Difference between revisions of "Falklands War" - New World Encyclopedia

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The '''Falklands War''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Guerra de las Malvinas'') was an effective state of [[war]] in 1982 between [[Argentina]] and the [[United Kingdom]] over the [[Falkland Islands]] (also known in Spanish as the ''Islas Malvinas'') and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]. The Falklands consist of two large and many small [[island]]s in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] east of Argentina, whose ownership had long been disputed. ''(See [[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands]] for the background of that dispute.)''
 
  
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The war was triggered by the occupation of South Georgia by Argentine forces on 19 March 1982 followed by the occupation of the Falklands, and ended with Argentine surrender on 14 June 1982. War was not declared by either side, and there was no military activity outside the islands; the conflict was considered by Argentina as reoccupation of its own territory, and by Britain as an invasion of a British dependency.
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The '''Falklands War''' (Spanish: ''Guerra de las Malvinas'') was an effective state of war in 1982 between [[Argentina]] and the [[United Kingdom]] over the [[Falkland Islands]] (known in Spanish as the ''Islas Malvinas'') and South Georgia and the [[South Sandwich Islands]]. The Falklands consist of two large and many small islands in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] east of Argentina, whose ownership had long been disputed.  
  
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Argentina was in the midst of a devastating [[economics|economic]] crisis and large-scale [[civil unrest]] against the repressive [[military government|military]] [[junta]] that was governing the country in the period leading up to the war. The Argentine military government, headed by [[General]] [[Leopoldo Galtieri]], decided to play off long-standing feelings of [[nationalism]] by launching what it thought would be a quick and easy war to reclaim the Falkland Islands. The [[Background to the Falklands War|ongoing tension between the two countries]] over the islands increased on 19 March when 50 Argentines landed on the [[British dependency]] of [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia]] and raised their [[Flag of Argentina|flag]], an act that is seen as the first offensive action in the [[war]]. On 2 April, Galtieri ordered the [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]], triggering the Falklands War.
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Some Argentinians occupied South Georgia March 19, 1982. Initially, HMS ''Endurance'' was dispatched to remove the camp on March 25, but was prevented from doing so and forced to retreat by the Argentine Navy corvette ARA ''Guerrico.'' Military occupation of the Falklands followed on April 2nd. The war ended with Argentina's surrender on June 14, 1982. War was not declared by either side, and there was no military activity outside the islands; the conflict was considered by Argentina as reoccupation of its own territory, and by Britain as an invasion of a British dependency.
  
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Though initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the [[South Atlantic]] islands, Britain launched a naval [[task force]] to engage the [[Argentine Navy]] and [[Argentine Air Force|air force]], and retake the islands by [[amphibious assault]]. After [[combat]] resulting in 255 British and 649 Argentinian deaths, the British eventually prevailed and the islands remained under British control, although as of 2006, Argentina shows no sign of relinquishing its claim to the Falkland Islands.  
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Argentina was in the midst of a devastating economic crisis and large-scale civil unrest against the repressive military junta that was governing the country in the period leading up to the war. The Argentine military government, headed by General [[Leopoldo Galtieri]], thought that by launching what it thought would be a quick and easy war to reclaim the Falkland Islands, it would re-kindle national pride and popular support. Britain and Argentina generally enjoyed good relations, although controversy over the islands' sovereignty had been the cause of some tension. This increased on March 19, when 50 Argentines landed on the British dependency of South Georgia and raised their flag, an act that is seen as the first offensive action in the war. On April 2, Galtieri ordered the invasion, triggering the [[Falklands War]].
  
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The political effects of the war were strong in both [[country|countries]]. The Argentine loss prompted even larger protests against the military government, which hastened its downfall, while a wave of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiment swept through the United Kingdom, bolstering the government of British [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Margaret Thatcher]] and ensuring its victory in the 1983 General election which prior to the war was seen as by no means certain. The war has played an important role in the [[culture]] of both countries, and has been the subject of several [[book]]s, [[movie]]s, and [[song]]s, although due to the low number of casualties on both sides it is not seen as a truly major event of either military or 20th century history. The cultural and political weight of the conflict has had less effect on the British public than on that of Argentina, where the war is still a topic of discussion. Militarily, however, it remains important as the sole example of a major naval and amphibious operation between modern forces since the [[Korean War]].
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Though initially surprised by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, Britain launched a naval task force to engage the Argentine Navy and Air Force, and retake the islands by amphibious assault. After combat resulting in 255 British and 649 Argentinian deaths, the British eventually prevailed and the islands remained under British control, although as of 2006, Argentina shows no sign of relinquishing its claim to the Falkland Islands.
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The political effects of the war were strong in both countries. The Argentine loss prompted even larger protests against the military government, which hastened its downfall, while a wave of patriotic sentiment swept through the United Kingdom, bolstering the government of British Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] and ensuring its victory in the 1983 general election, which, prior to the war, was seen as by no means certain. The war has played an important role in the culture of both countries, and has been the subject of several books, movies, and songs, although due to the low number of casualties on both sides it is not seen as a truly major event of either military or twentieth century history. The cultural and political weight of the conflict has had less effect on the British public than on that of Argentina, where the war is still a topic of discussion. Militarily, however, it remains important as the sole example of a major naval and amphibious operation between modern forces since the [[Korean War]]. The wider context of the conflict was Britain's role as a [[Cold War]] ally of the U.S. and as a permanent member of the [[United Nations]] Security Council. Thatcher was anxious to demonstrate that Britain was more than a once-great but no longer significant power, that, even if not a super-power, she still merited her place at the UN.
  
 
==Lead up to the war==
 
==Lead up to the war==
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===Build-up===
 
===Build-up===
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[[President]] Galtieri, head of [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional]]—the [[Military dictatorship|military government]] of Argentina at the time—aimed to counterbalance public concern over economic and [[human rights]] issues with a speedy victory over the Falklands which would appeal to popular nationalistic sentiment. Argentina exerted pressure in the [[United Nations]] by raising subtle hints of a possible invasion, but the British either missed or ignored this threat and did not react. The Argentines interpreted the lack of British reaction as disengagement from the Falklands, and assumed that the British would not use force if the islands were [[invasion|invaded]]. This viewpoint was encouraged by the planned withdrawal as part of a general reduction of the [[Royal Navy]] in 1981 of the last of the Antarctic Supply vessels, the [[icebreaker]] HMS Endurance, and by the [[British Nationality Act 1981|British Nationality Act of 1981]], which replaced the full British citizenship of Falkland Islanders with a more limited version.
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President Galtieri of Argentina raised the profile of the Falkland Islands issue in order to deflect public concern away from the failing economy. He exerted pressure in the [[United Nations]] by raising subtle hints of a possible invasion, but the British either missed or ignored this threat and did not react. Galtiera misread this as a sign of British disengagement from the Falklands, and assumed that the British would not use force if the islands were invaded. Britain had given up almost all her colonial possessions. The Falklands had no particular strategic significance. Britain was already in the process of rationalizing her naval presence in the area by withdrawing the icebreaker, HMS ''Endurance,'' while [[British Nationality Act of 1981]] replaced the full British citizenship of Falkland Islanders with a more limited version. Most Britons did not even know that they existed, or were still colonies.  
  
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<!--This paragraph seems quite irrelevant; it apples only until the 1950s. Please delete it soon unless someone disagrees. 10Apr06.
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It is not known when serious plans to invade the Falklands were first considered, but following the failure of diplomatic talks in January 1982, the invasion plans were updated. Although it is often thought that the Falklands invasion was a long-planned action, it became clear after the war that it had been largely improvised. The isles were not fortified, sea mines were not deployed at strategic landing spots, and a large part of the infantry forces sent to the Falklands consisted of young recruits doing military service. Arguments that the war was a last minute decision are bolstered by the fact that the Argentine Navy would have received, at the end of the year, additional [[Exocet anti-ship missiles]], [[Super Étendards]] and new ships being built in West [[Germany]].
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It is unknown when firm plans first arose to invade the Falklands. Since the British took possession of the islands in 1833 (when [[Captain]] Onslow displaced Argentine interim governor Colonel José María Pinedo), Argentine-British relations were generally friendly for most of the latter nineteenth and twentieth centuries. British investments in Argentina in the first half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century were as important as Argentine exports to the UK. In the midst of such warm relations between the two countries, the matter of the Falklands, while always present, was not a burning issue.
 
