Difference between revisions of "Jewish Philosophy" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
(New page: {{Jews and Judaism}} '''Jewish philosophy''' refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology. Accepting the results of a given Jewish philosophy will le...)
 
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{{Jews and Judaism}}
 
{{Jews and Judaism}}
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'''Jewish philosophy''' refers to the conjunction between serious study of philosophy and Jewish theology.  
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'''Jewish philosophy''' refers to philosophical inquiry informed or inspired by the texts, traditions and experience of the Jewish people. [[Judaism]] is not only a religion, but an agglomeration of cultural and historical traditions which in some cases date back thousands of years. It draws from the ancient Biblical texts of ''Genesis'' and the ''Pentateuch'', the books of the Prophets, the ''midrash'' and dialectics of the Rabbis, and the works and discourses of medieval and modern Jewish philosophers, poets and writers.
  
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Accepting the results of a given Jewish philosophy will lead to accepting a particular [[Jewish principle of faith]].
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Jewish [[philosophy]] can be considered to take two directions; the use of philosophical inquiry to search for a deeper understanding of  Judaism and the Jewish experience, and the contribution to philosophy in general of  insights gained from the study of Judaism or the experience of being a Jew.
  
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As with any fusion of [[religion]] and [[philosophy]], the attempt is difficult because classical philosophers start with no preconditions for which conclusions they must reach in their investigation, while classical religious believers have a set of religious principles of faith that they hold one must believe.
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Jewish philosophers played a crucial role in the transmission of the concepts and ideas of [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] philosophers to early Christian thinkers, thus influencing the development of Christian doctrine and theology. They were also instrumental in introducing and developing humanism in Europe, and ultimately separating philosophical inquiry from religious practice altogether.
  
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Some maintain, however, that in reality this critisicm is incorrectly solely directed at religious philosophy. Rabbi [[Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler]] (Strive for Truth Vol. 1) contends that no human being can possibly claim objectivity in philosophical investigations with moral implications: "..a person senses in advance that the answer will make a significant difference...On the solution will depend whether he will be obliged for the rest of his life to struggle with his baser desires...or whether he will be able to live without a higher responsibility". On this basis Dessler maintains that only those who have spent years concentrating on the subjugation of their desires to their intellect, can even begin to claim intellectual impartiality. Indeed, according to this it is more likely for religious philosophy to succeed in attaining the truth then secular philosophy.
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==Religion and Philosophy==
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The debate over whether philosophical inquiry is compatible at all with revealed religious truth has existed in [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] almost since the beginning of Jewish religious philosophy. The works of one of the earliest Jewish philosophers, [[Philo Judaeus]], were ignored by his Jewish contemporaries in the first century because they simply saw no connection between their faith and philosophy. The twelfth-century Jewish poet-philosopher Yehuda Halevi argued against philosophy, contending that knowledge arrived at by human reason is false and illusory and that real knowledge is that instilled by [[God]] in the human soul.
  
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Some, however, hold that one cannot simultaneously be a philosopher and a true adherent of a revealed religion. In this view, all attempts at synthesis ultimately fail.  For example, Rabbi [[Nachman of Breslov]] a [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic mystic]] views all philosophy as untrue and heretical. Approaching this point of view from the opposite direction, [[Baruch Spinoza]], a [[Pantheism|pantheist]], views revealed religion as inferior to philosophy, and thus saw traditional Jewish philosophy as an intellectual failure.
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Any attempt to synthesize [[religion]] and [[philosophy]] is difficult because classical philosophers start with no concept of the conclusions they will arrive at through their investigations; while classical religious believers have a set of religious principles of faith which they already believe to be true. Some hold that one cannot simultaneously be a philosopher and a true adherent of a revealed religion, and that all attempts at synthesis ultimately fail.  For example, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, a Hasidic mystic, viewed all philosophy as untrue and heretical. From the opposite point of view, [[Baruch Spinoza]], a [[Pantheism|pantheist]], viewed revealed religion as inferior to philosophy, and thus saw traditional Jewish philosophy as an intellectual failure.
  
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Others hold that a synthesis between the two is possible. One way to find a synthesis is to use philosophical arguments to prove that one's religious principles are true. This is a common technqiue found in the writings of many religious traditions, including Judaism, [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], but this is not generally accepted as true philosophy by philosophers. One example of this approach is found in the writings of [[Lawrence Kelemen]], in his ''Permission to Believe'', (Feldheim 1990).
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One type of synthesis is accomplished by using  philosophical arguments to prove that religious principles are true, a method found in the philosophical writings of many religious traditions, including Judaism, Christianity and Islam.  This is not generally accepted as true philosophy by philosophers. One example of this approach is found in the writings of Lawrence Kelemen, in ''Permission to Believe'', (Feldheim 1990).
  
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Another way to find a synthesis is to abstain from holding as true any religious principles of one's faith at all, unless one independently comes to those conclusions from a philosophical analysis. In some ways this can be found in the works of [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]] (20th century). However, this approach is not generally accepted as being faithful to one's religion by adherents of that religion.
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Another approach is to abstain from holding as true any religious principles, unless they can be independently arrived at through a philosophical analysis. An example of  this can be found in the works of Reconstructionist Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan (twentieth century). This approach is generally unsatisfactory to serious adherents of that religion.
  
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Another path towards synthesis is to apply analytical philosophy to one's own religion in order to strengthen the basis of that faith. Among Jewish thinkers who had this view one may note [[Saadia Gaon]], [[Gersonides]], and [[Abraham Ibn Daud]]. In this latter case a religious person would also be a philosopher, by asking questions such as:
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==Philosophy of Judaism==
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The earliest Jewish philosophers were those who applied philosophical inquiry to the tenets of their own faith, in order to provide a logical and intellectual explanation of the truth. Early Jewish scholars, well-acquainted with the ideas of [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]] and [[Pythagoras]], identified [[Moses]] as the teacher of the ancient Greek philosophers.  [[Philo Judaeus]], (20 B.C.E. – 50 C.E.), one of the earliest Jewish philosophers and a founder of religious [[philosophy]], attempted a synthesis of Judaism with [[Greek philosophy, Ancient|Hellenistic philosophy]] and developed concepts, such as ''Logos'', which became the foundation of Christian theology. (Jewish tradition was uninterested in philosophy at that time and did not preserve Philo’s thought; the [[Christianity|Christian]] church preserved his writings because they mistakenly believed him to be a Christian.) Philo did not use philosophical reasoning to question Jewish truths, which he regarded as fixed and determinate, but to uphold them, and he discarded those aspects of Greek philosophy which did not conform to the Jewish faith, such as the Aristotelian doctrine of the eternity and indestructibility of the world. He reconciled biblical texts with philosophical truths by resorting to allegory, maintaining that a text could have several meanings according to the way in which it was read.
  
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*What is the nature of [[Names of God in Judaism|God]]? How do we know that God exists?
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Among other Jewish thinkers who used philosophical inquiry to support and explain their beliefs were [[Saadia Gaon]] (882 – 942), the first systematic Jewish philosopher; [[Gersonides]] (1288 – 1344), who promoted the idea of the soul’s immortality as part of a universal Active Intellect and believed that reason could answer any philosophical question; and [[Abraham Ibn Daud]] (1110 – 1180), who borrowed from the works of Islamic philosophers to demonstrate how philosophical truth could be synthesized with religious faith.
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*What is the nature of [[Torah#Jewish view of the Torah|revelation]]? How do we know that God reveals his will to mankind?
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Religious philosophers used philosophical inquiry to seek answers to questions such as:
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*What is the nature of [[God]]? How do we know that God exists?
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*What is the nature of revelation? How do we know that God reveals his will to mankind?
 
*Which of our religious traditions must be interpreted literally?
 
*Which of our religious traditions must be interpreted literally?
 
*Which of our religious traditions must be interpreted allegorically?
 
*Which of our religious traditions must be interpreted allegorically?
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*How can one reconcile the findings of science with religion?
 
*How can one reconcile the findings of science with religion?
  
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According to some views, this may perhaps be the task of Jewish philosophy, but there is no way to end the debate conclusively.
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More modern Jewish thinkers have used philosophical inquiry to re-examine and revitalize their faith, and to seek answers to new questions, such as whether faith in God is still possible after historical catastrophes such as the Holocaust (holocaust theology). Other questions confronting modern Jewish philosophers are whether Jews, as a people who have a special covenant with God, have a particular social or spiritual mission to fulfill; and the problem of how to maintain a unique identity when Jews are quickly assimilating into the cultures of the many modern nations in which they live. One response to the last question has been the development of Zionism, the belief that Judaism must have a central nation, Israel, or a spiritual center on earth, in order to continue their mandate from God.
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== Early Jewish philosophy ==
 
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Early Jewish philosophy was heavily influenced by the philosophy of [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]] and [[Islamic philosophy]]. Many early medieval Jewish philosophers (from the [[8th century]] to end of the [[9th century]]) were especially influenced by the Islamic [[Mutazilite]] philosophers; they denied all limiting attributes of [[God]] and were champions of God's unity and justice.
 
