visitors]],'' and in several [[Christmas carol]]s, of which the best-known English one is "We Three Kings." |
| − | It is common for depictions of the [[nativity]] of Jesus to include the presence of the magi as well as the shepherds that Luke reported at the nativity. However, holidays celebrating the arrival of the magi traditionally recognize a distinction between the date of their arrival and the date of the birth. Luke does not mention the magi as being present in his account of the night of the birth and several details are recorded by Luke and Matthew that strongly indicate the magi did not arrive until sometime after the birth of Jesus. For example Luke mentions that Jesus flew to Egypt while only 8 days old, therefore if the Magi didn't visit him while an infant, they could visit him only after his return.
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| − | # [[Matthew 2:1]] Matthew's introduction of the magi gives the reader no reason to believe that they were present on the night of the birth. Instead, he explicitly states that their arrival in Jerusalem was some unspecified time "'''after''' Jesus was born in Bethlehem".
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| − | # [[Matthew 2:2]]a At the time of their arrival in Jerusalem, the magi were asking "Where is he who '''has been born''' king of the Jews? ..." Before locating or seeing the child, they already knew that the birth had taken place sometime earlier.
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| − | # [[Matthew 2:2]]b The magi also explicitly give their reason for knowing the birth had already taken place earlier. "'''For''' we saw his star when it rose [or 'in the east']" Being stargazers, they understood the original rising or appearing of the star to be the indication that the birth of a new king of the Jews had taken place. They had been traveling for some time to see the one who had already been born, as the star had indicated. Note that the star had informed them of what had happened (a king of the Jews had been born), but they did not yet know exactly where it had happened and so they came to the Jewish capital asking questions.
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| − | # [[Matthew 2:16]] When Herod tries to eliminate the child by killing all young male children in Bethlehem, he chooses an age limit taking into account "the time that he had ascertained from the magi." This does not require that the time of appearing of the star was a full two years earlier, since it would be quite plausible that Herod adjusted upward sufficiently as a safety margin to insure the child would not be passed over as too old. Nevertheless, two observations can be made.
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| − | #* This is another indication that both Herod and the magi believed the time of the birth could be determined from the appearing of the star, so that it could be used to estimate the child's current age.
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| − | #* Even allowing for a generous increase in the estimate, it seems unlikely that the magi had indicated the birth had taken place that same night. Some nontrivial amount of time had passed since the birth.
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| − | # [[Matthew 2:1-8]] Even if one ignored Herod's estimate, and supposed that the magi had been able to anticipate the rising of this star that marked the event of the birth, had travelled from the east in advance of the birth, and had gained admittance into the city of Jerusalem after dark and only shortly after the birth of Jesus that same night, there remains the problem that Matthew's account includes a series of events that would be difficult to fit into a single night. The magi began by asking questions (but who is still awake and available, if it is after the birth the same night?). Word spread to the extent that "all of Jerusalem became troubled". After hearing about the magi, King Herod assembled "all the chief priests and scribes of the people" to research the matter. He summons the magi secretly, consults with them and sends them to Bethlehem. Since Matthew gives no encouragement to the idea that the magi were present on the birth night, a more straight forward reading of the text would suggest these events transpired over a reasonable period of time, and much of it probably during daylight hours.
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| − | # [[Matthew 2:11]]a "And going into the '''house''' they saw the child with Mary his mother..." By the time the magi saw Jesus and Mary, Jesus was no longer lying in an animal's feeding trough (manger) in the temporary location of the birth. Rather, the magi found them in a house.
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| − | # [[Matthew 2:8,11,13,14,20,21]] "...they saw the '''child'''..." Whereas the shepherds in Luke's account saw a newborn baby ([[Luke 2:12,16]] Greek ''brephos'' Thayer's Lexicon: "a new-born child, an infant, a babe"), Matthew's account of the magi uses a different Greek word to indicate the young child (''paidion''), a word with a broader range of age. Matthew uses the same Greek word to describe Jesus throughout the passage, including when Joseph, Mary and Jesus return from living for a time in Egypt until the death of King Herod.
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| − | # [[Matthew 2:11]]b "...Then, opening their treasures, they offered him gifts, gold and frankincense and myrrh." These are expensive gifts. By contrast, [[Luke 2:24]] records that when Joseph and Mary presented Jesus at the temple, they were at that time still too poor to offer the normal sacrifice, and instead had to offer "a pair of turtledoves, or two young pigeons” — the sacrifice of the poor ([[Leviticus 12:2-8]]). This is one of the indications that the visit of the magi would have taken place sometime after this sacrifice during the presentation in the temple in Jerusalem.
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| − | # [[Matthew 2:12-22]] It would not have taken long after the magi's departure for Herod to learn that he had been tricked and to take action against the child. Matthew records that "when they [the magi] had departed" Joseph was warned by an angel in a dream to flee with his family to Egypt, and he did so. If the magi's arrival had been on the night of the birth, they would not have been able to remain in Judea long enough to have Jesus circumcised there and later still to present him in the temple in Jerusalem. Yet [[Luke 2:22]] records "when the time came for their purification according to the Law of Moses, they brought him up to Jerusalem to present him to the Lord" which means they were in Jerusalem 40 days after the birth. This is another indication that the visit of the magi took place sometime after the presentation in the temple.
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| − | The collective weight of evidence from both Matthew and Luke makes a visit by the magi on the night of the birth implausible. Neither Luke nor Matthew provide any positive support for the idea that the magi were present on the night of the birth and both provide details that conflict with that idea. On the other hand, those same details are consistent with a visit sometime after the presentation in the temple.
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| − | The chief objection to a visit by the magi sometime after the presentation of Jesus in the temple is that Luke's gospel indicates only that after this "they returned into Galilee, to their own town of Nazareth" ([[Luke 2:39]]) with no mention of either the magi or a trip to Egypt prior to moving to Nazareth. At least two responses to this objection have been advanced.