  
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The Argentine military knew they were hardly a match for their British counterparts, and the Argentine Air Force (FAA) had realized, in training attacks made during April after the landings against the modern Argentine Navy British-type vessels [[Type 42]], that they could lose more than half of their units in the process of destroying only a few British [[warships]]. However, the actual course of the war surprised many observers, since Argentina's losses had been expected to be far worse, given their level of preparedness.
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It is not known when serious plans to invade the Falklands were first considered, but following the failure of diplomatic talks in January 1982, the invasion plans were updated. Although it is often thought that the Falklands invasion was a long-planned action, it became clear after the war that it had been largely improvised. The isles were not [[fortification|fortified]], [[sea mine]]s were not deployed at strategic landing spots, and a large part of the [[infantry]] forces sent to the Falklands consisted of young recruits doing [[military service]]. Arguments that the War was a last minute decision are bolstered by the fact that the Argentine Navy would have received, at the end of the year, additional [[Exocet]] anti-ship missiles, [[Super Étendard]]s and new ships being built in West [[Germany]].
 
  
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The Argentine military knew they were hardly a match for their British counterparts, and the [[Argentine Air Force]] (FAA) had realized, in training attacks made during April after the landings against the modern [[Argentine Navy]] British-type vessels [[Type 42]], that they could lose more than half of their units in the process of destroying only a few British [[warships]]. However, the actual course of the war surprised many observers, since Argentina's losses had been expected to be far worse, given their level of preparedness.
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Argentina's original intention was to mount a quick symbolic occupation, quickly followed by a withdrawal, and only a small garrison was left to support the new military governor. All Argentine assault units were withdrawn to the mainland on the following days, but strong popular support and the rapid British reaction encouraged the Junta to change their objectives and reinforce the islands. They misjudged the political climate in Britain, believing that democracies were weak, indecisive, and averse to risk, and did not anticipate that the British would move their fleet halfway across the globe. [[Margaret Thatcher]], however, despite being told by her advisors that it was impossible to retake the islands, was determined to defend British people living on British territory.
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This lack of readiness is probably due to the invasion being a last-minute decision taken as a consequence of the South Georgia crisis. Furthermore, for several years Argentina had been close to war with [[Chile]]. Consequently a significant part of Argentina's limited forces and equipment were kept on the mainland, as Argentina's military strategists feared that Chile would take advantage of the Falklands Crisis and attempt to seize a portion of the [[Patagonia]] region. Indeed, Chile deployed forces along the borders in what looked like a possible invasion; it is unclear whether this was their true intention or merely a diversion prompted by their British allies.
 
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Argentina's original intention was to mount a quick symbolic [[Military occupation|occupation]], quickly followed by a [[Withdrawal (military)|withdrawal]], and only a small garrison was left to support the new military governor. All Argentine assault units were withdrawn to the mainland on the following days, but strong popular support and the rapid British reaction encouraged the Junta to change their objectives and reinforce the islands. They misjudged the political climate in Britain, believing that [[democracies]] were weak, indecisive, and averse to risk, and did not anticipate that the British would move their fleet halfway across the globe.
 
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On March 19, a group of Argentine [[scrap metal]] [[merchant]]s established a camp on [[South Georgia]], where they allegedly raised a [[Argentine flag|flag of Argentina]]. It was later reported that [[firearm]] shots were also heard, but it is most likely they were only [[hunting]]. The British governor at [[Grytviken]] asked them to have their [[passport]]s stamped, which they refused to allow since it would acknowledge British [[sovereignty]] over the isles.
 
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Actually, there was a [[diplomat]]ic agreement between Argentina and Great Britain that let Argentine visitors stamp a "white card" instead of their passport, a sort of intermediate diplomatic solution to accommodate the sovereignty dispute. The request that the Argentines have their passports stamped despite the "white card" arrangement has led some to accuse the British of deliberately escalating the conflict.
 
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The Royal Navy [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] patrol vessel [[HMS Endurance (1967)|HMS ''Endurance'']] was dispatched to remove the camp on March 25, but was prevented from doing so and forced to retreat by the Argentine Navy [[corvette]] ARA ''Guerrico''. However, despite further evidence that the [[Argentine Navy]] had begun to assemble troops in [[Puerto Belgrano]], the [[UK Joint Intelligence Committee]]'s [[Latin America]]n group stated on 30 March that "invasion was not imminent".
 
  
 
===Failed diplomacy===
 
===Failed diplomacy===
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During the conflict, there were no formal [[Diplomacy|diplomatic relations]] between the United Kingdom and Argentina, so negotiations were carried out in a rather indirect way, and via third parties who spoke with one then with the other belligerent ("[[shuttle diplomacy]]"). The [[United Nations Secretary-General|Secretary-General]] of the [[United Nations]], [[Peru|Peruvian]] [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]], announced that his efforts in favour of peace were futile. Although [[Peru]] (which represented Argentina's diplomatic interests in Britain) and [[Switzerland]] (which represented Britain's diplomatic interests in Argentina) exerted great diplomatic pressure to avoid war, they were unable to resolve the conflict, and a [[peace plan]] proposed by [[President of Peru|Peruvian president]] [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] was rejected by both sides.
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During the conflict, there were no formal diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina, so negotiations were carried out in a rather indirect way, via third parties who spoke with one then with the other belligerent nation in a form of [[shuttle diplomacy]]. The Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]], Peruvian [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]], announced that his efforts in favor of peace were futile. Although [[Peru]] (which represented Argentina's diplomatic interests in Britain) and [[Switzerland]] (which represented Britain's diplomatic interests in Argentina) exerted great diplomatic pressure to avoid war, they were unable to resolve the conflict, and a peace plan proposed by Peruvian president Fernando Belaúnde Terry was rejected by both sides. The U.S. Secretary of State, Alexander Haig, also attempted to act as a mediator.
  
 
===Invasion===
 
===Invasion===
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:''Main article: [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]]''
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The Argentine Lieutenant-Commander in charge of the invasion, Guillermo Sanchez-Sabarots, landed his squadron of special forces at Mullet Creek. He proceeded to attack the Moody Brook Barracks, the Government House, and Stanley, Falkland Islands, until the British Falkland Islands government located at the Government House surrendered on April 4. One British Royal Marine was wounded, and one Argentine was killed in the main invasion, a further three Argentines were killed in fighting to take control of South Georgia. Royal Marines stationed on the islands may have killed as many 30 Argentinians in defending the island against a much larger invasion force supported by a destroyer and helicopters.
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The [[Government of the United Kingdom|British Government]] warned [[Rex Masterman Hunt]], the then [[Governor of the Falkland Islands]], of a possible Argentine invasion on 31 March. Hunt then organised a defence, and gave military command to [[Mike Norman|Major Mike Norman RM]] who managed to muster a small force of [[royal Marines|British Royal Marines]]. The Argentine [[Lieutenant-Commander]] in charge of the invasion, [[Guillermo Sanchez-Sabarots]], landed his [[squadron]] of [[special forces]] at [[Mullet Creek]]. He proceeded to attack the [[Moody Brook Barracks]], the [[Government House]], and [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]], until the British Falkland Islands government located at the Government House [[Surrender (military)|surrender]]ed on 4 April. One British Royal Marine was wounded, and one Argentine killed in the main invasion, a further three Argentines were killed in fighting to take control of [[South Georgia]].
 
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It is actually believed that during the initial Argentine invasion the RM may have killed an estimated 20-30 Argientines on the main islands, not including those on South Georgia or the 2 helecopters they downed. On South Georgia 20 or so [[Royal Marines]] holding off a force that included a destroyer, helecopters and a huge amount of troops. They also used an 84mm anti-tank gun to hole the destroyer on the water line, and again to take out its main gun rendering it useless, then straffing it with 66mm missiles, rifles and machine guns, forcing the destroyer to retreat out of the bay. Source:[http://www.raf.mod.uk/falklands/inv1.html]
 
  
 
===Life under the occupation===
 
===Life under the occupation===
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Argentina enforced several unwelcome changes to the culture of the Falkland Islands, in spite of earlier assurances that the Islanders' way of life and cultural identity would be maintained. Argentina changed Port Stanley's name to ''Puerto Argentino'', made [[Spanish language|Spanish]] the official language of the Islands, and commanded traffic to [[drive on the right]] by painting arrows on the road indicating the direction of traffic and changing the location of street and [[traffic signs]]. {{citation needed}} Despite these arrows, the islanders defiantly continued to drive on the left, demonstrating their determination to remain British.
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Argentina enforced several unwelcome changes to the culture of the Falkland Islands, in spite of earlier assurances that the Islanders' way of life and cultural identity would be maintained. Argentina changed Port Stanley's name to ''Puerto Argentino,'' made Spanish the official language of the Islands, and commanded traffic to drive on the right by painting arrows on the road indicating the direction of traffic and changing the location of street and traffic signs. Despite these arrows, the islanders defiantly continued to drive on the left, demonstrating their determination to remain British.
  