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Over time Aristotle came to be thought of as the philosopher par excellence among Jewish thinkers. This tendency was no less marked in the Islamic, the Christian Byzantine and the Latin-Christian schools of tohught.
 
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== Philo of Alexandria ==
 
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[[Philo of Alexandria]] (20 B.C.E. - 40 C.E.) was a [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenized]] Jewish philosopher born in [[Alexandria, Egypt]].
 
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Philo included in his philosophy both the wisdom of [[Ancient Greece]] and Judaism, which he sought to fuse and harmonize by means of the art of allegory that he had learned as much from Jewish exegesis as from the [[Stoics]]. His work was not widely accepted. Philo made his philosophy the means of defending and justifying Jewish religious truths. These truths he regarded as fixed and determinate; and philosophy was used as an aid to truth, and as a means of arriving at it. With this end in view Philo chose from the philosophical tenets of the Greeks, refusing those that did not harmonize with the Jewish religion, as, e.g., the Aristotelian doctrine of the eternity and indestructibility of the world.
 
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== Avicebron, Solomon ibn Gabirol ==
 
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The Jewish poet-philosopher [[Solomon Ibn Gabirol]] is also known as Avicebron. He died about 1070 C.E. He was influenced by [[Plato]]. His classic work on philosophy was ''Mekor Chayim'', "The Source of Life". His work on ethics is entitled ''Tikkun Middot HaNefesh'', "Correcting the Qualities of the Soul".
 
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In Gabirol's work Plato is the only philosopher referred to by name. Characteristic of the philosophy of both is the conception of a Middle Being between God and the world, between species and individual. Aristotle had already formulated the objection to the Platonic theory of ideas, that it lacked an intermediary or third being between God and the universe, between form and matter. This "third man," this link between incorporeal substances (ideas) and idealess bodies (matter), is, with Philo, the ''Logos''; with Gabirol it is the divine will. Philo gives the problem an intellectual aspect; while Gabirol conceives it as a matter of volition, approximating thus to such modern thinkers as Schopenhauer and Wundt.
 
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Gabirol was one of the first teachers of Neoplatonism in Europe. His role has been compared to that of Philo. Philo had served as the intermediary between [[Greek philosophy]] and the Oriental world; a thousand years later Gabirol occidentalized Greco-Arabic philosophy and restored it to Europe. The philosophical teachings of Philo and Ibn Gabirol were largely ignored by their fellow Jews; the parallel may be extended by adding that Philo and Gabirol alike exercised a considerable influence in extra-Jewish circles: Philo upon early Christianity, and Ibn Gabirol upon the scholasticism of medieval Christianity.
 
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Gabirol's philosophy made little impression on later Jewish philosophers. His greatest impact is in the area of the Jewish liturgy. His work is quoted by [[Moses ibn Ezra]] and [[Abraham ibn Ezra]]. Christian scholastics, including [[Albertus Magnus]] and his pupil, [[Thomas Aquinas]], defer to him frequently and gratefully.
 
  
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== Jewish Mysticism, Kabbalah ==
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== Early Jewish Philosophy ==
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A separate entry exists for [[Kabbalah]]. A fundamental difference between the Kabbalists and exponents of philosophy is due to their different views of the power of human reason. Kabbalists reject the conclusions of reason, and rely upon tradition, inspiration, and intuition. Philosophers, on the other hand, hold that reason is a prior requisite for all perception and knowledge.
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Early Jewish philosophy drew heavily from [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]] and [[Islamic philosophy]]. Early medieval Jewish philosophers (from the eighth century to end of the ninth century) were especially influenced by the Islamic [[Mutazilite]] philosophers; they denied any limitations that might be imposed by assigning attributes to [[God]] and were champions of God's unity and justice.
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===Saadia Gaon ===
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[[Saadia Gaon]] (892-942) is considered one of the greatest of the early Jewish philosophers. His ''Emunoth ve-Deoth'' (originally called ''Kitab al-Amanat wal-l'tikadat'', the "''Book of the Articles of Faith and Doctrines of Dogma''"), completed in 933, was the first systematic presentation of a philosophic foundation for the dogmas of [[Judaism]]. Saadia Gaon supported the rationality of the Jewish faith, with the restriction that reason must capitulate wherever it contradicts tradition.  Jewish doctrines such as creation “''ex nihilo''” and the immortality of the individual soul therefore took precedence over Aristotle’s teachings that the world had existed for eternity, and that logical reasoning could only prove the existence of a general, not an individual, immortality.
  
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== Saadia Gaon ==
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Saadia closely followed the rules of the [[Mutazilite]]s (the rationalistic dogmatists of Islam, to whom he owed in part also his thesis and arguments), adhering most frequently to the Mutazilite school of ''Al-Jubbai'' and borrowing the structure of the Mutazilite ''Kalam''.
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[[Saadia Gaon]] ([[892]]-[[942]]) is considered one of the greatest of the early Jewish philosophers. His [[Emunoth ve-Deoth]] was originally called Kitab al-Amanat wal-l'tikadat, the "Book of the Articles of Faith and Doctrines of Dogma". It was the first systematic presentation and philosophic foundation of the dogmas of Judaism, completed in 933.
 
  
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In it he posits the rationality of the Jewish faith, with the restriction that reason must capitulate wherever it contradicts tradition. Dogma must take precedence of reason. Thus in the question concerning the eternity of the world, reason teaches since Aristotle, that the world is without beginning; that it was not created; in contrast, Jewish dogma asserts a creation out of nothing. Since the time of Aristotle it was held that logical reasoning could only prove the existence of a general form of immortality, and that no form of individual immortality could exist. Mainstream Jewish dogma, in contrast, maintained the immortality of the individual. Reason, therefore, must give way in Saadia's view.
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==Medieval Jewish Philosophers==
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===Historical Role of Jewish Philosophers===
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Medieval Jewish scholars had early access to Arabic manuscripts on [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]] and science, and to Arabic translations of the works of Greek philosophers. Thus they took an important role in formulating monotheistic concepts and transmitting Aristotelian thought to scholastic philosophers and theologians in Western Europe. [[Gersonides]], [[Ibn Gabirol]], [[Maimonides]], and [[Cresca Hasdai|Crescas]] preserved the continuity of philosophical thought from the Hellenistic thinkers and the Arabic philosophers, physicians, and poets to the Latin-Christian world of medieval Europe.
  
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In the scheme of his work Saadia closely followed the rules of the [[Mutazilite]]s (the rationalistic dogmatists of Islam, to whom he owed in part also his thesis and arguments), adhering most frequently to the Mutazilite school of Al-Jubbai. He followed the Mutazilite Kalam, especially in this respect, that in the first two sections he discussed the metaphysical problems of the creation of the world (i.) and the unity of God (ii.), while in the following sections he treated of the Jewish theory of [[revelation]] (iii.) and of the doctrines of belief based upon divine justice, including obedience and disobedience (iv.), as well as merit and demerit (v.). Closely connected with these sections are those which treat of the [[soul]] and of death (vi.), and of the resurrection of the dead (vii.), which, according to the author, forms part of the theory of the [[Jewish messiah|Messianic redemption]] (viii.). The work concludes with a section on the rewards and punishments of the future life (ix.)
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===Solomon Ibn Gabirol===
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The Jewish poet-philosopher [[Solomon Ibn Gabirol]], also known as Avicebron (d. about 1070 C.E.) was one of the first teachers of [[Neoplatonism]] in [[Europe]]. In response to Aristotle’s objection that the [[Platonism|Platonic]] theory of ideas lacked an intermediary, or third being, between God and the universe, between form and matter, Ibn Gabirol proposed the divine will. His classic work on philosophy was ''Mekor Chayim'' ("''The Source of Life''"), and he wrote a work on ethics entitled ''Tikkun Middot HaNefesh'' ("''Correcting the Qualities of the Soul''"). As in the case of [[Philo Judaeus]] a thousand years earlier, Ibn Gabirol’s philosophical works were largely ignored by contemporary Jews and later Jewish philosophers, but made a profound impression on medieval Christian scholastics, including [[Albertus Magnus]] and his pupil, [[Thomas Aquinas]]. Among the Jews, Ibn Gabirol’s greatest impact was in the area of the Jewish liturgy. His work was quoted by [[Moses ibn Ezra]] and [[Abraham ibn Ezra]].
  
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== Karaite philosophy ==
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=== Bahya ibn Paquda's ''Duties of the Heart'' ===
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A sect which rejects the Rabbinical Works, [[Karaism]], developed its own form of philosophy, a Jewish version of the Islamic Kalâm. Early [[Karaites]] based their philosophy on the Islamic [[Islamic philosophy|Motazilite Kalâm]]; some later Karaites, such as Aaron ben Elijah of Nicomedia (fourteenth century), reverts, in his ''Etz Hayyim'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], "Tree of Life") to the views of [[Aristotle]].
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Bahya ibn Paquda (Spain, first half of the eleventh century) was the author of the first Jewish system of ethics, written in Arabic in 1040 under the title ''Al Hidayah ila Faraid al-hulub'' ("''Guide to the Duties of the Heart''"), and translated into Hebrew by [[Ibn Tibbon|Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon]] in 1161-1180 under the title ''Chovot ha-Levavot'' (''Duties of the Heart''.)  Though he frequently quoted the works of  Saadia Gaon, he was an adherent of Neoplatonic mysticism and often followed the method of the Arabian encyclopedists known as "the Brothers of Purity."  Inclined to contemplative [[mysticism]] and [[asceticism]], Bahya eliminated from his system every element that he felt might obscure [[monotheism]], or might interfere with Jewish law. He wanted to present a religious system at once lofty and pure and in full accord with reason.
  