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| − | * It may be that they first returned to Nazareth as Luke reports and then later moved back to Bethlehem in Judea for reasons not recorded. For example, they may have decided during their first stay in Bethlehem to relocate more permanently to a house there, and only returned to Nazareth for a short time to settle affairs and arrange the move. Bethlehem was the town of Joseph's ancestry and he may have had relatives there. Matthew's account does seem to suggest that after they returned from Egypt, they may have been initially considering settling in Judea. It was only after they were warned that Herod's son [[Herod Archelaus]] was reigning over Judea that they went back to Nazareth in Galilee, a town of low repute (cf. [[John 1:46]]).
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| − | * Luke was writing in a time before printing, when all text was copied by hand and brevity had special practical value. According to writing standards of the day, it would not be inappropriate for a writer to compress events, leaving out details that were not essential to the writer's focus. Luke may have simply chosen to omit the detour of dealing with that side story. One can see an example of compression in Luke's own writing by comparing the end of his gospel with the beginning of his work on the [[Acts of the Apostles]]. In [[Acts 1:1-11]], it is clear that Luke understands that the events between the [[resurrection of Jesus]] and the [[ascension]] took place over a period of 40 days. At the end of his gospel, [[Luke 24]] covers the same time period, but without any indication that the events transpired over a span of 40 days. Each of his two accounts carries a different emphasis and each leaves out details that the other account includes.
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| − | Beyond the limits of at least 40 days and at most two years (though probably less than that), the clues in the accounts themselves do not give a clearer indication of how long after the birth of Jesus the magi arrived.
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| − | Astronomer Michael R. Molnar and others have taken the view that Matthew's statements that the star "went before" and "stood over" are terms that refer respectively to the [[retrogradation]] and stationing of the royal wandering "star" [[Jupiter]]. If Molnar's research is correct, the original and unusual event marking the birth of a great Jewish king took place April 17, 6 B.C.E. Later that same year, Jupiter would have reversed direction starting August 23 and would have stationed December 19, which could suggest that the magi arrived at or after that time. The interval of at least eight months since the birth could reasonably accommodate a journey from the east by the magi to see the unusual king.
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| − | For more details and other interpretations, see the "Proposed explanations for the star" in the [[Star of Bethlehem]] article.
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| − | ===Opposing views===
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| − | There are, however, opposing views held by [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] [http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2000/12/15/article_01.htm], who do not see the arrival of the Magi as something to be celebrated. These views stress the Biblical condemnation of sorcery and astrology in such texts as [[Deuteronomy 18:10]], [[Deuteronomy 18:11|11]], [[Leviticus 19:26]], [[Isaiah 47:13]], [[Isaiah 47:14|14]]. They also point to the fact that the star seen by the Magi led them first to a hostile enemy of Jesus, Herod, and only then to the child's location - the argument being that if this was an event from God, it makes no sense for them to be led to a ruler with intentions to kill the child before taking them to Jesus.
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| − | Astrology and related arts were forbidden in the Jewish religion with death as the penalty for these acts. The "star" that the Magi followed did not behave like a true celestial body since according to the Magi's own description, the star moved in such a way as to first lead them to Herod and then it lead them to the house where Jesus and Mary were.[[Mathew 2:9,10]]
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| − | Due to the activity of this star, Herod (King of the Jews), received warning that a child was born who would eventually become "King of the Jews". This perceived threat to his throne is what motivated Herod to want to seek out Jesus and destroy him. [[Mathew 2:13]]
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| − | It now became necessary for God to intervene directly to save the child's life. That very same night, the Magi received a message in a dream not to return to Herod and they withdrew to their country by another way. This was not enough to deter Herod and further divine intevention came in the form of an angel that appeared to Joseph in a dream telling him to "Get up, take the young child and its mother and flee into Egypt and stay there until I give you word...". [[Mathew 2:13]]
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| − | Why would God send a "star" to notify astrologers (who did not have God's approval in accordance with the Scriptures) that the child was born and have this "star" first take them to Herod knowing this would cause Herod to want to kill the child? Why send a star in the first place and then have to intervene with the Magi and with Joseph so that the child's life would be spared? Why would God send this star knowing that once Herod's plan of locating the child had been foiled, that there would be a slaughter of innocents two years old and under? [[Mathew 2:16]]
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| − | ==Tombs of the Magi==
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| − | [[Marco Polo]] claimed that he was shown the three tombs of the Magi at [[Saveh]] south of [[Teheran]] in the 1270s:
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| − | :''"In Persia is the city of Saba, from which the Three Magi set out and in this city they are buried, in three very large and beautiful monuments, side by side. And above them there is a square building, beautifully kept. The bodies are still entire, with hair and beard remaining."'' (Book i).
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| − | ==The Shrine at Cologne==
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| − | A [[Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral]], according to tradition, contains the bones of the Three Wise Men. Reputedly they were first discovered by [[Helena of Constantinople|Saint Helena]] on her famous pilgrimage to [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and the Holy Lands. She took the remains to the church of [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]]; they were later moved to [[Milan]], before being sent to their current resting place by the [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I]] in 1164. The Milanese celebrate their part in the tradition by holding a medieval costume parade every 6th of January.
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| − | A version of the detailed elaboration familiar to us is laid out by the 14th-century cleric [[John of Hildesheim]]'s ''Historia Trium Regum'' ("History of the Three Kings"). In accounting for the presence in Cologne of their mummified relics, he begins with the journey of Saint Helena, mother of [[Constantine the Great]] to Jerusalem, where she recovered the [[True Cross]] and other relics:
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| − | :''"Queen Helen...began to think greatly of the bodies of these three kings, and she arrayed herself, and accompanied by many attendants, went into the Land of Ind...after she had found the bodies of Melchior, Balthazar, and Casper, Queen Helen put them into one chest and ornamented it with great riches, and she brought them into Constantinople...and laid them in a church that is called Saint Sophia."''