 
===Task force===
 
===Task force===
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The British were quick to organise diplomatic pressure against Argentina. Because of the long distance to the Falklands, Britain had to rely on a naval [[task force]] for military action. The force was commanded by [[Sandy Woodward|Rear Admiral John "Sandy" Woodward]] and centred around the [[aircraft carrier]]s [[HMS Hermes (R12)|HMS ''Hermes'']] and the newly-commissioned [[HMS Invincible (R05)|HMS ''Invincible'']] carrying only 20 [[Fleet Air Arm]] (FAA) [[Sea Harrier]]s between them for defence against the combined Argentintian air force and naval air arm. The task force would have to be self-reliant and able to project its force across the [[littoral]] area of the Islands.
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The British were quick to organize diplomatic pressure against Argentina. Because of the long distance to the Falklands, Britain had to rely on a naval task force for military action. The force was commanded by Rear Admiral John "Sandy" Woodward and centered around the aircraft carriers HMS ''Hermes'' and the newly-commissioned HMS ''Invincible'' carrying only 20 Fleet Air Arm (FAA) Sea Harriers between them for defense against the combined Argentintian air force and naval air arm.  
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A second component was the amphibious group commanded by Commodore M.C. Clapp RN. Contrary to common belief, Admiral Woodward did not command Commodore Clapp's ships{{fn|3}}. The embarked force comprised [[3 Commando Brigade]] Royal Marines, (including units from the [[Parachute Regiment]]) under the command of [[Brigadier J. Thompson]] RM to bring it up to its wartime strength. Most of this force was aboard the hastily commandeered cruise liner [[SS Canberra|''Canberra'']]. Both Clapp and Woodward reported directly to the Commander in Chief Fleet (CINCFLEET), Admiral Sir [[John Fieldhouse]], in Britain, who was the overall commander of the operation. The UK declared a 'total exclusion zone' of 200 [[nautical miles]] (370 km) around the Falklands before commencing operation, excluding all neutral and Argentine vessels.
 
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Throughout the operation 43 British merchant ships (ships taken up from trade, or [[STUFT]]) served with or supplied the task force. Cargo vessels and tankers for fuel and water formed an 8000-mile logistics chain between Britain and the South Atlantic. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/25/newsid_2502000/2502995.stm]
 
  
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During the journey and up to the War beginning on May 1st, the Task Force was shadowed  by [[Boeing 707]] [[aircraft]] of the [[Argentine Air Force]]. One of these flights was intercepted outside the exclusion zone by a [[Sea Harrier]]; the unarmed 707 was not attacked.
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A second component was the amphibious group commanded by Commodore M.C. Clapp RN. Contrary to common belief, Admiral Woodward did not command Commodore Clapp's ships. The embarked force comprised of three Commando Brigade Royal Marines, (including units from the Parachute Regiment) under the command of Brigadier J. Thompson RM to bring it up to its wartime strength. Most of this force was aboard the hastily commandeered cruise liner ''Canberra.'' Both Clapp and Woodward reported directly to the Commander in Chief Fleet (CINCFLEET), Admiral Sir John Fieldhouse, in Britain, who was the overall commander of the operation. The UK declared a "total exclusion zone" of 200 nautical miles (370 km) around the Falklands before commencing operation, excluding all neutral and Argentine vessels.
  
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[[Prince Andrew]], then [[Line of succession to the British throne|second in line to the British throne]], served as a [[Westland Sea King|Sea King]] helicopter pilot in HMS ''Invincible'' during the war, flying anti-[[submarine]] patrols. His [[helicopter]] was equipped with a [[Marconi Searchwater]] [[radar]] and acted as an improvised [[Airborne Early Warning]] platform, making it a valuable target. He revealed in an apparently inadvertent admission shortly after the war that he also flew missions as an [[Exocet]] missile decoy.
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Throughout the operation, 43 British merchant ships (ships taken up from trade, or STUFT) served with or supplied the task force. Cargo vessels and tankers for fuel and water formed an 8000-mile logistics chain between Britain and the South Atlantic Ocean.<ref>BBC News, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/25/newsid_2502000/2502995.stm 1982: Dozens Killed as Argentines hit British ships.] Retrieved June 14, 2007.</ref>
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The British called their counter-invasion [[Operation Corporate]]. When the task force sailed from Britain, the American news magazine ''[[Newsweek]]'' cover headline proclaimed "The Empire Strikes Back", the name of a recent [[Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back|Star Wars movie]], in humorous reference to the old [[British Empire]].
 
  
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The public mood in the UK was in support of an attempt to reclaim the islands. International opinion was divided. To some, Britain was a former [[colonialism|colonial]] power, seeking to reclaim a colony from a local power, and this was a message that the Argentines initially used to garner support. Others supported Britain as a stable [[democracy]] invaded by a military dictatorship. Most European countries and the United States supported Britain; most Latin American countries supported Argentina. British diplomacy centred on arguing that the Falkland Islanders were entitled to use the [[UN]] principle of self-determination, and showing willingness to compromise. The UN [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] said that he was favourable to the compromise that the UK had offered. Nevertheless, Argentina rejected it, basing their arguments on rights to territory based on actions before 1945 and the creation of the UN. Many UN members realised that if [[Land claims|territorial claims]] this old could be resurrected, and invasions of territory allowed unchallenged, then their own [[border]]s were not safe. On April 3 the [[UN Security Council]] passed Resolution 502, calling for the withdrawal of Argentine troops from the islands and the cessation of hostilities. On April 10 the [[European Community|EEC]] approved [[trade sanctions]] against Argentina. President [[Ronald Reagan]] and the [[usa|U.S.]] administration did not issue direct diplomatic condemnations, instead providing [[Military intelligence|intelligence]] support to the British military.
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During the journey and up to the war, beginning on May 1, the Task Force was shadowed by Boeing 707 aircraft of the Argentine Air Force. One of these flights was intercepted outside the exclusion zone by a Sea Harrier; the unarmed airplane was not attacked.
  
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===Shuttle diplomacy and U.S. involvement===
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Prince Andrew, then second in line to the British throne, served as a Sea King helicopter pilot on HMS ''Invincible'' during the war, flying anti-submarine patrols. His helicopter was equipped with a Marconi Searchwater radar and acted as an improvised Airborne Early Warning platform, making it a valuable target. He revealed in an apparently inadvertent admission shortly after the war that he also flew missions as an Exocet missile decoy.
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At first glance, it appeared that the U.S. had military [[treaty]] obligations to both parties in the war, bound to the UK as a member of [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]] and to Argentina by the [[Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance]] (the "Rio Pact"). However, the [[North Atlantic Treaty]] only obliges the signatories to support if the attack occurs in [[Europe]] or [[North America]] north of [[Tropic of Cancer]]. The Rio Pact only obliges the U.S. to intervene if one of the adherents to the treaty is attacked&mdash;the UK never attacked Argentina, only Argentine forces on British territory. In March, [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Alexander Haig]] directed the U.S. [[Ambassador]] to Argentina to warn the Argentine government away from any invasion. President [[Ronald Reagan]] requested assurances from Galtieri against an invasion and offered the services of his Vice President, [[George H. W. Bush]], as [[Mediation|mediator]], but was refused.
 
  
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In fact, the [[Reagan Administration]] was sharply divided on the issue. Meeting on 5 April, Haig and Assistant Secretary of State for Political Affairs [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] favoured decisive backing of Britain, concerned that equivocation would undermine the NATO alliance. Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs Thomas Enders, however, feared that supporting Britain would undermine U.S. [[anti-communism|anti-communist]] efforts in [[Latin America]]. He received the firm backing of [[United States Ambassadors to the United Nations|U.N. Ambassador]] [[Jeane Kirkpatrick]], Haig's nominal subordinate and political rival.
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The British called their counter-invasion Operation Corporate. When the task force sailed from Britain, the American news magazine ''Newsweek'' cover headline proclaimed "The Empire Strikes Back," the name of a recent ''Star Wars'' movie, in humorous reference to the old [[British Empire]]. The whole exercise was reminiscent of some of the policing exercises of the nineteenth century, in the days when the Royal Navy tried to keep the peace around the world.
  