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== Bahya ibn Paquda's ''Duties of the Heart'' ==
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=== Yehuda Halevi and the ''Kuzari'' ===
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[[Bahya ibn Paquda]] lived in Spain in the first half of the eleventh century. He was the author of the first Jewish system of ethics, written in Arabic in 1040 under the title ''Al Hidayah ila Faraid al-hulub'', "Guide to the Duties of the Heart", and translated into Hebrew by [[Ibn Tibbon|Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon]] in 1161-1180 under the title ''[[Chovot ha-Levavot]]'', 'Duties of the Heart'.
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The Jewish poet-philosopher [[Yehuda Halevi]] (twelfth century) in his polemical work ''Kuzari'', made strenuous arguments against philosophy, contending that knowledge arrived at by human reason is false and illusory; inward illumination based on truths instilled by God in the human soul is to be considered paramount. The ''Kuzari'' describes representatives of different religions and of philosophy disputing, before the king of the Khazars, the respective merits of the systems they stand for, with the victory being ultimately awarded to Judaism.
  
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Though he quotes Saadia Gaon's works frequently, he belongs not to the rationalistic school of the Motazilites whom Saadia follows, but, like his somewhat younger contemporary, [[Solomon ibn Gabirol]] (1021-1070), is an adherent of Neoplatonic mysticism. He often followed the method of the Arabian encyclopedists known as "the Brothers of Purity,"
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===Maimonides===
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Inclined to contemplative mysticism and asceticism, Bahya eliminated from his system every element that he felt might obscure monotheism, or might interfere with Jewish law. He wanted to present a religious system at once lofty and pure and in full accord with reason.
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Rabbi '''Moshe ben Maimon''' (1135 - 1204), רבי משה בן מיימון, known commonly by his [[Greek language|Greek]] name [[Maimonides]], was a [[Jew]]ish scholastic, respected by [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Islam|Islamic]] contemporaries, whose ''Guide for the Perplexed'' and philosophical introductions to sections of his commentaries on the Mishna exerted an important influence on the [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] philosophers. Maimonides believed the fundamental tenet of Scholasticism, that there can be no contradiction between the truths which [[God]] has revealed and the findings of the human mind in science and philosophy, by which he understood the science and philosophy of [[Aristotle]]. On some important points, however, he departed from the teachings of Aristotle, supporting the Jewish doctrine of creation ''ex nihilo,''  and rejecting the Aristotelian doctrine that God's provident care extends only to humanity in general, and not to the individual.  
  
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== Yehuda Halevi and the Kuzari ==
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Maimonides was led by his admiration for the [[neoplatonism|neo-Platonic]] commentators to maintain many doctrines which the [[Scholasticism|Scholastics]] could not accept. He was an adherent of "negative theology," maintaining that no positive attributes can be predicated to God, because referring to multiple attributes would compromise the unity of God. All anthropomorphic attributes, such as existence, life, power, will, knowledge - the usual positive attributes of God in the ''Kalâm'' - must be avoided in speaking of Him. Between the attributes of God and those of man there is no similarity of essence, only of words (homonymy) ("Guide," I 35, 56). Therefore nothing can be known concerning the true being of God; of God it can only be said that He is, not what He is.
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The Jewish poet-philosopher [[Yehuda Halevi]] (twelfth century) in his polemical work [[Kuzari]] made strenuous arguments against philosophy. He became thus the Jewish Al-gazali, whose ''Destructio Philosophorum'' was perhaps the model for the ''Kuzari''.
 
  
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Human reason on a surface level is considered false and illusory; rather inward illumination based on truths instilled by G-d in the human soul is considered paramount. The ''Kuzari'' describes representatives of different religions and of philosophy disputing before the king of the Khazars concerning the respective merits of the systems they stand for, the victory being ultimately awarded to Judaism.
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Maimonides set out thirteen principles of faith, which he stated that all Jews were obligated to believe. The first five deal with knowledge of the Creator; the next four with prophecy and the Divine Origin of the [[Torah]]; and the last four deal with Reward, Punishment and the ultimate redemption.  
  
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== The rise of Aristotelian thought ==
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===Gersonides===  
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Judah ha-Levi could not bar the progress of [[Aristotelianism]] among the Arabic-writing Jews. As among the Arabs, Ibn Sina and Ibn Roshd leaned more and more on Aristotle, so among the Jews did Abraham ibn Daud and [[Maimonides]].
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Rabbi [[Gersonides|Levi ben Gershon]], also known as ''Gersonides,'' or the Ralbag, (1288- 1345) is best known for his work ''Milhamot HaShem'' (or ''Milchamot,'' "''Wars of the Lord''"). Gersonides placed reason above tradition. The ''Milhamot HaShem'' is modeled after the ''Guide for the Perplexed'' of [[Maimonides]], and may be seen as an elaborate criticism, from a philosophical point of view (mainly Averroistic), of the syncretism of Aristotelianism and Jewish orthodoxy as presented in that work.
  
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Rabbi [[Gersonides|Levi ben Gershon]], also known as ''Gersonides'', or the Ralbag, ([[1288]]-[[1345]]) is best known for his work ''Milhamot HaShem'' (or just ''Milchamot''), ("Wars of the Lord"). Among scholastics, Gersonides was perhaps the most advanced; he placed reason above tradition. The ''Milhamot HaShem'' is modelled after the [[Guide for the Perplexed]] of [[Maimonides]]. It may be seen as an elaborate criticism from a philosophical point of view (mainly Averroistic) of the syncretism of Aristotelianism and Jewish orthodoxy as presented in that work.
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===Hasdai Crescas===
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[[Hasdai Crescas]] (1340-1410) is best known for ''Or Hashem'' ("''Light of the Lord''"). Crescas' avowed purpose was to liberate Judaism from what he saw as the bondage of Aristotelianism, which, through [[Maimonides]] (influenced by [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]]), and [[Gersonides]] (influenced by [[Averroes]]), threatened to blur the distinctness of the Jewish faith, reducing the doctrinal contents of Judaism to a surrogate of Aristotelian concepts. His book, ''Or Hashem'', comprised four main divisions (''ma'amar''), subdivided into ''kelalim'' and chapters (''perakim''): the first treating of the foundation of all belief, the existence of God; the second, of the fundamental doctrines of the faith; the third, of other doctrines which, though not fundamental, are binding on every adherent of Judaism; the fourth, of doctrines which, though traditional, are without obligatory character, and which are open to philosophical construction.
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===Joseph Albo===
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[[Joseph Albo]], a Spanish rabbi and theologian of the fifteenth century, is known chiefly as the author of a work on the Jewish principles of faith, ''Ikkarim.''  Albo limited the fundamental Jewish principles of faith to three: (1) The belief in the existence of God; (2) in revelation; and (3) in divine justice, as related to the idea of immortality. Albo criticized the opinions of his predecessors, but allowed a remarkable latitude of interpretation that would accommodate even the most theologically liberal Jews. Albo rejected the assumption that creation ''ex nihilo'' was an essential implication of the belief in God. Albo freely criticized [[Maimonides]]' thirteen principles of belief and [[Hasdai Cresas|Crescas]]' six principles.
  
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[[Hasdai Crescas]] ([[1340]]-[[1410]]) is best known for his ''[[Or Hashem]]'' ("Light of the Lord"). Crescas' avowed purpose was to liberate Judaism from what he saw as the bondage of Aristotelianism, which, through [[Maimonides]], influenced by Ibn Sina, and [[Gersonides]] (Ralbag), influenced by Ibn Roshd (Averroes) threatened to blur the distinctness of the Jewish faith, reducing the doctrinal contents of Judaism to a surrogate of Aristotelian concepts. His book, ''[[Or Hashem]]'', comprises four main divisions (''ma'amar''), subdivided into ''kelalim'' and chapters (''perakim''): the first treating of the foundation of all belief—the existence of God; the second, of the fundamental doctrines of the faith; the third, of other doctrines which, though not fundamental, are binding on every adherent of Judaism; the fourth, of doctrines which, though traditional, are without obligatory character, and which are open to philosophical construction.
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=== Karaite philosophy ===
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A sect which rejects the Rabbinical Works, [[Karaism]], developed its own form of philosophy, a Jewish version of the Islamic ''Kalâm''. Early [[Karaites]] based their philosophy on the Islamic [[Islamic philosophy|Motazilite Kalâm]]; some later Karaites, such as Aaron ben Elijah of Nicomedia (fourteenth century), reverted, as in his ''Etz Hayyim'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], "''Tree of Life''") to the views of [[Aristotle]].
  