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| − | ==The Magi depicted in art==
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| − | [[image:Ravennamagi.jpg|thumb|222.2px|The Three Wise Men (Persian=Magi) are given the names Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthasar in this [[Romanesque]] *[[mosaic]] from the [[Basilica]] of St Apollinarius in Ravenna, [[Italy]].]]
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| − | The Three Wise Men most frequently appear in European art in the [[Adoration of the Magi]]; less often [[The Journey of the Magi]] has been a popular ''topos''. More generally they appear in popular [[Nativity scene]]s and other [[Christmas]] decorations that have their origins in the Neapolitan variety of the Italian ''presepio'' or Nativity crèche; they are featured in [[Gian Carlo Menotti|Menotti]]'s opera ''[[Amahl and the Night Visitors]]'', and in several [[Christmas carol]]s, of which the best-known English one is "We Three Kings".
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| − | An early Anglo-Saxon picture survived on the [[Franks Casket]], probably a pagan king’s hoard-box (early 7th century, whalebone carving); or rather the pagan king’s hoard-box survived because of that picture.[http://www.franks-casket.de/english/front02.html] In its composition it follows the oriental style, which renders a courtly scene with the Virgin and Christ facing the spectator, while the Mægi devoutly approach from the (left) side.*
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| − | Even in pre-Christian days that motif was popular among heathens, as the Mægi had endured a long travel, and the more, as they were most generous givers. This was the reason why the carver adopted the scene. To ensure their help he labelled them in runes: ‘MÆGI’.
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| − | By inserting a [[Woden]]’s knot (''valknutr'') over the back of the third ‘king’ and changing the Christian guiding angle into a goose or swan, the disguise of a hero’s swan maiden [[fylgja]], he emphasized the part of the visitors for the benefit of his protégée. If the 13 rays (we would expect 12 or 16) of the rosette, which holds the place of the guiding star, stand for a lunar calendar, it is meant to perpetuate the good spell. This function of the rosette is not unlikely as the Virgin and the moon became associated, following the pattern of [[Earth Mother]] [http://www.franks-casket.de/english/appendix07.html]
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| − | Artists have also [[allegory|allegorized]] the theme to represent the three [[List_of_time_periods|age]]s of man. Since the Age of Discoveries, the Kings also represent three parts of the world. Balthasar is thus represented as a young African or [[Moors|Moor]] and Caspar may be depicted with distinctive [[Oriental]] features.
| + | An early Anglo-Saxon picture survived on the Franks Casket, probably a pagan king’s hoard-box (early seventh century <small>C.E.</small>, whalebone carving); or rather the pagan king’s hoard-box survived because of the picture [http://www.franks-casket.de/english/front02.html]. In its composition, it follows the oriental style, which renders a courtly scene with the Virgin and Christ facing the spectator, while the Magi devoutly approach from the (left) side. |
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| − | In the film [[Donovan's Reef]], a [[Christmas play]] is held in [[French Polynesia]].
| + | Artists have also allegorized the Magi to represent three different parts of the world. Balthasar is often represented as a young African or [[Moors|Moor]] and Caspar may be depicted with distinctive [[Oriental]] features. |
| − | Instead of the traditional correspondence of continents and Magi, the version [[inculturation|for Polynesian Catholics]] features the "king of Polynesia", the "king of America" and the "king of China".
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| − | Further sentimental narrative detail was added in the novel and movie ''[[Ben-Hur]]'', where Balthasar appears as an old man, who goes back to Palestine to see the former child Jesus become an adult.
| + | In modern literature and film, Henry van Dyke (1852 – 1933) wrote ''The Story of the Other Wise Man'' (1896), which described a fictional fourth Magi who, on the way to see Jesus, stopped to help a fellow person in need and therefore missed Jesus' birth. Nevertheless, the book shows that the Magi's caring efforts were more in keeping with Christ's love than any physical gifts could be. Van Dyke's inspirational story was released as a motion picture in 1985 under the title ''The Fourth Wise Man.'' |
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| − | ==Epiphany==
| + | In the twentieth century, [[T.S. Elliot]] (1888 – 1965) wrote a poem entitled "The Journey of the Magi" after his conversion to Christianity and [[confirmation (sacrament)|confirmation]] in the [[Church of England]]. The poem is an account of the journey from the point of view of one ''Magus.'' Hollywood also added further sentimental detail to the narrative of the Magi in the movie ''[[Ben-Hur]]'' (1959), where Balthasar appears as an old man who goes back to Palestine to see the former child Jesus become an adult. |
| − | Christianity celebrates the three kings on the day of [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]], [[January 6]], the last of the "twelve days of Christmas".
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| − | In [[Spain]] and throughout the [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking world, the three kings (''Sp. "los Reyes Magos de Oriente"'', also "Los Tres Reyes Magos", receive wish letters from children and magically bring them gifts on the night before Epiphany.
| + | ==Commemoration of Magi in Different Cultures == |
| − | The Wise Men come from the [[Orient]] on their [[camel]]s to visit the houses of all the children; like the Northern European [[Santa Claus]] with his reindeer, they visit everyone in one night. In some areas, children prepare a drink for each of the kings, it is also traditional to prepare food and drink for the camels, because this is the only night of the year when they eat.
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| − | ==Contemporary skepticism==
| + | Most Christian celebrations of the birth of Christ often involve depictions of the Magi, which take on their own distinct cultural flair around the world. In the Roman Catholic Church, the visit of the Magi to [[Jesus]] is commemorated on the [[Christianity|Christian]] observance of [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]], January 6. The Epiphany is also called the "twelfth day of Christmas" because it falls twelve days after December 25th. |
| − | While a well known and popular story and a feature of [[Christmas carol]]s and [[nativity scene|crèches]], the story of the magi visiting Jesus has attracted some skepticism.