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The [[White House]] continued its [[neutrality]]; Reagan famously declared at the time that he could not understand why two allies were arguing over "That little ice-cold bunch of land down there". But he assented to Haig and [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [[Caspar Weinberger]]'s position. Haig briefly (April 8&ndash;April 30) headed a "[[shuttle diplomacy]]" mission between London and Buenos Aires, but at the end of the month Reagan blamed Argentina for the failure of the mediation, declared U.S. support for Britain, and announced the imposition of [[economic sanctions]] against Argentina.
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The public mood in the United Kingdom was in support of an attempt to reclaim the islands. International opinion was divided. To some, Britain was a former colonial power, seeking to reclaim a colony from a local power, and this was a message that the Argentines initially used to garner support. Others supported Britain as a stable democracy invaded by a military dictatorship. Most European countries and the United States supported Britain; most Latin American countries supported Argentina. British diplomacy centered on arguing that the Falkland Islanders were entitled to use the [[United Nations]] principle of self-determination, and showing willingness to compromise. The UN Secretary-General said that he was favorable to the compromise that the UK had offered. Nevertheless, Argentina rejected it, basing their arguments on rights to territory based on actions before 1945 and the creation of the UN. Many UN members realized that if territorial claims this old could be resurrected, and invasions of territory allowed unchallenged, then their own borders were not safe. On April 3, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 502, calling for the withdrawal of Argentine troops from the islands and the cessation of hostilities. On April 10, the European Community approved trade sanctions against Argentina. The United States administration did not issue direct diplomatic condemnations, instead providing intelligence support to the British military. The U.S. had treaty relations with both sides and adopted a policy of non-interference. [[Ronald Reagan]] was also confident that Britain could handle the matter on its own.
  
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In an ''infamous'' episode in June, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Jeane Kirkpatrick cast a second [[veto]] of a [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] resolution calling for an immediate [[Cease fire|cease-fire]], then announced minutes later that she had received instructions to [[abstain]]. The situation was blamed on a delay in communications, but perceived by many as part of an ongoing power struggle between Haig and Kirkpatrick.
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Galtieri, and a great part of his government, did not think that the UK would react. This would have astonished British people at the time, already familiar with [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s uncompromising style of government. She declared that the democratic rights of the Falkland Islanders had been assaulted, and would not surrender the islands to the Argentine jackboot. This stance was aided, at least domestically, by the staunchly loyalist British press, especially ''The Sun,'' which ran such headlines as "GOTCHA" (following the sinking of ''General Belgrano''). ''The Daily Mirror,'' on the other hand, vehemently opposed the war, attacking their tabloid rival ''The Sun,'' and claiming it would "damage your mind."
  
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Galtieri, and a great part of his government, did not think that the UK would react. This would have astonished British people at the time, already familiar with [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s uncompromising style of government. She declared that the [[democracy|democratic]] rights of the Falkland Islanders had been assaulted, and would not surrender the islands to the Argentine jackboot. This stance was aided, at least domestically, by the staunchly loyalist British [[Mass media|press]], especially ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'', which ran such headlines as 'GOTCHA' (following the sinking of ''[[ARA General Belgrano|General Belgrano]]''). ''[[The Daily Mirror]]'', on the other hand, vehemently opposed the war, attacking their tabloid rival ''The Sun'', and claiming it would "damage your mind".
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American non-interference was actually vital to the American-British relationship. [[Ascension Island]], a UK possession, was vital in the long term supply of the Task Force South: however the airbase stationed on it was run and operated by the United States. The American commander of the base was ordered to assist the British in any way, and soon there was more air traffic in and out of Ascension Air Field than at the busiest international airport of the time. The most decisive American contribution was spy satellite and intelligence information, and the rescheduled supply of AIM-9L Sidewinder missiles (which were much more efficient than older models of the Sidewinder, due to their all-aspect targeting capability), allowing the UK to ship its NATO inventory south. Margaret Thatcher stated that "without the Harrier jets and their immense maneuverability, equipped as they were with the latest version of the Sidewinder missile, supplied to us by U.S. Defense Minister Caspar Weinberger, we could never have got back the Falklands."  Most of the Sidewinder air to air engagements however, proved to be from the rear.
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Another base in the Argentine dictatorship thought, was that the US, in the worst case not supporting them, would remain neutral, based upon the support Argentina had given to the Reagan administration in [[Central America]], training [[Contra (guerrillas)|Contras]], showing a clear blindness to the reality of US-UK relations.
 
−
 
 
−
To some extent, the Argentine military dictatorship was misled by its own opinion of democracies as being weak, inefficient talking-shops, afraid of taking risks. Indeed, in Britain there was much debate about the rights and wrongs of war. However, regardless of their own policies and opinions, opposition parties firmly backed the government in this time of crisis in order to present a single united front.
 
−
 
 
−
A U.S. fear of the perceived threat of the [[USSR|Soviet Union]] and the spread of [[communism]], along with the certainty that Britain could handle the matter on its own, may have influenced the U.S. to take a position of non-interference. During the [[Cold War]], with the performance of forces being watched closely by the Soviet Union, it was considered preferable for the UK to handle without assistance, a conflict within its capabilities.
 
−
 
 
−
American non-interference was vital to the American-British relationship. [[Ascension Island]], a UK possession, was vital in the long term supply of the Task Force South: however the airbase stationed on it was run and operated by the U.S. The American commander of the base was ordered to assist the British in any way, and soon there was more air traffic in and out of Ascension Air Field&mdash;than the busiest international airport for a brief period. The most decisive American contribution was [[spy satellite]] and intelligence information, and the rescheduled supply of [[AIM-9 Sidewinder|AIM-9L Sidewinder]] missiles (which were much more efficient than older models of the Sidewinder, due to their [[all-aspect]] targeting capability), allowing the UK to ship its NATO inventory south. [[Margaret Thatcher]] stated that "without the Harrier jets and their immense manoeuvrability, equipped as they were with the latest version of the Sidewinder missile, supplied to us by U.S. Defence Minister Caspar Weinberger, we could never have got back the Falklands". Most of the Sidewinder air to air engagements however, proved to be from the rear.
 
−
 
 
−
In early May, Casper Weinburger jokingly offered the use of an American aircraft carrier{{fn|2}}.  This seemingly extremely generous offer was seen by some as vital, as it was noted by Admiral Sir Sandy Woodward that the loss of ''Invincible'' would have been a severe setback, but the loss of ''Hermes'' would have meant an end to the whole operation. Weinberger admits[http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/diglibrary/oralhistory/falklands/falklands_2003_0515.html] there would have been many problems if a request had ever been made, not least it would have meant U.S. personnel becoming directly involved in the conflict, as training British forces to crew the vessel would have taken years.
 
−
 
 
−
Both Weinberger and Reagan were later awarded the British honour of [[Order of the British Empire|Knight Commander of the British Empire (KBE)]]. American critics of the U.S. role claimed that, by failing to side with Argentina, the U.S. violated its own [[Monroe Doctrine]].
 
−
 
 
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In September 2001, [[Mexico|Mexican]] president [[Vicente Fox]] cited the conflict as proof of the failure of the [[Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance]], since the treaty provides for mutual defence.
 
  
 
===French involvement===
 
===French involvement===
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[[France|French]] president [[François Mitterrand]] gave full support to the UK in the Falklands war. As a large part of Argentina's military equipment was French-made, French support was crucial. France provided [[aircraft]], identical to the ones it supplied to Argentina, for British [[Aviator|pilots]] to train against. France provided intelligence to help sabotage the [[Exocet]] [[missile]]s it sold to Argentina. In her memoirs, [[Margaret Thatcher]] says of Mitterrand that "I never forgot the debt we owed him for his personal support...throughout the Falklands Crisis". Sir [[John Nott]], who was [[Secretary of State for Defence]] during the conflict later acknowledged: "In so many ways Mitterrand and the French were our greatest allies". [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2002%2F03%2F13%2Fnot13.xml]
+
[[France|French]] president [[François Mitterrand]] gave full support to the UK in the Falklands war. As a large part of Argentina's military equipment was French-made, French support was crucial. France provided aircraft, identical to the ones it supplied to Argentina, for British pilots to train against. France provided intelligence to help sabotage the Exocet missiles it sold to Argentina. In her memoirs, Margaret Thatcher remarked of Mitterrand that "I never forgot the debt we owed him for his personal support … throughout the Falklands Crisis." Sir John Nott, who was UK Secretary of State for Defense during the conflict later acknowledged: "In so many ways Mitterrand and the French were our greatest allies."<ref>The Telegraph, [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2002%2F03%2F13%2Fnot13.xml How France helped us win the Falklands War by John Nott.] Retrieved June 14, 2007.</ref>
−
 
 
−
As France had recently sold [[Super Etendard]] aircraft and Exocet missiles to the Argentine Navy, when war broke out there was still a French team in Argentina helping to fit out the Exocets and aircraft for Argentine use. Argentina claims that the team left for France soon after the April 2 invasion, but according to
 
−
[http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj02/fal02/corum.html Dr. James S. Corum] the French team apparently continued to assist the Argentines throughout the war, in spite of the NATO embargo and official French government policy.
 
−
 
 
−
In 2005, a book written by President Mitterrand's [[psychoanalyst]], Ali Magoudi, gave a different account of French co-operation, quoting him as saying: "I had a difference to settle with the Iron Lady. That Thatcher, what an impossible woman!  With her four [[Nuclear navy|nuclear]] submarines in the South Atlantic, she's threatening to unleash an [[atomic weapon]] against Argentina if I don't provide her with the secret codes that will make the missiles we sold the Argentinians deaf and blind."
 