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[[Joseph Albo]] was a Spanish rabbi, and theologian of the fifteenth century, known chiefly as the author of the work on the Jewish principles of faith, his ''Ikkarim''. Albo limited the fundamental Jewish principles of faith to three: (1) The belief in the existence of God; (2) in revelation; and (3) in divine justice, as related to the idea of immortality. Albo finds opportunity to criticize the opinions of his predecessors, yet he takes pains to avoid heresy hunting. A remarkable latitude of interpretation is allowed; so much so, that it would indeed be difficult under Albo's theories to impugn the orthodoxy of even the most theologically liberal Jews. Albo rejects the assumption that creation ex nihilo is an essential implication of the belief in God. Albo freely criticizes Maimonides' thirteen principles of belief and Crescas' six principles.
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==Renaissance Philosophers==
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Classical Judaism saw the development of a brand of Jewish philosophy drawing on the teachings of [[Torah]] mysticism, derived from the esoteric teachings of the [[Zohar]] and the teachings of Rabbi Isaac Luria. This was particularly embodied in the voluminous works of Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel known as the ''Maharal of [[Prague]].''
  
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==Maimonides==
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== Enlightenment Jewish Philosophers ==
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Rabbi '''Moshe ben Maimon''' ([[1135]] - [[1204]]), רבי משה בן מיימון, known commonly by his [[Greek language|Greek]] name [[Maimonides]], was a [[Jew]]ish [[rabbi]], [[physician]], and philosopher.
 
  
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Maimonides held that no positive attributes can be predicated to God. The number of His attributes would seem to prejudice the unity of God. In order to preserve this doctrine undiminished, all anthropomorphic attributes, such as existence, life, power, will, knowledge - the usual positive attributes of God in the Kalâm - must be avoided in speaking of Him. Between the attributes of God and those of man there is no other similarity than one of words (homonymy), no similarity of essence ("Guide," I 35, 56). The negative attributes imply that nothing can be known concerning the true being of God, which is what Maimonides really means. Just as Kant declares the Thing-in-itself to be unknowable, so Maimonides declares that of God it can only be said that He is, not what He is.
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[[Baruch Spinoza]] (1632 – 1677) received a Talmudic education but was excommunicated from the synagogue in 1656 because of his radical views. Influenced by [[Descartes]], he developed a pantheistic worldview in which the single substance of God was manifested as infinitely many attributes, and events were determined by necessity, not by Providence. The full scope and importance of Spinoza's work was not realized until years after his death and the publication of ''Opera Posthuma.''  He is now recognized as having laid the groundwork for the eighteenth century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], and as a founder of modern biblical criticism.  
  
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Maimonides wrote his thirteen principles of faith, which he stated that all Jews were obligated to believe. The first five deal with knowledge of the Creator. The next four deal with prophecy and the Divine Origin of the Torah. The last four deal with Reward, Punishment and the ultimate redemption.  
+
[[Moses Mendelssohn]] (1729 - 1786), a [[Germany|German]] philosopher of the  [[Judaism|Jew]]ish [[Enlightenment]],  strove to support and sustain the Jewish faith while advancing the cause of reason. His most important contribution to philosophy was to refine and strengthen the philosophical proofs for the [[God, Arguments for the Existence of|existence of God]], [[providence]] and [[immortality]], though in his later life he became less confident that metaphysical precepts could be subjected to rational proof. His German translation of the ''Pentateuch'' anchored the Jewish Enlightenment, ''Haskalah.'' In 1783, Mendelssohn published ''Jerusalem,'' a forcible plea for freedom of conscience, maintaining that the state has no right to interfere with the religion of its citizens, and suggesting that different religious truths might be appropriate for different cultures.
 +
 
  
−
The principle which inspired all of Maimonides' philosophical activity was identical with the fundamental tenet of Scholasticism: there can be no contradiction between the truths which [[God]] has revealed and the findings of the human mind in science and philosophy. Moreover, by science and philosophy he understood the science and philosophy of [[Aristotle]]. In some important points, however, he departed from the teaching of the Aristotelian text, holding, for instance, that the world is not eternal, as Aristotle taught, but was created ''ex nihilo'', as is taught explicitly in the Bible. Again, he rejected the Aristotelian doctrine that God's provident care extends only to humanity, and not to the individual. But, while in these important points Maimonides forestalled the Scholastics and undoubtedly influenced them, he was led by his admiration for the [[neo-Platonism|neo-Platonic]] commentators and by the bent of his own mind, which was essentially Jewish, to maintain many doctrines which the Scholastics could not accept.
 
−
 
−
== Position in the history of thought ==
 
−
The scholastics preserved the continuity of philosophical thought. Without the activity of these Arabic-Jewish philosophers, the culture of the Western world could scarcely have taken the direction it has, at least not at the rapid rate which was made possible through the agency of the Humanists and of the Renaissance. The Jewish philosophers of the Arab-speaking world were the humanists of the Middle Ages. They established and maintained the bond of union between the Arabic philosophers, physicians, and poets on the one hand, and the Latin-Christian world on the other.
 
−
 
−
Gersonides, Gabirol, Maimonides, and Crescas are considered of eminent importance in the continuity of philosophy, for they not only illumined those giants of Christian scholasticism, [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Thomas Aquinas]], but their light has penetrated deeply into the philosophy of modern times.
 
−
 
−
==Renaissance philosophers==
 
−
Classical Judaism saw the development of a brand of Jewish philosophy drawing on the teachings of [[Torah]] mysticism derived from the esoteric teachings of the [[Zohar]] and the teachings of Rabbi [[Isaac Luria]]. This was particularly embodied in the voluminous works of Rabbi [[Judah Loew ben Bezalel]] known as the ''Maharal of [[Prague]].''
 
−
 
−
== Enlightenment Jewish philosophers ==
 
−
 
−
* [[Baruch Spinoza]] (adopted [[Pantheism]] and broke with [[Orthodox Judaism]].)
 
 
== Post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers ==
 
== Post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers ==
−
* [[Samuel Hirsch]] (belonging to [[Reform Judaism]].)
+
* Samuel Hirsch (belonging to Reform Judaism)
−
* [[Salomon Formstecher]]
+
* Salomon Formstecher
−
 
 
−
== Hasidic philosophy ==
 
−
Hasidic philosophy is the underlying teachings of the Hasidic movement founded by the [[Baal Shem Tov]].
 
−
See [[Hasidic Philosophy]] for a more detailed treatment.
 
−
 
 
−
== Modern Jewish philosophy ==
 
−
One of the major trends in modern Jewish philosophy was the attempt to develop a theory of Judaism through [[existentialism]]. One of the primary players in this field was [[Franz Rosenzweig]]. While researching his doctoral dissertation on the 19th-century German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Rosenzweig reacted against Hegel's idealism and favored an existential approach. Rosenzweig, for a time, considered conversion to Christianity, but in 1913, he turned to Jewish philosophy. He became a philosopher and student of Hermann Cohen. Rozensweig's major work, ''Star of Redemption'', is his new philosophy in which he portrays the relationships between God, humanity and world as they are connected by creation, revelation and redemption. Later Jewish existentialists include Conservative rabbis [[Neil Gillman]] and [[Elliot N. Dorff]].
 
  
−
At the same time, [[Haredi]] Judaism has seen a resurgence of a systematic philosophical format for its beliefs. The founder of this system was Rabbi [[Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler]], a student of the [[Kelm]] [[mussar]] yeshiva and later [[Mashgiach]] (spiritual supervisor) of [[Ponevezh]] yeshiva. Although never formally committing his ideas for publication, after his death in 1953 his students compiled and organized his numerous manuscripts in a five-volume work titled "Michtav Ma'Eliyahu", later translated into English and published as "Strive for Truth". His ideas have been popularized and promulgated by many Haredi educators. Notable among them are his student Rabbi Aryeh Carmel (main redactor of "Michtav Ma'Eliyahu") and Rabbi Dr. [[Akiva Tatz]] (author of many works and a well known lecturer and activist in the [[kiruv]] (outreach) movement).
+
=== Hasidic Philosophy ===
 +
Hasidic philosophy is the underlying teachings of the Hasidic movement founded by the mystic [[Baal Shem Tov]] (1698 – 1760) in eastern Europe during the mid-eighteenth century, one of the most significant developments of Orthodox Judaism. Hasidic philosophy sees profound meaning in the most mundane of daily events, and considers even the smallest occurrence as an act of Divine Providence, without which the universe cannot be complete and perfect. The divine and human form a single all-encompassing unity, and are linked through acts of Jewish piety. Ignoring the presence of God in every aspect of every life  is considered to be a spiritual loss. Hasidism has four goals: revival of Jewish faith and spirituality; piety; refinement of one’s own personal nature through internalization of Hasidic teachings, and the demystification of esoteric knowledge.
  