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| − | Catholic Biblical scholar [[Raymond E. Brown]] in ''The Birth of the Messiah'' lists six reasons he does not believe the Biblical account:
| + | In [[Spain]] and throughout the [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking world, the three kings (Sp. ''los Reyes Magos de Oriente,'' also ''Los Tres Reyes Magos,'') receive wish letters from children and magically bring them gifts on the night before Epiphany. Spanish cities organize ''cabalgatas'' (cavalcade) in the evening, in which the kings and their servants parade and throw sweets to the children (and parents) in attendance. The cavalcade of the three kings in the city of Alcoi claims to be the oldest in the world; the participants who portray the kings walk through the crowd, giving presents to the children directly. It is also told that the Wise Men come from the [[Orient]] on their camels to visit the houses of all the children; like the northern European [[Santa Claus]] with his reindeer, they visit everyone in one night. In some areas, children prepare a drink for each of the kings, it is also traditional to prepare food and drink for the camels, because this is the only night of the year when they eat. |
| − | *A star behaving as the Star of Bethlehem might have been the most notable astrological event of the period, but despite fairly good records is mentioned nowhere.
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| − | *The arrival of the magi in a village like Bethlehem would have been a major event, everyone in town would have known who they had visited making it easy for Herod to later find out which family the messiah was born to.
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| − | *None of it is mentioned in Luke or the other Gospels. Some scholars, such as [[Robert H. Gundry]], speculates that the author of ''Matthew'' transformed the shepherds that appear in ''Luke'' into the magi.
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| − | However, a number of celestial events would have attracted the interest and fascination of anyone who followed the stars.
| + | [[Image:WiseMenAdorationMurillo.png|250px|thumb|''Adoration of the Magi'' by [[Bartolomé Estéban Murillo]]]] |
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| − | "Historical records and modern-day computer simulations indicate that there was a rare series of planetary groupings, also known as conjunctions, during the years 3 b.c.e. and 2 b.c.e....The crowning touch came on June 17, when Jupiter seemed to approach so close to Venus that, without binoculars, they would have looked like a single star." (Mosley posted on MSNBC: http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3077385/)
| + | In [[Germany]], the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral, according to tradition, contains the bones of the Three Wise Men (John of Hildesheim). Reputedly they were first discovered by [[Helena of Constantinople|Saint Helena]] (c. 248 – 328 <small>C.E.</small>) on her famous pilgrimage to [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and the Holy Lands. She took the remains to the church of [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]]; they were later moved to [[Milan]], before being sent to their current resting place by the [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I]] (c. 1123 – 1190 <small>C.E.</small>) in 1164. However, this view conflicts with other reports. According to [[Marco Polo]] (c. 1254 – 1324), the tombs of the Magi were located at [[Saveh]], south of [[Teheran]], in the 1270s. |
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| | + | In [[Italy]], the Milanese celebrate their part in the tradition by holding a medieval costume parade every sixth of January, and in [[North America]] the Magi are still remembered in the familiar Christmas Carol "We Three Kings" written by John Henry Hopkins, Jr., in 1857. |
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| − | '''The Journey of the Magi''' refers to the journey of three wise men mentioned in the Gospel of Matthew.
| + | In the twentieth century, the term Magi was appropriated by the fantasy genre of role-playing games, movies, and novels. It is common for both role-playing and computer games to frequently involve ''Mage,'' characters who specializes in magic. |
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| − | In the [[New Testament]] of the [[Bible]], the birth of [[Jesus]] was attended by a new star. Some "magi" followed the star, which they saw as indicating a new king in the astrological house of the [[Jew]]s, and came to pay homage. These men are assumed to be three in number, because they brought gifts of [[gold]], [[frankincense]], and [[myrrh]]. According to [[Herodotus]], the word "magi" refers to a sacred sect of astrologers in [[Medes]] who provided the priests of [[Persian Empire|Persia]]. Only Matthew provides an account of the veneration by the magi.
| + | ==Controversial Issues and Debates== |
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| − | The account of the visit, in Matthew 2, has been a popular topic for Christian art and literature. The scene has been found in the earliest Christian pictorial art, and it was a popular tableau in the Renaissance. While the number of magi is indefinite in Matthew, tradition settled on three (as the three would mirror the [[trinity]] and because of the gifts) and gave them names (see [[Magus]] for more).
| + | Even though the story of the journey of the Magi is often told in Christianity, the precise sequence of events, the nature and meaning of the events, and whether they actually happened is under constant discussion by biblical scholars. |
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| − | Indefinite is also the exact time when the Magi visited Jesus. Although it is fixed that they were present at the nativity, the text itself does not state it for certain. Some have interpreted it as that they visited Jesus when he was grown due to the word 'house' in [[Matthew 2:11]].
| + | There is considerable controversy concerning the timing of when the Magi initially saw Jesus. The collective weight of testimony from both Matthew and Luke makes a visit by the Magi on the night of the birth dubious. |
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| − | ==The Commemoration of Magi in Different Cultures ==
| + | Roman Catholic biblical scholar Raymond E. Brown in ''The Birth of the Messiah'' lists several reasons he does not believe the biblical account, including the fact that such a bright star would have been mentioned by others, but despite fairly good astrological records it is mentioned nowhere. Astronomer Michael R. Molnar and others have taken the view that Matthew's statements that the star "went before" and "stood over" are terms that refer respectively to the [[retrogradation]] and stationing of the royal wandering "star" [[Jupiter]]. If Molnar's research is correct, the original and unusual event marking the birth of a great Jewish king took place April 17, 6 <small>B.C.E.</small> Later that same year, Jupiter would have reversed direction starting August 23 and would have stationed December 19, which could suggest that the magi arrived at or after that time. The interval of at least eight months since the birth could reasonably accommodate a journey from the east by the Magi to see the unusual king. |
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| − | ===Traditions in the Spanish Speaking Countries===
| + | None of the story is mentioned in Luke or the other Gospels. For this reason, some scholars, such as Robert H. Gundry, speculate that the author of Matthew transformed the shepherds that appear in Luke into the Magi. Another possible embellishment of the Magi story is their transformation from [[astrologers]] to kings. The general view is that this is linked to [[Old Testament]] prophesies that have the messiah being worshipped by kings in Isaiah 60:3, Psalm 72:10, and Psalm 68:29. It is possible that early readers reinterpreted Matthew in light of these prophecies and elevated the Magi to kings. |
| − | Spanish cities organize [[cavalcade|cabalgata]]s in the evening, in which the kings and their servants parade and throw sweets to the children (and parents) in attendance.