−
[http://www.guardian.co.uk/argentina/story/0,,1647762,00.html]
 
−
 
 
−
It is not clear how the Argentines were able to launch all of their available missiles.
 
  
 
===Latin American support===
 
===Latin American support===
−
Despite receiving cursory support from the [[Organisation of American States]] in a [http://www.oas.org/consejo/sp/RC/Actas/Acta%2020.pdf resolution] supporting Argentina's sovereignty and deploring [[European Community|EEC]] sanctions (with Chile, Colombia, Trinidad & Tobago and the United States attending but abstaining), Argentina received military assistance only from [[Peru]] (Peruvian president Belaunde announced that his country was "ready to support Argentina with all the resources it needed.") and [[Venezuela]]. This came in the form of aircraft supplies like long range air fuel tanks and spare parts. With the War over, Argentina received [[Dassault Mirage III|Mirage 5P]] fighter planes from the [[Peruvian Air Force]] whilst the Argentine Navy received [[Aermacchi MB-326]] and [[Embraer Bandeirante]]s from the [[Brazilian Air Force]].
+
Despite receiving cursory support from the Organization of American States in a resolution supporting Argentina's sovereignty and deploring European Community sanctions (with Chile, Colombia, Trinidad & Tobago and the United States attending but abstaining), Argentina received military assistance only from [[Peru]] (Peruvian president Belaunde announced that his country was "ready to support Argentina with all the resources it needed") and [[Venezuela]]. This came in the form of aircraft supplies like long range air fuel tanks and spare parts. With the War over, Argentina received Mirage 5P fighter planes from the Peruvian Air Force whilst the Argentine Navy received Aermacchi MB-326 and Embraer Bandeirantes from the Brazilian Air Force.
  
−
[[Cuba]] and [[Bolivia]] offered ground troops, but their offers were seen as political [[propaganda|posturing]] and not accepted.
+
[[Cuba]] and [[Bolivia]] offered ground troops, but their offers were seen as political posturing and not accepted.
  
−
Neighbouring [[Chile]], under [[Pinochet]]'s regime, became the only major [[Latin America|Latin American]] country to support Britain (and then only indirectly) by providing a military and naval diversion. Chile and Argentina had almost gone to war over the possession of islands south of [[Tierra del Fuego]] in 1978 (the dispute ended peacefully with the [[1984 Argentina and Chile Peace and Friendship Treaty]] mediated by Pope [[John Paul II]]). The relationship between these two countries was still very tense. The Chilean government was possibly concerned that, if Argentina succeeded in taking the Falklands, General Galtieri's government would invade or attack Chile. The [http://www.spyflight.co.uk/chile.htm ''Chilean Connection''] is described in detail by Sir Lawrence Freedman in his book ''The Official History of the Falklands Campaign''.
+
Neighboring [[Chile]] became the only major [[Latin America]]n country to support Britain (and then only indirectly) by providing a military and naval diversion. Chile and Argentina had almost gone to war over the possession of islands south of [[Tierra del Fuego]] in 1978 (the dispute ended peacefully with the 1984 Argentina and Chile Peace and Friendship Treaty mediated by Pope [[John Paul II]]). The relationship between these two countries was still very tense. The Chilean government was possibly concerned that, if Argentina succeeded in taking the Falklands, General Galtieri's government would invade or attack Chile. The ''Chilean Connection'' is described in detail by Sir Lawrence Freedman in his book ''The Official History of the Falklands Campaign.''<ref>Spy Flight, [http://www.spyflight.co.uk/chile.htm The Falklands Campaign—the Chilean Connection.] Retrieved June 14, 2007.</ref>
  
 
==War==
 
==War==
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By mid-April the [[Royal Air Force]] had set up an [[RAF Ascension Island|airbase]] at Wideawake on the mid-Atlantic island of [[Ascension Island|Ascension]], including a sizable force of [[Avro Vulcan|Vulcan]] [[bombers]], [[Handley Page Victor|Victor]] [[Tanker (aircraft)|refuelling aircraft]], and [[F-4 Phantom]] [[Fighter aircraft|fighters]] to protect them. Meanwhile the main British naval task force arrived at Ascension to prepare for war. A small force had already been sent south to re-capture South Georgia.
+
 
 +
By mid-April the Royal Air Force had set up an airbase at Wideawake on the mid-Atlantic island of Ascension, including a sizable force of Vulcan bombers, Victor refuelling aircraft, and F-4 Phantom fighters to protect them. Meanwhile the main British naval task force arrived at Ascension to prepare for war. A small force had already been sent south to re-capture South Georgia.
  
 
===Recapture of South Georgia===
 
===Recapture of South Georgia===
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The South Georgia force, ''[[Operation Paraquat|Operation Paraquet]]'', under the command of Major [[Guy Sheridan]] RM, consisted of Marines from 42 Commando, a troop of the [[Special Air Service]] (''SAS'') and [[Special Boat Service]] (''SBS'') troops who were intended to land as [[reconnaissance]] forces for an invasion by the [[Royal Marines]]; embarked on [[RFA Tidespring|RFA ''Tidespring'']]. First to arrive was the [[Churchill class submarine|''Churchill'' class submarine]] [[HMS Conqueror (S48)|HMS ''Conqueror'']] on the 19th, and the island was over-flown by a radar-mapping [[Handley Page Victor]] on the 20th. The first landings of SAS troops took place on the 21st, but the weather was so bad that their landings and others made the next day were all withdrawn after several helicopters crashed in [[fog]] on [[Fortuna Glacier]].
+
The South Georgia force, ''Operation Paraquet,'' under the command of Major Guy Sheridan RM, consisted of Marines from 42 Commando, a troop of the Special Air Service ''(SAS)'' and Special Boat Service ''(SBS)'' troops who were intended to land as reconnaissance forces for an invasion by the Royal Marines; embarked on RFA ''Tidespring.'' First to arrive was the ''Churchill'' class submarine HMS ''Conqueror'' on the 19th, and the island was over-flown by a radar-mapping Handley Page Victor on the 20th. The first landings of SAS troops took place on the 21st, but the weather was so bad that their landings and others made the next day were all withdrawn after several helicopters crashed in fog on [[Fortuna Glacier]].
  
−
On the 23rd a submarine alert was sounded and operations were halted, with the ''Tidespring'' being withdrawn to deeper water to avoid interception. On the 24th the British forces regrouped and headed in to attack the submarine, the [[ARA Santa Fe|ARA ''Santa Fe'']], locating it on the 25th and damaging it enough that the crew decided to abandon it. With the ''Tidespring'' now far out to sea and an additional defending force of the submarine's crew now landed, Major Sheridan decided to gather the 75 men he had and make a direct assault that day. After a short forced march by the British force, the Argentine forces surrendered without resistance. The British Prime Minister, [[Margaret Thatcher]], broke the news to the media telling them to "Just rejoice at that news!"{{fn|1}}.
+
On the 23rd a submarine alert was sounded and operations were halted, with the ''Tidespring'' being withdrawn to deeper water to avoid interception. On the 24th the British forces regrouped and headed in to attack the submarine, the ARA ''Santa Fe,'' locating it on the 25th and damaging it enough that the crew decided to abandon it. With the ''Tidespring'' now far out to sea and an additional defending force of the submarine's crew now landed, Major Sheridan decided to gather the 75 men he had and make a direct assault that day. After a short forced march by the British force, the Argentine forces surrendered without resistance. The British Prime Minister, [[Margaret Thatcher]], broke the news to the media telling them to "Just rejoice at that news!."
  
 
===The Black Buck Raids===
 
===The Black Buck Raids===
  
−
On May 1, operations against the Falklands opened with the ''[[Operation Black Buck|Black Buck 1]]'' attack by [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] [[Avro Vulcan]] [[V bomber]]s on the airfield at Stanley from Wideawake airbase on Ascension. The Vulcan had originally been designed for medium-range stand-off nuclear missions in Europe and did not have the range to fly to the Falklands, requiring several in-flight refuellings. The RAF's tanker planes were mostly converted Victors with similar range, so they too had to be refuelled in the air. Thus a total force of 11 tankers were required for only two Vulcans, a massive [[logistics|logistical]] effort, given both tankers and bombers had to use the same airfield. In the end only a single bomb from all the Black Buck raids hit the runway at Stanley.
+
On May 1, operations against the Falklands opened with an attack by RAF Avro Vulcan V bombers on the airfield at Stanley from Wideawake airbase on Ascension. The Vulcan had originally been designed for medium-range stand-off nuclear missions in Europe and did not have the range to fly to the Falklands, requiring several in-flight refuelings. The RAF's tanker planes were mostly converted Victors with similar range, so they too had to be refueled in the air. Thus a total force of 11 tankers were required for only two Vulcans, a massive logistical effort, given both tankers and bombers had to use the same airfield. In the end only a single bomb from all the Black Buck raids hit the runway at Stanley.
  