−
Perhaps the most controversial form of Jewish philosophy that developed in the early 20th century was the religious naturalism of Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]]. His theology was a variant of [[John Dewey]]'s philosophy. Dewey's naturalism combined atheist beliefs with religious terminology in order to construct a religiously satisfying philosophy for those who had lost faith in traditional religion. In agreement with the classical medieval Jewish thinkers, Kaplan affirmed that God is not personal, and that all anthropomorphic descriptions of God are, at best, imperfect metaphors. Kaplan's theology went beyond this to claim that God is the sum of all natural processes that allow man to become self-fulfilled. Kaplan wrote that "to believe in God means to take for granted that it is man's destiny to rise above the brute and to eliminate all forms of violence and exploitation from human society."
+
== Modern Jewish Philosophy ==
 +
One of the major trends in modern Jewish philosophy was the attempt to develop a theory of Judaism through [[existentialism]]. One proponent of Jewish existentialism was [[Franz Rosenzweig]] (1886 – 1929), who, while researching his doctoral dissertation on the nineteenth-century German philosopher [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], reacted against Hegel's idealism. Rosenzweig, considered conversion to Christianity, but in 1913, he turned to Jewish philosophy and became a student of Hermann Cohen. Rozensweig's major work, ''Star of Redemption,'' portrayed the relationships between God, humanity and world as they are connected by creation, revelation and redemption. Later Jewish existentialists include Conservative rabbis Neil Gillman and Elliot N. Dorff.
  
 +
At the same time, ''Haredi'' Orthodox Judaism has seen a resurgence of a systematic philosophical format for its beliefs. The founder of this system was Rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler, a student of the Kelm ''mussar yeshiva'' and later ''Mashgiach'' (spiritual supervisor) of Ponevezh ''yeshiva''. Although he never formally organized his ideas for publication, after his death in 1953 his students compiled his numerous manuscripts in a five-volume work titled "''Michtav Ma'Eliyahu''," later translated into English and published as "''Strive for Truth''." His ideas have been popularized and promulgated by many ''Haredi'' educators, including Dessler’s student Rabbi Aryeh Carmel (main redactor of "''Michtav Ma'Eliyahu''") and Rabbi Dr. Akiva Tatz (author of many works and a well known lecturer and activist in the ''kiruv'' (outreach) movement).
 +
===Religious Naturalism===
 +
Perhaps the most controversial form of Jewish philosophy that developed in the early twentieth century was the religious naturalism of Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]] (1881 – 1983). His theology was a variant of [[John Dewey]]'s philosophy. Dewey's naturalism combined atheist beliefs with religious terminology in order to construct a religiously satisfying philosophy for those who had lost faith in traditional religion. In agreement with the classical medieval Jewish thinkers, Kaplan affirmed that God is not personal, and that all [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] descriptions of God are, at best, imperfect metaphors. Kaplan's theology went beyond this to claim that God is the sum of all natural processes that allow man to become self-fulfilled. Kaplan wrote that "''to believe in God means to take for granted that it is man's destiny to rise above the brute and to eliminate all forms of violence and exploitation from human society."''
 +
===Process Philosophy===
 
One of the more recent trends has been a reframing of Jewish theology through the lens of [[process philosophy]], and more specifically [[process theology]]. Process philosophy suggests that fundamental elements of the universe are occasions of experience. According to this notion, what people commonly think of as concrete objects are actually successions of these occasions of experience. Occasions of experience can be collected into groupings; something complex such as a human being is thus a grouping of many smaller occasions of experience. In this view, everything in the universe is characterized by experience (which is not to be confused with consciousness); there is no mind-body duality under this system, because "mind" is simply seen as a very developed kind of experiencing.  
 
One of the more recent trends has been a reframing of Jewish theology through the lens of [[process philosophy]], and more specifically [[process theology]]. Process philosophy suggests that fundamental elements of the universe are occasions of experience. According to this notion, what people commonly think of as concrete objects are actually successions of these occasions of experience. Occasions of experience can be collected into groupings; something complex such as a human being is thus a grouping of many smaller occasions of experience. In this view, everything in the universe is characterized by experience (which is not to be confused with consciousness); there is no mind-body duality under this system, because "mind" is simply seen as a very developed kind of experiencing.  
  
 
Inherent to this worldview is the notion that all experiences are influenced by prior experiences, and will influence all future experiences. This process of influencing is never deterministic; an occasion of experience consists of a process of prehending other experiences, and then a reaction to it. This is the process in process philosophy. Process philosophy gives God a special place in the universe of occasions of experience. God encompasses all the other occasions of experience but also transcends them; thus process philosophy is a form of [[panentheism]].
 
Inherent to this worldview is the notion that all experiences are influenced by prior experiences, and will influence all future experiences. This process of influencing is never deterministic; an occasion of experience consists of a process of prehending other experiences, and then a reaction to it. This is the process in process philosophy. Process philosophy gives God a special place in the universe of occasions of experience. God encompasses all the other occasions of experience but also transcends them; thus process philosophy is a form of [[panentheism]].
  
−
The original ideas of process theology were developed by [[Charles Hartshorne]] ([[1897]]-[[2000]]), and influenced a number of [[Judaism|Jewish]] theologians, including [[United Kingdom|British]] philosopher Samuel Alexander ([[1859]]-[[1938]]), and [[Rabbi]]s Max Kaddushin, Milton Steinberg and Levi A. Olan, Harry Slominsky and to a lesser degree, [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]]. Today some rabbis who advocate some form of process theology include Donald B. Rossoff, [[William E. Kaufman]], [[Harold Kushner]], [[Anton Laytner]], [[Gilbert S. Rosenthal]], [[Lawrence Troster]] and [[Nahum Ward]].
+
The original ideas of process theology were developed by [[Charles Hartshorne]] (1897-2000), and influenced a number of [[Judaism|Jewish]] theologians, including [[United Kingdom|British]] philosopher Samuel Alexander (1859-1938), and Rabbis Max Kaddushin, Milton Steinberg and Levi A. Olan, Harry Slominsky and to a lesser degree, Abraham Joshua Heschel. Today some rabbis who advocate some form of process theology include Donald B. Rossoff, William E. Kaufman, Harold Kushner, Anton Laytner, Gilbert S. Rosenthal, Lawrence Troster and Nahum Ward.
  
−
Perhaps the most unexpected change in Jewish religious thinking in the late 20th century was the resurgence of interest in [[Kabbalah]]. Many philosophers do not consider this to be a form of philosophy, as Kabbalah is a form of mysticism. Mysticism is generally understood as an alternative to philosophy, and not a variant of philosophy.
+
===Hermann Cohen and Neo-Kantianism===
 +
[[Hermann Cohen]] (1842 – 1918), a systematizer of ethical [[monotheism]], was probably the most important Jewish philosopher of the nineteenth century. His three major works, which advanced the basic ideas of [[Immanuel Kant]] and slowly developed his own system of Neo-Kantianism, ''Logik der Reinen Erkenntnis (The Logic of Pure Perception)'', ''Ethik des Reinen Willens (The Ethics of the Pure Will),'' and ''Ä sthetik des Reinen Gefühls (The Esthetics of Pure Feeling)'', were purely secular. He introduced a philosophical concept of God as the inevitable and  ultimate ideal coincidence of what “is” with what “ought to be” and developed the idea that human history was a steady progress toward that ideal.
  
−
=== Holocaust theology ===
+
Cohen viewed [[Judaism]] as a religion of reason that provided a model for all religions and all societies, centering on the interdependence of the idea of God and the idea of human beings. This role, however, was only a transitory phase in the development of mankind towards a universal religion. Cohen maintained that no one can be rationally content until social justice exists for all people in the world. His ideas on ethical socialism influenced German social [[democracy]]. His work, ''Die Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums(Religion of Reason out of the Sources of Judaism)'' (1919) which is widely credited with inspiring a renewal of Jewish religious philosophy in twentieth-century Europe.
−
Judaism has traditionally taught that God is [[Omnipotence|omnipotent]] (all powerful), [[Omniscience|omniscient]] (all knowing) and [[omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]] (all good). Yet, these claims are in jarring contrast with the fact that there is much [[evil]] in the world. Perhaps the most difficult question that monotheists have confronted is how can we reconcile the existence of this view of God with the existence of evil? This is [[the problem of evil]]. Within all the monotheistic faiths many answers ([[theodicy|theodicies]]) have been proposed. However, in light of the magnitude of evil seen in the [[Holocaust]], many people have re-examined classical views on this subject. How can people still have any kind of faith after the Holocaust?  This set of Jewish philosophies is discussed in the article on [[Holocaust theology]].
 
  
−
== Modern Jewish philosophers ==
+
===[[Hannah Arendt]] ===
−
The following philosophers have had a substantial impact on the philosophy of modern day Jews who identify as such. They are writers who consciously dealt with philosophical issues from within a Jewish framework.
+
Hannah Arendt (1906 – 1975), a Jewish - American political theorist who fled Nazi persecution of the Jews in Europe, drew profound insights from her experiences. Her books, on themes such as the nature of freedom and authority, [[totalitarianism]], revolution, the faculties of 'thinking' and 'judging,' the history of political thought, and the interpretation of [[politics]] and human activity, influenced the development of modern political theory. Rejecting Western philosophical tradition, she maintained that political theory and [[philosophy]] had inhibited a correct understanding of political activity, and emphasized the active life as the apex of human achievement.
  