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| − | The cavalcade of the three kings in [[Alcoi]] claims to be the oldest in the world; the participants who portray the kings and pages walk through the crowd, giving presents to the children directlyChristmas Carols, "We Three Kings"
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| − | In modern times, in the West the term Magi has been appropriated in the genre of fantisy novels, role playing games, and movies. The ''mage'' character is popularly used in fantasy settings that involve magic. ''Mage'', rather than ''magus'', is the spelling usually encountered for [[magic]]-user characters in role-playing games and fantasy fiction. Mages are sometimes in [[computer role-playing game]]s as playable [[character class]]es and/or [[non-player character|NPC]]s such as ''[[Ultima]]'', ''[[Final Fantasy]]'', ''[[Dragon Warrior]]'', ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]'', ''[[World of Warcraft]]'' and ''[[Everquest]]''. Mages aren't always people who perform magic for entertainment. In ''some'' games, a mage may also be known as a [[wizard]], [[sorceress]], or [[witch]]. In other games, wizards, sorceresses and witches are completely different character classes.
| + | Finally, there are Christian groups, such as the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], who do not see the arrival of the Magi as something to be celebrated [http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2000/12/15/article_01.htm]. They stress the biblical condemnation of sorcery and astrology in such texts as Deuteronomy 18:10, Deuteronomy 18:11, Leviticus 19:26, Isaiah 47:13, and Isaiah 47:14. In addition, the "star" did not behave like a true celestial body since according to the Magi's own description, the star moved in such a way as to first lead them to Herod and then it led them to the house where Jesus and Mary were (Mathew 2:9, 10). |
| − | [[Image:DandDBasicSetBoxCover.jpg|thumb|175px|The ''D&D Basic Set'' features cover artwork by [[Erol Otus]]. The painting features an element of [[fantasy]] games, a magic-user.]]Furthermore, many references to the three magi can be found in various games and shows.
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| − | In the 20th century, [[T. S. Eliot]] wrote a poem entitled "The Journey of the Magi". The poem was written after Eliot's conversion to Christianity and [[confirmation (sacrament)|confirmation]] in the [[Church of England]] in 1927 and published in ''Ariel Poems'' in 1930. The poem is an account of the journey from the point of view of one of the magi. The text of the poem is widely printed on the world wide web.
| + | Some critics wonder why "the star" led the Magi first to a hostile enemy of Jesus, and only then to the child's location—the argument being that if this was an event from God, it makes no sense for them to be led to a ruler with intentions to kill the child before taking them to Jesus. Indeed, if due to the activity of this star, or the visit from the Magi, motivated Herod to want to seek out Jesus and destroy him (Mathew 2:13), why would God, knowing this, set up a situation that would lead to a slaughter of innocents two years old and under? These lingering questions cause some scholars to be skeptical about the story of the Magi. |
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| | ==References== | | ==References== |
| − | *[[William F. Albright|Albright, W.F.]] and C.S. Mann. "Matthew." ''[[The Anchor Bible Series]].'' New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971. | + | *Albright, W.F., and C.S. Mann. "Matthew." ''The Anchor Bible Series.'' New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971. |
| − | *[[Raymond E. Brown|Brown, Raymond E.]] ''The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke''. London: G. Chapman, 1977. | + | *Becker, Alfred. “Franks Casket.” ''Zu den Bildern und Inschriften des Runenkästchens von Auzon.'' Regensburg, 1973, Ikonographie der Magierbilder, Inschriften. |
| − | *Alfred Becker: “Franks Casket. Zu den Bildern und Inschriften des Runenkästchens von Auzon (Regensburg, 1973) pp. 125 – 142, Ikonographie der Magierbilder, Inschriften
| + | *Brown, Raymond E. ''The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke.'' London: G. Chapman, 1977. |
| | *Clarke, Howard W. ''The Gospel of Matthew and its Readers: A Historical Introduction to the First Gospel.'' Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003. | | *Clarke, Howard W. ''The Gospel of Matthew and its Readers: A Historical Introduction to the First Gospel.'' Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003. |
| | *France, R.T. ''The Gospel According to Matthew: an Introduction and Commentary.'' Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1985. | | *France, R.T. ''The Gospel According to Matthew: an Introduction and Commentary.'' Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1985. |
| − | *Powell, Mark Allan. "The Magi as Wise Men: Re-examining a Basic Supposition." ''New Testament Studies.'' Vol. 46, 2000. | + | *Hill, David. ''The Gospel of Matthew.'' Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981. |
| − | *[[Robert H. Gundry|Gundry, Robert H.]] ''Matthew a Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art.'' Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982. | + | *John of Hildesheim. ''Historia Trium Regum'' ("History of the Three Kings"). |
| − | *Hill, David. ''The Gospel of Matthew''. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981 | + | *Powell, Mark Allan. "The Magi as Wise Men: Re-examining a Basic Supposition." ''New Testament Studies'' vol. 46, 2000. |
| − | *[[Eduard Schweizer|Schweizer, Eduard]]. ''The Good News According to Matthew.'' Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975
| + | *Gundry, Robert H. ''Matthew: a Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art.'' Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1982. |
| | + | *Schweizer, Eduard. ''The Good News According to Matthew.'' Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975. |
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| − | == See also == | + | == Related topics == |
| − | {{commons|Three Wise Men}}
| + | *[[Jesus]] |
| − | *[[The Journey of the Magi]] | + | *[[Zoroastrianism]] |
| − | *[[List of names for the Biblical nameless]] | |
| | *[[Astrology]] | | *[[Astrology]] |
| − | *[[History of astrology]] | + | *[[Mithraism]] |
| − | *[[Saint Nicholas]] | + | *[[Gospel of Matthew]] |