−
Only minutes after the RAF's Black Buck 1, nine [[Royal Navy]] [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harriers]] from ''Hermes'' followed up the raid by dropping [[cluster bomb]]s on Stanley and the smaller grass airstrip at Goose Green. Both missions scored aircraft kills on the ground, as well as causing some damage to the airfield infrastructure. The aircraft had taken off from the deck of HMS ''Invincible'', and although attached [[BBC]] [[reporter]] [[Brian Hanrahan]] was forbidden to divulge the number of planes involved, he came up with the memorable phrase "I counted them all out and I counted them all back".
+
The raids, at almost 8,000 miles and 16 hours for the return journey were the longest ranged bombing raids in history at that time. They are credited with the strategic success of causing the Argentine Air Force to withdraw all their Mirage III aircraft to protect against the possibility of similar bombing raids on Argentina but the real fact was that their lack of aerial refueling capability prevent them to effectively used them over the islands so the FAA Grupo 8 Mirages were deployed to Comodoro Rivadavia and Rio Gallegos in April (before the raids) and they remained there until June to protect against the Chilean threat and as reserve for the strike units.
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−
The raids, at almost 8,000 miles and 16 hours for the return journey were the longest ranged bombing raids in history at that time (''surpassed in [[Gulf War|1991]] by US [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52Gs]] flying from the continental US but using forward-positioned tankers''<ref>{{cite book|author=Paul Rogers|title=Losing Control:  Global Security in the Twenty-first Century|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2000|id=ISBN 0745319092}}</ref>). They are credited with the strategic success of causing the [[Argentine Air Force]] ('''FAA''') to withdraw all their [[Mirage III]] aircraft to protect against the possibility of similar bombing raids on Argentina but the real fact was that their lack of [[aerial refueling]] capability prevent them to effectively used them over the islands so the FAA Grupo 8 Mirages were deployed to [[Comodoro Rivadavia]] and [[Rio Gallegos]] in April (before the raids) and they remained there until June to protect against the Chilean threat and as reserve for the strike units.
 
  
 
===The escalation of the air war===
 
===The escalation of the air war===
−
[[Image:Sea Harrier In Flight.jpg|right|thumb|[[Fleet Air Arm]] ''[[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]] FA2''. Its predecessor, the FRS1, performed admirably in the conflict.]]
+
[[Image:Sea Harrier In Flight.jpg|right|thumb|Fleet Air Arm ''Sea Harrier FA2''. Its predecessor, the FRS1, performed admirably in the conflict.]]Stanley's runway was too short to support fast jets, so the Argentine Air Force (FAA) had to launch its major strikes from the mainland, severely hampering their efforts in staging combat air patrols and close air support over the islands. Stanley was used as an Argentine strong point throughout the conflict.
  
−
The Falklands had only three airfields. The longest runway, and the only one paved, was at the capital, [[Port Stanley]].
+
The first major strike force comprised 36 aircraft (''Skyhawks,'' ''Daggers,'' ''Canberras,'' and ''Mirage'' escorts), and was launched on May 1, in the belief that the British invasion was imminent or landings had already taken place. Only a section of Grupo 6 (flying IAI Dagger Aircraft) found ships, which were firing at Argentine defenses, near the islands. The Daggers managed to attack the ships and return safely. This was a great stimulus for the Argentine pilots, for they now knew that they could survive an attack against a modern warship, protected by radar ground clutter from the islands and a late "pop-up" profile.
  
−
Stanley's runway was too short to support fast jets, so the Argentine Air Force (FAA) had to launch its major strikes from the mainland. This severely hampered Argentine efforts at forward staging, [[combat air patrols]] and [[close air support]] over the islands. The effective loiter time of incoming Argentine aircraft was low, and they were later compelled to overfly British forces in any attempt to attack the islands.
+
Some of Argentine aircraft were intercepted by Sea Harriers operating from ''Invincible,'' and a Dagger and a Canberra airplanes were shot down.  
  
−
The first major strike force comprised 36 aircraft (''Skyhawks'', ''Daggers'', ''Canberras'' and ''Mirage'' escorts), and was sent on 1st May, in the belief that the British invasion was imminent or landings had already taken place. Only a section of Grupo 6 (flying [[IAI Dagger]] Aircraft) found ships, which were firing at Argentine defences, near the islands.  The Daggers managed to attack the ships and return safely. This was a great stimulus for the Argentine pilots, for they now knew that they could survive an attack against a modern warship, protected by radar ground clutter from the islands and a late ''pop-up'' profile.
+
Combat broke out between other Harriers and Mirage fighters of Grupo 8. Both sides refused to fight at the other's best altitude, until two Mirages finally descended to engage. One was shot down by an AIM-9L Sidewinder, while the other escaped but without enough fuel to return to its mainland airfield. The plane made for Stanley, where it fell victim to friendly fire from the Argentine defenders.
  
−
Meanwhile, some of the other Argentine aircraft were intercepted by [[Sea Harrier]]s operating from ''Invincible'', and a Dagger and a Canberra were shot down.  
+
As a result of this experience, Argentine Air Force staff decided to employ Skyhawks and Daggers only as strike units, the Canberras only during the night, and Mirages (without air refueling capability or any capable air-to-air missile) as decoys to lure away the British Sea Harriers. The decoying was later extended with the formation of the ''Escuadron Fenix,'' a squadron of civilian jets flying 24 hours a day simulating strike aircraft preparing to attack the fleet. On one of these flights, an Air Force [[Learjet]] was shot down killing the squadron commander, Vice Commodore Rodolfo De La Colina, who became the highest-ranking Argentine officer to die in the War.
  
−
Combat broke out between other Harriers and [[Dassault Mirage III|Mirage]] fighters of Grupo 8. Both sides refused to fight at the other's best altitude, until two Mirages finally descended to engage. One was shot down by an AIM-9L Sidewinder, while the other escaped but without enough fuel to return to its mainland airfield. The plane made for Stanley, where it fell victim to friendly fire from the Argentine defenders.
+
===Sinking of the Belgrano===
  
−
As a result of this experience, Argentine Air Force staff decided to employ Skyhawks and Daggers only as strike units, the Canberras only during the night, and Mirages (without air refuelling capability or any capable air-to-air missile) as decoys to lure away the British Sea Harriers. The decoying  was be later extended with the formation of the ''[[Escuadron Fenix]]'', a squadron of civilian jets flying 24 hours a day simulating strike aircraft preparing to attack the fleet. On one of these flights, an Air Force [[Learjet]] was shot down killing the squadron commander, Vice Commodore Rodolfo De La Colina, who became the highest-ranking Argentine officer to die in the War.
+
On May 2 the [[World War II]]-vintage Argentine light cruiser ARA ''General Belgrano''&mdash;formerly the USS Phoenix (CL-46), a survivor of the 1941 [[Pearl Harbor]] attacks&mdash;was sunk by the nuclear-powered submarine HMS ''Conqueror,'' captained by Commander Christopher Wreford-Brown, using WWII vintage design Mk 8 mod 4 torpedoes. 321 lives were lost, although initial casualty reports were confused. The Murdoch-owned British tabloid newspaper ''The Sun'' infamously greeted the initial reports of the attack (and the sinking of a small [[gunboat]]) with the headline "GOTCHA." This first edition was published before news that the Belgrano had actually sunk was known and carried no reports of actual Argentine deaths. The headline was replaced in later editions by the more temperate "Did 1,200 Argies drown?"
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−
Stanley was used as an Argentine strongpoint throughout the conflict. Despite there being no fast jets stationed at the airfield, the Black Buck and Harrier raids, and ongoing overnight shelling by detached ships, it was never out of action entirely. [[Hercules C-130]] transport night flights brought supplies, weapons, vehicles, and fuel and airlifted out the wounded right until the end of the conflict. Only one was intercepted by chance by RN [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harriers]]. The few British Sea Harriers were considered too valuable by day to risk in nighttime blockade operations.
 
−
 
 
−
===Sinking of the Belgrano===
 
−
[[Image:The Sun Gotcha.jpg|left|thumb|'''Gotcha''' headline]]
 
−
[[Image:ARA Belgrano sinking.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The ARA ''General Belgrano'' sinks]]
 
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On May 2 the [[World War II]]-vintage Argentine light cruiser [[ARA General Belgrano|ARA ''General Belgrano'']] &mdash; formerly the [[USS Phoenix (CL-46)]], a survivor of the 1941 [[Pearl Harbor]] attacks &mdash; was sunk by the nuclear-powered submarine [[HMS Conqueror (S48)|HMS ''Conqueror'']], captained by Commander Christopher Wreford-Brown, using [[WWII]] vintage design [[List of torpedoes|Mk 8 mod 4]] [[torpedo]]es. 321 lives were lost, although initial casualty reports were confused. The Murdoch-owned British tabloid newspaper ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' infamously greeted the initial reports of the attack (and the sinking of a small '''gunboat''') with the headline '''GOTCHA'''. This first edition was published before news that the Belgrano had actually sunk was known and carried no reports of actual Argentine deaths. The headline was replaced in later editions by the more temperate "Did 1,200 Argies drown?".
 