−
=== Orthodox Judaism philosophers ===
 
−
{{main|Orthodox Judaism}}
 
  
−
* [[Shalom Carmy]]
+
=== Modern Jewish Philosophers ===
−
* [[Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler]]
+
The following philosophers have had a substantial impact on the philosophy of modern- day Jews who identify as such. They are writers who consciously dealt with philosophical issues from within a Jewish framework.
−
* [[Samson Raphael Hirsch]]
 
−
* [[Yitzchok Hutner]]
 
−
* [[Menachem Kellner]]
 
−
* [[Steven T. Katz]]
 
−
* [[Abraham Isaac Kook]]
 
−
* [[Norman Lamm]]
 
−
* [[Avigdor Miller]]
 
−
* [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]]
 
−
* [[Joseph Soloveitchik]]
 
  
−
=== Conservative Judaism philosophers ===
+
==== Orthodox Judaism Philosophers ====
−
{{main|Conservative Judaism}}
+
* Shalom Carmy
 +
* Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler
 +
* Samson Raphael Hirsch
 +
* Yitzchok Hutner
 +
* Menachem Kellner
 +
* Steven T. Katz
 +
* Abraham Isaac Kook
 +
* Norman Lamm
 +
* Avigdor Miller
 +
* Menachem Mendel Schneerson
 +
* Joseph Soloveitchik
  
−
* [[Bradley Shavit Artson]]
+
==== Conservative Judaism Philosophers ====
−
* [[Elliot N. Dorff]]
+
* Bradley Shavit Artson
−
* [[Neil Gillman]]
+
* Elliot N. Dorff
−
* [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]]
+
* Neil Gillman
 +
* Abraham Joshua Heschel
 
* [[William E. Kaufman]]
 
* [[William E. Kaufman]]
−
* [[Harold Kushner]]
+
* Harold Kushner
  
−
=== Reform Judaism philosophers ===
+
==== Reform Judaism Philosophers ====
−
{{main|Reform Judaism}}
 
  
−
* [[Emil Fackenheim]]
+
* Emil Fackenheim
  
−
=== Reconstructionist Judaism philosophers ===
+
==== Reconstructionist Judaism Philosophers ====
−
{{main|Reconstructionist Judaism}}
 
  
−
* [[Mordecai Kaplan]]
+
* Mordecai Kaplan
  
−
=== Others ===
+
==== Others ====
−
* [[Martin Buber]]
+
* Martin Buber
−
* [[Morris Raphael Cohen]]
+
* Morris Raphael Cohen
−
* [[Will Herberg]]
+
* Will Herberg
 
* [[Moses Mendelssohn]]
 
* [[Moses Mendelssohn]]
−
* [[Franz Rosenzweig]]
+
* Franz Rosenzweig
−
* [[Richard Rubenstein]]
+
* Richard Rubenstein
  
−
=== Philosophers informed by their Jewish background ===
+
==== Philosophers Informed by Their Jewish Background ====
−
* [[Theodor Adorno]]
+
* Theodor Adorno
 
* [[Hannah Arendt]]
 
* [[Hannah Arendt]]
−
* [[Walter Benjamin]]
+
* Walter Benjamin
−
* [[Constantin Brunner]]
+
* Constantin Brunner
 
* [[Hermann Cohen]]
 
* [[Hermann Cohen]]
 
* [[Erich Fromm]]
 
* [[Erich Fromm]]
−
* [[Nachman Krochmal]]
+
* Nachman Krochmal
−
* [[Max Horkheimer]]
+
* Max Horkheimer
−
* [[Emmanuel Lévinas]]
+
* Emmanuel Lévinas
−
* [[Leo Strauss]]
+
* Leo Strauss
−
* [[Henry Bergson]]
+
* Henry Bergson
−
 
+
==References==
 +
*Blau, Joseph L. 1962. ''The story of Jewish philosophy''. New York: Random House. ISBN: 0870681745 9780870681745
 +
*Fackenheim, Emil L., and Michael L. Morgan. 1996. ''Jewish philosophers and Jewish philosophy''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN: 0253330629 9780253330628
 +
*Frank, Daniel H., Oliver Leaman, and Charles Harry Manekin. 2000. ''The Jewish philosophy reader''. London: Routledge. ISBN: 0415168597 9780415168595 0415168600 9780415168601
 +
*Frank, Daniel H., and Oliver Leaman. 2003. ''The Cambridge companion to medieval Jewish philosophy.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0521652073 9780521652070 0521655749 9780521655743
 +
*Kajon, Irene. 2006. ''Contemporary Jewish philosophy: an introduction.'' London: Routledge. ISBN: 0415341639 9780415341639 |
 
== See also ==
 
== See also ==
 
* [[Jewish history]]
 
* [[Jewish history]]
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Revision as of 21:49, 16 April 2007

 Part of a series of articles on
Jews and Judaism

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Jewish philosophy refers to philosophical inquiry informed or inspired by the texts, traditions and experience of the Jewish people. Judaism is not only a religion, but an agglomeration of cultural and historical traditions which in some cases date back thousands of years. It draws from the ancient Biblical texts of Genesis and the Pentateuch, the books of the Prophets, the midrash and dialectics of the Rabbis, and the works and discourses of medieval and modern Jewish philosophers, poets and writers.

Jewish philosophy can be considered to take two directions; the use of philosophical inquiry to search for a deeper understanding of Judaism and the Jewish experience, and the contribution to philosophy in general of insights gained from the study of Judaism or the experience of being a Jew.

Jewish philosophers played a crucial role in the transmission of the concepts and ideas of ancient Greek philosophers to early Christian thinkers, thus influencing the development of Christian doctrine and theology. They were also instrumental in introducing and developing humanism in Europe, and ultimately separating philosophical inquiry from religious practice altogether.

Religion and Philosophy

The debate over whether philosophical inquiry is compatible at all with revealed religious truth has existed in Judaism, Christianity and Islam almost since the beginning of Jewish religious philosophy. The works of one of the earliest Jewish philosophers, Philo Judaeus, were ignored by his Jewish contemporaries in the first century because they simply saw no connection between their faith and philosophy. The twelfth-century Jewish poet-philosopher Yehuda Halevi argued against philosophy, contending that knowledge arrived at by human reason is false and illusory and that real knowledge is that instilled by God in the human soul.

Any attempt to synthesize religion and philosophy is difficult because classical philosophers start with no concept of the conclusions they will arrive at through their investigations; while classical religious believers have a set of religious principles of faith which they already believe to be true. Some hold that one cannot simultaneously be a philosopher and a true adherent of a revealed religion, and that all attempts at synthesis ultimately fail. For example, Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, a Hasidic mystic, viewed all philosophy as untrue and heretical. From the opposite point of view, Baruch Spinoza, a pantheist, viewed revealed religion as inferior to philosophy, and thus saw traditional Jewish philosophy as an intellectual failure.

One type of synthesis is accomplished by using philosophical arguments to prove that religious principles are true, a method found in the philosophical writings of many religious traditions, including Judaism, Christianity and Islam. This is not generally accepted as true philosophy by philosophers. One example of this approach is found in the writings of Lawrence Kelemen, in Permission to Believe, (Feldheim 1990).

Another approach is to abstain from holding as true any religious principles, unless they can be independently arrived at through a philosophical analysis. An example of this can be found in the works of Reconstructionist Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan (twentieth century). This approach is generally unsatisfactory to serious adherents of that religion.

Philosophy of Judaism

The earliest Jewish philosophers were those who applied philosophical inquiry to the tenets of their own faith, in order to provide a logical and intellectual explanation of the truth. Early Jewish scholars, well-acquainted with the ideas of Plato, Aristotle and Pythagoras, identified Moses as the teacher of the ancient Greek philosophers. Philo Judaeus, (20 B.C.E. – 50 C.E.), one of the earliest Jewish philosophers and a founder of religious philosophy, attempted a synthesis of Judaism with Hellenistic philosophy and developed concepts, such as Logos, which became the foundation of Christian theology. (Jewish tradition was uninterested in philosophy at that time and did not preserve Philo’s thought; the Christian church preserved his writings because they mistakenly believed him to be a Christian.) Philo did not use philosophical reasoning to question Jewish truths, which he regarded as fixed and determinate, but to uphold them, and he discarded those aspects of Greek philosophy which did not conform to the Jewish faith, such as the Aristotelian doctrine of the eternity and indestructibility of the world. He reconciled biblical texts with philosophical truths by resorting to allegory, maintaining that a text could have several meanings according to the way in which it was read.

Among other Jewish thinkers who used philosophical inquiry to support and explain their beliefs were Saadia Gaon (882 – 942), the first systematic Jewish philosopher; Gersonides (1288 – 1344), who promoted the idea of the soul’s immortality as part of a universal Active Intellect and believed that reason could answer any philosophical question; and Abraham Ibn Daud (1110 – 1180), who borrowed from the works of Islamic philosophers to demonstrate how philosophical truth could be synthesized with religious faith.

Religious philosophers used philosophical inquiry to seek answers to questions such as:

  • What is the nature of God? How do we know that God exists?
  • What is the nature of revelation? How do we know that God reveals his will to mankind?
  • Which of our religious traditions must be interpreted literally?
  • Which of our religious traditions must be interpreted allegorically?
  • What must one actually believe to be considered a true adherent of our religion?
  • How can one reconcile the findings of philosophy with religion?
  • How can one reconcile the findings of science with religion?