| − | *[[Simon Magus]] | + | *[[Star of Bethlehem]] |
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| | ==External links== | | ==External links== |
| | + | All links retrieved November 5, 2022. |
| | *[http://www.archaeology.org/online/reviews/threekings/ Mark Rose, "The Three Kings & the Star"]: the Cologne reliquary and the BBC popular documentary | | *[http://www.archaeology.org/online/reviews/threekings/ Mark Rose, "The Three Kings & the Star"]: the Cologne reliquary and the BBC popular documentary |
| − | *[http://www.commonplacebook.com/features/cologne.shtm John of Hildesheim, "History of the three Kings"] modernized in English by H. S. Morris
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| | *[http://www.franks-casket.de/ Alfred Becker, Franks Casket] | | *[http://www.franks-casket.de/ Alfred Becker, Franks Casket] |
| − | *[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198006/we.three.kings.of.orient.were.htm Caroline Stone, "We Three Kings of Orient Were"]
| + | *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09527a.htm Magi] Catholic Encyclopedia |
| − | *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09527a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article] | |
| − | *[http://w210.ub.uni-tuebingen.de/dbt/volltexte/2001/290/ Documentary proofs: The census of Augustus and the first census (and taxes) of Publius Sulpicius Quirinius in the year 8 B.C.E.] (in german)
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| − | *[http://www.greenspun.com/bboard/q-and-a-fetch-msg.tcl?msg_id=00BfVY The Majoos] (Persian)
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| | *[http://www.auburn.edu/~vestmon/Gift_of_the_Magi.html The Gift of the Magi] by O. Henry | | *[http://www.auburn.edu/~vestmon/Gift_of_the_Magi.html The Gift of the Magi] by O. Henry |
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| | [[Category:Philosophy and religion]][[category:Religion]] | | [[Category:Philosophy and religion]][[category:Religion]] |
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| | {{Credit4|Magus|46667999|Biblical_Magi|44911109|The_Journey_of_the_Magi|32406050|List_of_names_for_the_Biblical_nameless|45821631}} | | {{Credit4|Magus|46667999|Biblical_Magi|44911109|The_Journey_of_the_Magi|32406050|List_of_names_for_the_Biblical_nameless|45821631}} |
The Three Magi offering gifts. Romanesque mosaic from the
Basilica of St. Apollinarius in Ravenna,
Italy.
The word Magi refers to a class of ancient Zoroastrian astrologer-priests who once lived in the Persian Empire. Today, the word is most commonly used in Christian circles to denote the Three Wise Men (Magi), who came "from the East to Jerusalem," following a bright star, to worship the Infant Jesus (Matthew 2:1). It is said that among their gifts were gold, frankincense, and myrrh. In this way, the Magi were the first people to symbolically acknowledge Jesus as the "King of the Jews." The journey of the Magi is still commemorated today in nativity scenes and Christmas carols, and they are seen as personifications of both generosity and dedication. Yet, despite their prominence in the birth narrative of Jesus, the fate of the Magi is elusive and it can be questioned why they did not return later in life to worship and attend Jesus if they truly ascertained his alleged divinity.
The word Magi is the origin of the English words magic and magician.
Etymology
Magi is a transliteration of the Greek magos (μαγος pl. μαγοι), which is a derivative from Old Persian maguš. The term is a specific occupational title referring to the Zoroastrian priests of the late Persian Empire. The Greek word is attested from the fifth century B.C.E. as a direct loan from the term maguš, which is a Persian u-stem adjective from an Indo-Iranian root *magh, "powerful, rich." This root (*magh-) appears to have expressed ability, which is also seen in Attic Greek mekhos (cf. mechanics) and in Germanic magan (English may), magts. The original significance of the name for the Magi thus seems to have been "the powerful." Avestan has the related terms maga and magauuan, meaning "sacrifice" and "sacrificer" and the modern Persian Mobed is derived from an Old Persian compound magu-pati, "lord priest."
According to the Greek writer Herodotus, the word magos was held by aristocrats of the Median nation and specifically to Zoroastrian astronomer-priests. In Herodotus' writings, the term magos usually referred to a member of the tribe of the Medes (1.101) who could interpret dreams (7.37). However, with the spread of Hellenism, magos started to be used as an adjective, meaning "magical," as in magas techne, "ars magica" (e.g. used by Philostratus).
Some translations of the Bible, such as the King James Version and the New Revised Standard Version, render magos as "Wise Men." Yet, the same Greek word is rendered as "sorcerer" or magician in the account of "Elymas" the sorcerer in Acts of the Apostles 13 [1]. The term is also used to identify Simon Magus in Acts 8.
Since the passage in Matthew implies that they were observers of the stars, most conclude that the intended meaning of magos is "astrologer-priests." Indeed, John Wycliffe's (c. 1330–1384 C.E.) translation of the Gospel reads not "wise men" but "astrologers" because in ancient times "astrology" encompassed both astrology and astronomy. Ludolph of Saxony (died 1378) thus wrote:
The three pagan kings were called Magi not because they were magicians but because of the great science of astrology which was theirs. Those whom the Hebrews called scribes and the Greeks, philosophers, and the Latins, wise men, the Persians called Magi. And the reason that they were called kings is that in those days it was the custom for the philosophers and wise men to be rulers (Vita Christi).
Historical Background
The Magi were the sacred caste of the Medes from ancient Media (inhabitants of Persia [2]), who were responsible for the religious and funerary practices, and who eventually accepted the Zoroastrian religion.
The Magi organized Persian society after the fall of Assyria and Babylon. However, their power was curtailed by Persian Emperor Cyrus the Great (c 585 – 529 B.C.E.), founder of the Persian Empire, and by his son Cambyses II; the Magi revolted against Cambyses and set up a rival claimant to the throne, one of their own, who took the name of Smerdis. Smerdis and his forces were defeated by the Persians under Darius I. The sect of the Magi continued in Persia, though its influence was limited after this political setback.