  
 
In all, 323 Argentines died, half of all their War losses.
 
In all, 323 Argentines died, half of all their War losses.
  
−
The gunboat was the [[USS Salish (ATA-187)|ARA ''Alferez Sobral'']], an ocean/patrol tug sent to search for the crew of an Argentine Air Force [[English Electric Canberra]] shot down on May 1st. Two [[Westland Lynx|Sea Lynx]]s fired '''4''' [[Sea Skua]] against her. Badly damaged and with eight crew dead, the ''Sobral'' managed to return to [[Puerto Deseado]] two days later, but the Canberra's crew was never found.
+
The gunboat was the ARA ''Alferez Sobral,'' an ocean/patrol tug sent to search for the crew of an Argentinian plane shot down on May 1. Two Sea Lynxs fired four Sea Skua against her. Badly damaged and with eight crew dead, the ''Sobral'' managed to return to Puerto Deseado two days later, but the plane's crew was never found.
−
 
 
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The loss of ''General Belgrano'' hardened the stance of the Argentine government and also became a [[cause celebre]] for anti-war campaigners (such as Labour MP [[Tam Dalyell]]), who declared that the ship had been sailing away from the Falklands at the time. The vessel was inarguably outside the exclusion zone, and sailing away from the area of conflict. However, during war, under [[international law]], the heading of a [[belligerent]] naval vessel has no bearing on its status and the captain of the Belgrano, Hector Bonzo, has testified that the attack was legitimate.{{citation needed}} In later years it has been claimed that the information on the position of the ''ARA General Belgrano'' came from a Soviet spy satellite which was tapped by the [[norway|Norwegian]] intelligence service station at Fauske in Norway, and then handed over to the British.{{citation needed}} As of 2006 the ''Belgrano'' remains the only warship sunk by a nuclear-powered submarine in time of war.
 
−
 
 
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The sinking occurred 14 hours after [[List of Presidents of Peru|Constitutional President of the Republic of Peru]] [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]], had proposed a comprehensive peace plan. At the time, and in response to [[Chile]]'s support of Britain, Belaúnde called for regional unity.
 
  
−
Regardless of controversies over the sinking, it had an important strategic effect. After the loss of ''General Belgrano'', the entire Argentine fleet returned to port and did not leave again for the duration of hostilities. The two [[destroyer]]s supporting ''General Belgrano'' and the task force built around the aircraft carrier [[ARA Veinticinco de Mayo]] both withdrew from the area, ending the direct threat to the British fleet that their [[pincer movement]] had represented. The attack on ''General Belgrano'' was the second time since the end of [[World War II]] that a submarine had fired [[torpedo]]es in wartime and the only time that a nuclear powered submarine has done so.
+
The loss of ''General Belgrano'' hardened the stance of the Argentine government and also became a cause celebre for anti-war campaigners (such as Labour MP Tam Dalyell), who declared that the ship had been sailing away from the Falklands at the time. The vessel was inarguably outside the exclusion zone, and sailing away from the area of conflict. However, during war, under international law, the heading of a belligerent naval vessel has no bearing on its status and the captain of the Belgrano, Hector Bonzo, has testified that the attack was legitimate. In later years it has been claimed that the information on the position of the ''ARA General Belgrano'' came from a Soviet spy satellite which was tapped by the [[Norway|Norwegian]] intelligence service station at Fauske in Norway, and then handed over to the British. As of 2006 the ''Belgrano'' remains the only warship sunk by a nuclear-powered submarine in time of war.
  
−
The British [[historian]] Sir Lawrence Freedman stated in the second volume of his ''Official History of the Falklands'' that intelligence about the Belgrano did not reach senior British commanders and politicians until it was too late[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/newspaper/0,,170-1670775,00.html]. Commander Christopher Wreford-Brown, commanding officer of HMS Conqueror, informed the [[Admiralty]] four hours before his attack that the Argentine cruiser had changed course, but this information was not passed to the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|MoD]] or [[Sandy Woodward|Rear-Admiral John "Sandy" Woodward]] (commander of the RN task force). Thus it appears that neither Margaret Thatcher nor the Cabinet were aware of the Belgrano's change of course before the cruiser was sunk.
+
Regardless of controversies over the sinking, it had an important strategic effect. After the loss of ARA ''General Belgrano'', the entire Argentine fleet returned to port and did not leave again for the duration of hostilities. The two destroyers supporting ''General Belgrano'' and the task force built around the aircraft carrier ARA ''Veinticinco de Mayo'' both withdrew from the area, ending the direct threat to the British fleet that their pincer movement had represented. The attack on ''General Belgrano'' was the second time since the end of [[World War II]] that a submarine had fired torpedoes in wartime and the only time that a nuclear powered submarine has done so.
  
 
===Sinking of HMS ''Sheffield''===
 
===Sinking of HMS ''Sheffield''===
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[[Image:Super-Etendard 1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A French [[Dassault Super Étendard]] like one that attacked the ''Sheffield'']]<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:sheffield_onfire.jpg|right|framed|HMS Sheffield on fire]] —>
 
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Two days after the sinking of ''General Belgrano'', on May 4, the British lost the [[Type 42]] destroyer [[HMS Sheffield (D80)|HMS ''Sheffield'']] to fire following an [[Exocet]] missile strike. ''Sheffield'' had been ordered forward with two other Type 42s in order to provide a radar and missile "picket" far from the British carriers. After the ships were detected by a [[COAN]] (Argentine Naval Aviation Command) [[P-2 Neptune]] patrol aircraft, two COAN [[Dassault Super Étendard]]s were launched from their base at [[Rio Grande, Argentina|Rio Grande]], each armed with a single Exocet missile. Refuelled by an Air Force [[C-130 Hercules|KC-130H Hercules]] after launch, they went in at low altitude, popped up for a radar check and released the missiles from 20 to 30 miles (30 to 50 km) away. One missed [[HMS Yarmouth (F101)|HMS ''Yarmouth'']], due to her deployment of [[Chaff (radar countermeasure)|chaff]], but the other hit the ''Sheffield''. The weapon struck with devastating effect, hitting the centre of the ship and starting raging fires which quickly spread, killing 20 crew members and severely injuring 24 others. While fighting the fire, ''Yarmouth'' fired anti-submarine weaponry in response to a possible Argentine submarine attack. ''Sheffield'' was deaf to the tell-tale Exocet seeker radar at the time as the [[ESM]] equipment on board had been switched off to enable the use of the satellite transceiver. The two systems, due to poor design, interfered and couldn't be used simultaneously.
 
  
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''Sheffield'' was abandoned several hours later, gutted and deformed by the fires that continued to burn for six more days. She finally sank outside the [[MEZ]] on May 10, whilst under tow from the ''Yarmouth'', becoming an official [[war grave]]. Meanwhile the other Type 42s were withdrawn from their precarious position, leaving the British task force open to attack. Although the loss of life was obviously regrettable, in one sense the Sheffield served its purpose as a part of the battle group - taking the missile instead of the larger, more important aircraft carrier it protected.
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Two days after the sinking of ''General Belgrano,'' on May 4, the British lost the Type 42 destroyer HMS ''Sheffield'' to fire following an Exocet missile strike. ''Sheffield'' had been ordered forward with two other Type 42s in order to provide a radar and missile "picket" far from the British carriers. After the ships were detected by a COAN (Argentine Naval Aviation Command) P-2 Neptune patrol aircraft, two COAN Dassault Super Étendards were launched from their base at Rio Grande, each armed with a single Exocet missile. Refuelled by an Air Force KC-130H Hercules after launch, they went in at low altitude, popped up for a radar check and released the missiles from 20 to 30 miles (30 to 50 km) away. One missed HMS ''Yarmouth,'' due to her deployment of radar chaff, but the other hit the ''Sheffield.'' The weapon struck with devastating effect, hitting the center of the ship and starting raging fires which quickly spread, killing 20 crew members and severely injuring 24 others. While fighting the fire, ''Yarmouth'' fired anti-submarine weaponry in response to a possible Argentine submarine attack. ''Sheffield'' was deaf to the tell-tale Exocet seeker radar at the time as the ESM equipment on board had been switched off to enable the use of the satellite transceiver. The two systems, due to poor design, interfered and couldn't be used simultaneously.
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The tempo of operations increased throughout the second half of May. UN attempts to mediate a peace were rejected by the British, who felt that any delay would make a campaign impractical in the South Atlantic storms. The destruction of ''Sheffield'' had a profound impact on the British public, bringing home the fact that the "Falklands Crisis", as the BBC News put it, was now an actual shooting war.
 