More modern Jewish thinkers have used philosophical inquiry to re-examine and revitalize their faith, and to seek answers to new questions, such as whether faith in God is still possible after historical catastrophes such as the Holocaust (holocaust theology). Other questions confronting modern Jewish philosophers are whether Jews, as a people who have a special covenant with God, have a particular social or spiritual mission to fulfill; and the problem of how to maintain a unique identity when Jews are quickly assimilating into the cultures of the many modern nations in which they live. One response to the last question has been the development of Zionism, the belief that Judaism must have a central nation, Israel, or a spiritual center on earth, in order to continue their mandate from God.

Early Jewish Philosophy

Early Jewish philosophy drew heavily from Plato, Aristotle and Islamic philosophy. Early medieval Jewish philosophers (from the eighth century to end of the ninth century) were especially influenced by the Islamic Mutazilite philosophers; they denied any limitations that might be imposed by assigning attributes to God and were champions of God's unity and justice.

Saadia Gaon

Saadia Gaon (892-942) is considered one of the greatest of the early Jewish philosophers. His Emunoth ve-Deoth (originally called Kitab al-Amanat wal-l'tikadat, the "Book of the Articles of Faith and Doctrines of Dogma"), completed in 933, was the first systematic presentation of a philosophic foundation for the dogmas of Judaism. Saadia Gaon supported the rationality of the Jewish faith, with the restriction that reason must capitulate wherever it contradicts tradition. Jewish doctrines such as creation “ex nihilo” and the immortality of the individual soul therefore took precedence over Aristotle’s teachings that the world had existed for eternity, and that logical reasoning could only prove the existence of a general, not an individual, immortality.

Saadia closely followed the rules of the Mutazilites (the rationalistic dogmatists of Islam, to whom he owed in part also his thesis and arguments), adhering most frequently to the Mutazilite school of Al-Jubbai and borrowing the structure of the Mutazilite Kalam.

Medieval Jewish Philosophers

Historical Role of Jewish Philosophers

Medieval Jewish scholars had early access to Arabic manuscripts on philosophy, mathematics and science, and to Arabic translations of the works of Greek philosophers. Thus they took an important role in formulating monotheistic concepts and transmitting Aristotelian thought to scholastic philosophers and theologians in Western Europe. Gersonides, Ibn Gabirol, Maimonides, and Crescas preserved the continuity of philosophical thought from the Hellenistic thinkers and the Arabic philosophers, physicians, and poets to the Latin-Christian world of medieval Europe.

Solomon Ibn Gabirol

The Jewish poet-philosopher Solomon Ibn Gabirol, also known as Avicebron (d. about 1070 C.E.) was one of the first teachers of Neoplatonism in Europe. In response to Aristotle’s objection that the Platonic theory of ideas lacked an intermediary, or third being, between God and the universe, between form and matter, Ibn Gabirol proposed the divine will. His classic work on philosophy was Mekor Chayim ("The Source of Life"), and he wrote a work on ethics entitled Tikkun Middot HaNefesh ("Correcting the Qualities of the Soul"). As in the case of Philo Judaeus a thousand years earlier, Ibn Gabirol’s philosophical works were largely ignored by contemporary Jews and later Jewish philosophers, but made a profound impression on medieval Christian scholastics, including Albertus Magnus and his pupil, Thomas Aquinas. Among the Jews, Ibn Gabirol’s greatest impact was in the area of the Jewish liturgy. His work was quoted by Moses ibn Ezra and Abraham ibn Ezra.

Bahya ibn Paquda's Duties of the Heart

Bahya ibn Paquda (Spain, first half of the eleventh century) was the author of the first Jewish system of ethics, written in Arabic in 1040 under the title Al Hidayah ila Faraid al-hulub ("Guide to the Duties of the Heart"), and translated into Hebrew by Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon in 1161-1180 under the title Chovot ha-Levavot (Duties of the Heart.) Though he frequently quoted the works of Saadia Gaon, he was an adherent of Neoplatonic mysticism and often followed the method of the Arabian encyclopedists known as "the Brothers of Purity." Inclined to contemplative mysticism and asceticism, Bahya eliminated from his system every element that he felt might obscure monotheism, or might interfere with Jewish law. He wanted to present a religious system at once lofty and pure and in full accord with reason.

Yehuda Halevi and the Kuzari

The Jewish poet-philosopher Yehuda Halevi (twelfth century) in his polemical work Kuzari, made strenuous arguments against philosophy, contending that knowledge arrived at by human reason is false and illusory; inward illumination based on truths instilled by God in the human soul is to be considered paramount. The Kuzari describes representatives of different religions and of philosophy disputing, before the king of the Khazars, the respective merits of the systems they stand for, with the victory being ultimately awarded to Judaism.

Maimonides

Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon (1135 - 1204), רבי משה בן מיימון, known commonly by his Greek name Maimonides, was a Jewish scholastic, respected by Christian and Islamic contemporaries, whose Guide for the Perplexed and philosophical introductions to sections of his commentaries on the Mishna exerted an important influence on the Scholastic philosophers. Maimonides believed the fundamental tenet of Scholasticism, that there can be no contradiction between the truths which God has revealed and the findings of the human mind in science and philosophy, by which he understood the science and philosophy of Aristotle. On some important points, however, he departed from the teachings of Aristotle, supporting the Jewish doctrine of creation ex nihilo, and rejecting the Aristotelian doctrine that God's provident care extends only to humanity in general, and not to the individual.

Maimonides was led by his admiration for the neo-Platonic commentators to maintain many doctrines which the Scholastics could not accept. He was an adherent of "negative theology," maintaining that no positive attributes can be predicated to God, because referring to multiple attributes would compromise the unity of God. All anthropomorphic attributes, such as existence, life, power, will, knowledge - the usual positive attributes of God in the Kalâm - must be avoided in speaking of Him. Between the attributes of God and those of man there is no similarity of essence, only of words (homonymy) ("Guide," I 35, 56). Therefore nothing can be known concerning the true being of God; of God it can only be said that He is, not what He is.

Maimonides set out thirteen principles of faith, which he stated that all Jews were obligated to believe. The first five deal with knowledge of the Creator; the next four with prophecy and the Divine Origin of the Torah; and the last four deal with Reward, Punishment and the ultimate redemption.

Gersonides

Rabbi Levi ben Gershon, also known as Gersonides, or the Ralbag, (1288- 1345) is best known for his work Milhamot HaShem (or Milchamot, "Wars of the Lord"). Gersonides placed reason above tradition. The Milhamot HaShem is modeled after the Guide for the Perplexed of Maimonides, and may be seen as an elaborate criticism, from a philosophical point of view (mainly Averroistic), of the syncretism of Aristotelianism and Jewish orthodoxy as presented in that work.

Hasdai Crescas

Hasdai Crescas (1340-1410) is best known for Or Hashem ("Light of the Lord"). Crescas' avowed purpose was to liberate Judaism from what he saw as the bondage of Aristotelianism, which, through Maimonides (influenced by Ibn Sina), and Gersonides (influenced by Averroes), threatened to blur the distinctness of the Jewish faith, reducing the doctrinal contents of Judaism to a surrogate of Aristotelian concepts. His book, Or Hashem, comprised four main divisions (ma'amar), subdivided into kelalim and chapters (perakim): the first treating of the foundation of all belief, the existence of God; the second, of the fundamental doctrines of the faith; the third, of other doctrines which, though not fundamental, are binding on every adherent of Judaism; the fourth, of doctrines which, though traditional, are without obligatory character, and which are open to philosophical construction.

Joseph Albo

Joseph Albo, a Spanish rabbi and theologian of the fifteenth century, is known chiefly as the author of a work on the Jewish principles of faith, Ikkarim. Albo limited the fundamental Jewish principles of faith to three: (1) The belief in the existence of God; (2) in revelation; and (3) in divine justice, as related to the idea of immortality. Albo criticized the opinions of his predecessors, but allowed a remarkable latitude of interpretation that would accommodate even the most theologically liberal Jews. Albo rejected the assumption that creation ex nihilo was an essential implication of the belief in God. Albo freely criticized Maimonides' thirteen principles of belief and Crescas' six principles.

Karaite philosophy

A sect which rejects the Rabbinical Works, Karaism, developed its own form of philosophy, a Jewish version of the Islamic Kalâm. Early Karaites based their philosophy on the Islamic Motazilite Kalâm; some later Karaites, such as Aaron ben Elijah of Nicomedia (fourteenth century), reverted, as in his Etz Hayyim (Hebrew, "Tree of Life") to the views of Aristotle.

Renaissance Philosophers

Classical Judaism saw the development of a brand of Jewish philosophy drawing on the teachings of Torah mysticism, derived from the esoteric teachings of the Zohar and the teachings of Rabbi Isaac Luria. This was particularly embodied in the voluminous works of Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel known as the Maharal of Prague.