During the Classical era (555 B.C.E. – 300 C.E.), some Magi migrated westward [3], settling in Greece, and then Italy. For more than a century, Mithraism, a religion derived from Persia, was the largest single religion in Rome. The Magi were likely involved in its practice.
The Book of Jeremiah (39:3, 39:13) gives a title rab mag ("chief magus") to the head of the Magi, Nergal Sharezar. It is also believed by Christians that the Jewish prophet Daniel was "rab mag" and entrusted a Messianic vision (to be announced in due time by a "star") to a secret sect of the Magi for its eventual fulfillment (Daniel 4:9; 5:11).
After invading Arabs succeeded in taking Ctesiphon in 637, Islam largely superseded Zoroastrianism, and the power of the Magi faded. Many (but not all) of the Magi fled the advent of Islam in Persia by emigrating to India, settling in western principalities that form the modern states of Gujarat and Maharastra. As one can only be Zoroastrian by birth, the number of Parsis and Zoroastrians in the world is shrinking. Suffice to say Parsis are very rare, and Magi are even rarer.
Accounts of the Magi in Christianity
According to the Gospel of Matthew, the Magi were the first religious figures to worship Christ. It is said the Magi traveled from the east following a bright star that lead them to Jerusalem. They first visited Herod (appointed as a vassal king of Judea by the Roman Empire), asking him where the new king could be found. Herod, showing his knowledge of local prophesy, sent them to Bethlehem, and asked that they return when they had found him (Matthew 2:1–8). There, they appeared before the infant Jesus, and offered him gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh (Matthew 2:11). Of these three gifts, the last is the most important: Myrrh was an herb that was mixed with oil to make a chrism, the ointment marking Jesus as a royal figure, a king. Accordingly, the three gifts are interpreted as prophetic emblems of Jesus' identity: (1) Frankincense was an incense used in temple worship and speaks of Jesus' priesthood. (2) Gold speaks of Jesus' kingship. (3) Myrrh, was a spice or balm used in preparing bodies for burial, speaks of Jesus' atoning death.
After offering the gifts, the Magi were warned in a divine dream not to go back to Herod, and so returned to Persia by another route. This infuriated Herod and resulted in his massacre of the Holy Innocents (Matthew 2:12, 16–18).
As judicial astrologers, the Magi were known for the respect of spiritual light and rejection of spiritual darkness. The star that was rising in the east, was interpreted by hearers of Matthew as the fulfillment of the "Star Prophecy" from the Book of Numbers 24:17:—“There shall come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab, and destroy all the children of Sheth." However, the Star Prophecy was not alone in identifying Bethlehem as the natal place for a coming king: an interpretation of the Book of Isaiah presented before Herod also identified Bethlehem as the birthplace of the Jewish Messiah, who would be a descendant or "son" of King David. Yet, again, the clearest prophecy of Bethlehem as the birthplace of the Messiah is found in Micah 5:2, "But you, Bethlehem Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times."
Traditional Names for the Three Magi
The traditional names of the Magi in the West are Caspar (or Gaspar), Melchior, and Balthasar (or Balthazar). Caspar is sometimes given as Gaspar, a variant of the Persian Jasper—"Master of the Treasure"—from which the name of the mineral jasper is derived. However, other cultures have different names for the Magi. For example, the Syrian Christians use Larvandad, Hormisdas, and Gushnasaph, and in Ethiopian Christianity the Magi are named Karsudan, Hor, and Basanater.
The names of the Magi do not appear anywhere in the New Testament nor do the Gospels state specifically that the Magi were three in number. According to Christian tradition, it is generally accepted that there were three Magi because three gifts were given to the infant Jesus; however, many gifts were given to the child that night as well as gold, frankincense, and myrrh. These last three gifts, because of their price and significance, became worthy of note.
The Magi Depicted in Art and Literature
Adoration of the Magi by Fra Angelico and Filippo Lippi
The account of the visit of the Magi in the Gospel of Matthew has been a popular topic for Christian art and literature. The scene has been found in the earliest Christian pictorial art, and it was a popular tableau in the Renaissance. The Three Wise Men are most frequently portrayed in the scene of the Adoration of the Magi and less often in the scene of the Journey of the Magi. More generally they appear in popular nativity scenes and other Christmas decorations that have their origins in the Neapolitan variety of the Italian presepio or nativity crèche; they are featured in Menotti's opera Amahl and the Night Visitors, and in several Christmas carols, of which the best-known English one is "We Three Kings."
An early Anglo-Saxon picture survived on the Franks Casket, probably a pagan king’s hoard-box (early seventh century C.E., whalebone carving); or rather the pagan king’s hoard-box survived because of the picture [4]. In its composition, it follows the oriental style, which renders a courtly scene with the Virgin and Christ facing the spectator, while the Magi devoutly approach from the (left) side.
Artists have also allegorized the Magi to represent three different parts of the world. Balthasar is often represented as a young African or Moor and Caspar may be depicted with distinctive Oriental features.
In modern literature and film, Henry van Dyke (1852 – 1933) wrote The Story of the Other Wise Man (1896), which described a fictional fourth Magi who, on the way to see Jesus, stopped to help a fellow person in need and therefore missed Jesus' birth. Nevertheless, the book shows that the Magi's caring efforts were more in keeping with Christ's love than any physical gifts could be. Van Dyke's inspirational story was released as a motion picture in 1985 under the title The Fourth Wise Man.
In the twentieth century, T.S. Elliot (1888 – 1965) wrote a poem entitled "The Journey of the Magi" after his conversion to Christianity and confirmation in the Church of England. The poem is an account of the journey from the point of view of one Magus. Hollywood also added further sentimental detail to the narrative of the Magi in the movie Ben-Hur (1959), where Balthasar appears as an old man who goes back to Palestine to see the former child Jesus become an adult.