Enlightenment Jewish Philosophers

Baruch Spinoza (1632 – 1677) received a Talmudic education but was excommunicated from the synagogue in 1656 because of his radical views. Influenced by Descartes, he developed a pantheistic worldview in which the single substance of God was manifested as infinitely many attributes, and events were determined by necessity, not by Providence. The full scope and importance of Spinoza's work was not realized until years after his death and the publication of Opera Posthuma. He is now recognized as having laid the groundwork for the eighteenth century Enlightenment, and as a founder of modern biblical criticism.

Moses Mendelssohn (1729 - 1786), a German philosopher of the Jewish Enlightenment, strove to support and sustain the Jewish faith while advancing the cause of reason. His most important contribution to philosophy was to refine and strengthen the philosophical proofs for the existence of God, providence and immortality, though in his later life he became less confident that metaphysical precepts could be subjected to rational proof. His German translation of the Pentateuch anchored the Jewish Enlightenment, Haskalah. In 1783, Mendelssohn published Jerusalem, a forcible plea for freedom of conscience, maintaining that the state has no right to interfere with the religion of its citizens, and suggesting that different religious truths might be appropriate for different cultures.


Post-Enlightenment Jewish philosophers

  • Samuel Hirsch (belonging to Reform Judaism)
  • Salomon Formstecher

Hasidic Philosophy

Hasidic philosophy is the underlying teachings of the Hasidic movement founded by the mystic Baal Shem Tov (1698 – 1760) in eastern Europe during the mid-eighteenth century, one of the most significant developments of Orthodox Judaism. Hasidic philosophy sees profound meaning in the most mundane of daily events, and considers even the smallest occurrence as an act of Divine Providence, without which the universe cannot be complete and perfect. The divine and human form a single all-encompassing unity, and are linked through acts of Jewish piety. Ignoring the presence of God in every aspect of every life is considered to be a spiritual loss. Hasidism has four goals: revival of Jewish faith and spirituality; piety; refinement of one’s own personal nature through internalization of Hasidic teachings, and the demystification of esoteric knowledge.

Modern Jewish Philosophy

One of the major trends in modern Jewish philosophy was the attempt to develop a theory of Judaism through existentialism. One proponent of Jewish existentialism was Franz Rosenzweig (1886 – 1929), who, while researching his doctoral dissertation on the nineteenth-century German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, reacted against Hegel's idealism. Rosenzweig, considered conversion to Christianity, but in 1913, he turned to Jewish philosophy and became a student of Hermann Cohen. Rozensweig's major work, Star of Redemption, portrayed the relationships between God, humanity and world as they are connected by creation, revelation and redemption. Later Jewish existentialists include Conservative rabbis Neil Gillman and Elliot N. Dorff.

At the same time, Haredi Orthodox Judaism has seen a resurgence of a systematic philosophical format for its beliefs. The founder of this system was Rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler, a student of the Kelm mussar yeshiva and later Mashgiach (spiritual supervisor) of Ponevezh yeshiva. Although he never formally organized his ideas for publication, after his death in 1953 his students compiled his numerous manuscripts in a five-volume work titled "Michtav Ma'Eliyahu," later translated into English and published as "Strive for Truth." His ideas have been popularized and promulgated by many Haredi educators, including Dessler’s student Rabbi Aryeh Carmel (main redactor of "Michtav Ma'Eliyahu") and Rabbi Dr. Akiva Tatz (author of many works and a well known lecturer and activist in the kiruv (outreach) movement).

Religious Naturalism

Perhaps the most controversial form of Jewish philosophy that developed in the early twentieth century was the religious naturalism of Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan (1881 – 1983). His theology was a variant of John Dewey's philosophy. Dewey's naturalism combined atheist beliefs with religious terminology in order to construct a religiously satisfying philosophy for those who had lost faith in traditional religion. In agreement with the classical medieval Jewish thinkers, Kaplan affirmed that God is not personal, and that all anthropomorphic descriptions of God are, at best, imperfect metaphors. Kaplan's theology went beyond this to claim that God is the sum of all natural processes that allow man to become self-fulfilled. Kaplan wrote that "to believe in God means to take for granted that it is man's destiny to rise above the brute and to eliminate all forms of violence and exploitation from human society."

Process Philosophy

One of the more recent trends has been a reframing of Jewish theology through the lens of process philosophy, and more specifically process theology. Process philosophy suggests that fundamental elements of the universe are occasions of experience. According to this notion, what people commonly think of as concrete objects are actually successions of these occasions of experience. Occasions of experience can be collected into groupings; something complex such as a human being is thus a grouping of many smaller occasions of experience. In this view, everything in the universe is characterized by experience (which is not to be confused with consciousness); there is no mind-body duality under this system, because "mind" is simply seen as a very developed kind of experiencing.

Inherent to this worldview is the notion that all experiences are influenced by prior experiences, and will influence all future experiences. This process of influencing is never deterministic; an occasion of experience consists of a process of prehending other experiences, and then a reaction to it. This is the process in process philosophy. Process philosophy gives God a special place in the universe of occasions of experience. God encompasses all the other occasions of experience but also transcends them; thus process philosophy is a form of panentheism.

The original ideas of process theology were developed by Charles Hartshorne (1897-2000), and influenced a number of Jewish theologians, including British philosopher Samuel Alexander (1859-1938), and Rabbis Max Kaddushin, Milton Steinberg and Levi A. Olan, Harry Slominsky and to a lesser degree, Abraham Joshua Heschel. Today some rabbis who advocate some form of process theology include Donald B. Rossoff, William E. Kaufman, Harold Kushner, Anton Laytner, Gilbert S. Rosenthal, Lawrence Troster and Nahum Ward.

Hermann Cohen and Neo-Kantianism

Hermann Cohen (1842 – 1918), a systematizer of ethical monotheism, was probably the most important Jewish philosopher of the nineteenth century. His three major works, which advanced the basic ideas of Immanuel Kant and slowly developed his own system of Neo-Kantianism, Logik der Reinen Erkenntnis (The Logic of Pure Perception), Ethik des Reinen Willens (The Ethics of the Pure Will), and Ä sthetik des Reinen Gefühls (The Esthetics of Pure Feeling), were purely secular. He introduced a philosophical concept of God as the inevitable and ultimate ideal coincidence of what “is” with what “ought to be” and developed the idea that human history was a steady progress toward that ideal.

Cohen viewed Judaism as a religion of reason that provided a model for all religions and all societies, centering on the interdependence of the idea of God and the idea of human beings. This role, however, was only a transitory phase in the development of mankind towards a universal religion. Cohen maintained that no one can be rationally content until social justice exists for all people in the world. His ideas on ethical socialism influenced German social democracy. His work, Die Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums(Religion of Reason out of the Sources of Judaism) (1919) which is widely credited with inspiring a renewal of Jewish religious philosophy in twentieth-century Europe.

Hannah Arendt

Hannah Arendt (1906 – 1975), a Jewish - American political theorist who fled Nazi persecution of the Jews in Europe, drew profound insights from her experiences. Her books, on themes such as the nature of freedom and authority, totalitarianism, revolution, the faculties of 'thinking' and 'judging,' the history of political thought, and the interpretation of politics and human activity, influenced the development of modern political theory. Rejecting Western philosophical tradition, she maintained that political theory and philosophy had inhibited a correct understanding of political activity, and emphasized the active life as the apex of human achievement.


Modern Jewish Philosophers

The following philosophers have had a substantial impact on the philosophy of modern- day Jews who identify as such. They are writers who consciously dealt with philosophical issues from within a Jewish framework.

Orthodox Judaism Philosophers

  • Shalom Carmy
  • Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler
  • Samson Raphael Hirsch
  • Yitzchok Hutner
  • Menachem Kellner
  • Steven T. Katz
  • Abraham Isaac Kook
  • Norman Lamm
  • Avigdor Miller
  • Menachem Mendel Schneerson
  • Joseph Soloveitchik

Conservative Judaism Philosophers

  • Bradley Shavit Artson
  • Elliot N. Dorff
  • Neil Gillman
  • Abraham Joshua Heschel
  • William E. Kaufman
  • Harold Kushner

Reform Judaism Philosophers

  • Emil Fackenheim

Reconstructionist Judaism Philosophers

  • Mordecai Kaplan

Others

  • Martin Buber
  • Morris Raphael Cohen
  • Will Herberg
  • Moses Mendelssohn
  • Franz Rosenzweig
  • Richard Rubenstein

Philosophers Informed by Their Jewish Background

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Blau, Joseph L. 1962. The story of Jewish philosophy. New York: Random House. ISBN: 0870681745 9780870681745
  • Fackenheim, Emil L., and Michael L. Morgan. 1996. Jewish philosophers and Jewish philosophy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN: 0253330629 9780253330628
  • Frank, Daniel H., Oliver Leaman, and Charles Harry Manekin. 2000. The Jewish philosophy reader. London: Routledge. ISBN: 0415168597 9780415168595 0415168600 9780415168601
  • Frank, Daniel H., and Oliver Leaman. 2003. The Cambridge companion to medieval Jewish philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0521652073 9780521652070 0521655749 9780521655743
  • Kajon, Irene. 2006. Contemporary Jewish philosophy: an introduction. London: Routledge. ISBN: 0415341639 9780415341639 |

See also

  • Jewish history
  • Jewish principles of faith
  • Hasidic philosophy

External links

Discussion

Further reading

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