Commemoration of Magi in Different Cultures
Most Christian celebrations of the birth of Christ often involve depictions of the Magi, which take on their own distinct cultural flair around the world. In the Roman Catholic Church, the visit of the Magi to Jesus is commemorated on the Christian observance of Epiphany, January 6. The Epiphany is also called the "twelfth day of Christmas" because it falls twelve days after December 25th.
In Spain and throughout the Spanish-speaking world, the three kings (Sp. los Reyes Magos de Oriente, also Los Tres Reyes Magos,) receive wish letters from children and magically bring them gifts on the night before Epiphany. Spanish cities organize cabalgatas (cavalcade) in the evening, in which the kings and their servants parade and throw sweets to the children (and parents) in attendance. The cavalcade of the three kings in the city of Alcoi claims to be the oldest in the world; the participants who portray the kings walk through the crowd, giving presents to the children directly. It is also told that the Wise Men come from the Orient on their camels to visit the houses of all the children; like the northern European Santa Claus with his reindeer, they visit everyone in one night. In some areas, children prepare a drink for each of the kings, it is also traditional to prepare food and drink for the camels, because this is the only night of the year when they eat.
Adoration of the Magi by Bartolomé Estéban Murillo
In Germany, the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral, according to tradition, contains the bones of the Three Wise Men (John of Hildesheim). Reputedly they were first discovered by Saint Helena (c. 248 – 328 C.E.) on her famous pilgrimage to Palestine and the Holy Lands. She took the remains to the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople; they were later moved to Milan, before being sent to their current resting place by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I (c. 1123 – 1190 C.E.) in 1164. However, this view conflicts with other reports. According to Marco Polo (c. 1254 – 1324), the tombs of the Magi were located at Saveh, south of Teheran, in the 1270s.
In Italy, the Milanese celebrate their part in the tradition by holding a medieval costume parade every sixth of January, and in North America the Magi are still remembered in the familiar Christmas Carol "We Three Kings" written by John Henry Hopkins, Jr., in 1857.
In the twentieth century, the term Magi was appropriated by the fantasy genre of role-playing games, movies, and novels. It is common for both role-playing and computer games to frequently involve Mage, characters who specializes in magic.
Controversial Issues and Debates
Even though the story of the journey of the Magi is often told in Christianity, the precise sequence of events, the nature and meaning of the events, and whether they actually happened is under constant discussion by biblical scholars.
There is considerable controversy concerning the timing of when the Magi initially saw Jesus. The collective weight of testimony from both Matthew and Luke makes a visit by the Magi on the night of the birth dubious.
Roman Catholic biblical scholar Raymond E. Brown in The Birth of the Messiah lists several reasons he does not believe the biblical account, including the fact that such a bright star would have been mentioned by others, but despite fairly good astrological records it is mentioned nowhere. Astronomer Michael R. Molnar and others have taken the view that Matthew's statements that the star "went before" and "stood over" are terms that refer respectively to the retrogradation and stationing of the royal wandering "star" Jupiter. If Molnar's research is correct, the original and unusual event marking the birth of a great Jewish king took place April 17, 6 B.C.E. Later that same year, Jupiter would have reversed direction starting August 23 and would have stationed December 19, which could suggest that the magi arrived at or after that time. The interval of at least eight months since the birth could reasonably accommodate a journey from the east by the Magi to see the unusual king.
None of the story is mentioned in Luke or the other Gospels. For this reason, some scholars, such as Robert H. Gundry, speculate that the author of Matthew transformed the shepherds that appear in Luke into the Magi. Another possible embellishment of the Magi story is their transformation from astrologers to kings. The general view is that this is linked to Old Testament prophesies that have the messiah being worshipped by kings in Isaiah 60:3, Psalm 72:10, and Psalm 68:29. It is possible that early readers reinterpreted Matthew in light of these prophecies and elevated the Magi to kings.
Finally, there are Christian groups, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, who do not see the arrival of the Magi as something to be celebrated [5]. They stress the biblical condemnation of sorcery and astrology in such texts as Deuteronomy 18:10, Deuteronomy 18:11, Leviticus 19:26, Isaiah 47:13, and Isaiah 47:14. In addition, the "star" did not behave like a true celestial body since according to the Magi's own description, the star moved in such a way as to first lead them to Herod and then it led them to the house where Jesus and Mary were (Mathew 2:9, 10).
Some critics wonder why "the star" led the Magi first to a hostile enemy of Jesus, and only then to the child's location—the argument being that if this was an event from God, it makes no sense for them to be led to a ruler with intentions to kill the child before taking them to Jesus. Indeed, if due to the activity of this star, or the visit from the Magi, motivated Herod to want to seek out Jesus and destroy him (Mathew 2:13), why would God, knowing this, set up a situation that would lead to a slaughter of innocents two years old and under? These lingering questions cause some scholars to be skeptical about the story of the Magi.
References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Albright, W.F., and C.S. Mann. "Matthew." The Anchor Bible Series. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971.
- Becker, Alfred. “Franks Casket.” Zu den Bildern und Inschriften des Runenkästchens von Auzon. Regensburg, 1973, Ikonographie der Magierbilder, Inschriften.
- Brown, Raymond E. The Birth of the Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew and Luke. London: G. Chapman, 1977.
- Clarke, Howard W. The Gospel of Matthew and its Readers: A Historical Introduction to the First Gospel. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003.
- France, R.T. The Gospel According to Matthew: an Introduction and Commentary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1985.
- Hill, David. The Gospel of Matthew. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981.
- John of Hildesheim. Historia Trium Regum ("History of the Three Kings").
- Powell, Mark Allan. "The Magi as Wise Men: Re-examining a Basic Supposition." New Testament Studies vol. 46, 2000.
- Gundry, Robert H. Matthew: a Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1982.
- Schweizer, Eduard. The Good News According to Matthew. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975.
Related topics
External links
All links retrieved November 5, 2022.
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