  
 
===Landing at San Carlos Water===
 
===Landing at San Carlos Water===
 
[[Image:Falkland island san carlos landing.png|thumb|right|250px|San Carlos landing sites]]
 
[[Image:Falkland island san carlos landing.png|thumb|right|250px|San Carlos landing sites]]
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[[Image:Falklandsmap san carlos landings.png|thumb|left|150px|Context of landings in the Falklands]]
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[[Image:Falklandsmap san carlos landings.png|thumb|left|150px|Context of landings in the Falklands]]During the night of May 21, the British made an amphibious landing on beaches around San Carlos Water, on the northern coast of East Falkland, putting the 4,000 men of 3 Commando Brigade, including 2nd and 3rd battalions of the Parachute Regiment (2 and 3 Para), ashore from the amphibious ships and the liner ''Canberra:'' 2 Para and 40 Commando landing at San Carlos beach; 45 Commando at Ajax bay; 3 Para at Port San Carlos. By dawn the next day they had established a secure beachhead from which to conduct offensive operations. From there Brigadier Thompson's plan was to capture Darwin and Goose Green before turning towards Stanley.
  
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During the night of May 21, the British made an amphibious landing on beaches around San Carlos Water, on the northern coast of East Falkland, putting the 4,000 men of 3 Commando Brigade, including 2nd and 3rd battalions of the Parachute Regiment (2 and 3 Para), ashore from the amphibious ships and the liner Canberra: 2 Para and 40 Commando landing at San Carlos beach; 45 Commando at Ajax bay; 3 Para at [[Port San Carlos]]. By dawn the next day they had established a secure beachhead from which to conduct offensive operations. From there [[Brigadier]] Thompson's plan was to capture Darwin and [[Goose Green]] before turning towards Stanley.
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At sea, the paucity of British ships' anti-aircraft defenses was demonstrated in the sinking of HMS ''Ardent'' on the 21, HMS ''Antelope'' on the 23, and MV ''Atlantic Conveyor,'' with a vital cargo of helicopters, runway building equipment, and tents on the 25th. The loss of all but one of the Chinook helicopters being carried by the Atlantic Conveyor was a severe blow from a logistics perspective: The sole surviving Chinook was called Bravo November. Also lost on this day was HMS ''Coventry,'' a sister to HMS ''Sheffield,'' whilst in company with HMS ''Broadsword.'' HMS ''Argonaut'' and HMS ''Brilliant'' were badly damaged. However, many British ships escaped terminal damage due to the Argentine pilots' bombing tactics. In order to avoid the high concentration of British air defenses, Argentine pilots were forced to swoop in and launch their bombs from a low altitude at the very last moment. The Argentines lost nearly twenty aircraft in these attacks, including several Pucarás on the ground.
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Now, with the British troops on the ground, the [[Argentine Air Force]] began the night bombing campaign against them using its [[English Electric Canberra]]s until the last day June 14th.
 
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At sea, the paucity of British ships' anti-aircraft defences was demonstrated in the sinking of [[HMS Ardent (F184)|HMS ''Ardent'']] on the 21st, [[HMS Antelope (F170)|HMS ''Antelope'']] on the 23rd, and [[MV Atlantic Conveyor|MV ''Atlantic Conveyor'']], with a vital cargo of [[helicopter]]s, runway building equipment and tents on the 25th. The loss of all but one of the [[CH-47 Chinook|Chinook]] helicopters being carried by the Atlantic Conveyor was a severe blow from a logistics perspective: the sole surviving Chinook was called Bravo November. Also lost on this day was [[HMS Coventry (D118)|HMS ''Coventry'']], a sister to [[HMS Sheffield (D80)|HMS ''Sheffield'']], whilst in company with [[HMS Broadsword (F88)|HMS ''Broadsword'']]. [[HMS Argonaut (F56)|HMS ''Argonaut'']] and [[HMS Brilliant (F90)|HMS ''Brilliant'']] were badly damaged. However, many British ships escaped terminal damage due to the Argentine pilots' bombing tactics. In order to avoid the high concentration of British air defences, Argentine pilots were forced to swoop in and launch their bombs from a low altitude at the very last moment.   The Argentines lost nearly twenty aircraft in these attacks, including several [[FMA IA 58 Pucará|Pucarás]] on the ground.
 
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While undoubtedly a brave effort of the air force, the late releasing of bombs meant that many never exploded, as there was insufficient time in the air for them to arm themselves. The problem was that, like many other items never used before by the Argentine's Armed Forces in such ways, there was a problem in the way the bombs were armed. Days before the war ended, the problem was solved and the iron bombs exploded regardless of the altitude from which they were dropped, as seen on the 8th June attack.
 
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The submarine [[ARA San Luis]] had similar problems with their SST-4 torpedoes.
 
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In his autobiographical account of the Falklands War, ''One Hundred Days: The Memoirs of the Falklands Battle Group Commander'', [[Sandy Woodward|Admiral Sandy Woodward]] blames the [[BBC World Service]] for the changes to the fuse system on Argentine bombs. This is due to a report on the World Service reporting the problem after receiving a briefing on the matter from an [[MOD]] official. He describes the BBC as being more concerned with being "fearless seekers after truth" than with the lives of British servicemen. Colonel [[H. Jones]] levelled similar accusations against the BBC after they disclosed the impending British attack on Goose Green by 2 Battalion The [[Parachute Regiment]]. Jones had threatened to lead the prosecution of senior BBC officials for treason but was unable to do so since he was himself killed in action around Goose Green.
 
  
 
===Goose Green===
 
===Goose Green===
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{{main|Battle of Goose Green}}
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Starting early on May 27, and through May 28, 2 Para approached and attacked Darwin and Goose Green, which was held by the Argentine 12th Inf Regt. After a tough struggle, which lasted all night and into the next day, 17 British and 55 Argentine soldiers had been killed, and 1,050 Argentine troops taken prisoner. Due to an error by the [[British Broadcasting Company]], the taking of Goose Green was announced on the BBC World Service before it had actually happened. It was during this attack that Lt Col H. Jones, the commanding officer of 2 Para was killed. He was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]].
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Starting early on May 27 and through May 28, 2 Para approached and attacked Darwin and Goose Green, which was held by the Argentine 12th Inf Regt. After a tough struggle, which lasted all night and into the next day, 17 British and 55 Argentine soldiers had been killed, and 1,050 Argentine troops taken prisoner. Due to a gaffe by the BBC, the taking of Goose Green was announced on the [[BBC World Service]] before it had actually happened. It was during this attack that Lt Col [[H. Jones]], the commanding officer of 2 Para was killed. He was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]].
 
  
 
[[Image:Falkland island after goose green.png|thumb|250px|right|East Falkland showing San Carlos bridgehead, Teal Inlet, Mt Kent and Mt Challenger]]
 
[[Image:Falkland island after goose green.png|thumb|250px|right|East Falkland showing San Carlos bridgehead, Teal Inlet, Mt Kent and Mt Challenger]]
  
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With the sizeable Argentine force at Goose Green out of the way, British forces were now able to break out of the San Carlos bridgehead. From 27 May men of 45 Cdo and 3 Para started walking across East Falkland towards the coastal settlement of Teal Inlet. Meanwhile 42 Cdo prepared to move by helicopter to Mount Kent. For the next week, the [[Special Air Service|SAS]] and [[Mountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre]] (the Special Forces unit of [[3 Commando Brigade]]) waged intense patrol battles with reconnaissance patrols of the 602nd Commando Company. An example was a patrol battle of nineteen men of the Cadre, commanded by Captain Rod Boswell, on the lower slopes of Mount Simon. Late in the afternoon of 30 May, a four-man patrol spotted thirteen Commandos approach a remote farm building, Top Malo House. The Cadre's commander, Captain Boswell, was ordered to muster his patrols and mount an assault on the farmhouse. He initially intended to fly in at night and then strike at dawn. Luck was not with the Cadre and its [[Sea King]] helicopter failed to arrive on time. An hour late, the nineteen Marines began their 45 kilometre low-level flight to the drop-off point in a gully, only some 1,000 metres from the farmhouse. At 9:00 AM the assault team comprising 12 Marines approached the house and were engaged by a sniper from the top floor. A firefight which lasted for 45 minutes ensued between the Cadre and the Commandos. With ammunition running low and two-thirds of the patrol killed or wounded, the Argentines elected to surrender. It is estimated that 40 Argentine Commandos were involved in the battle with the SAS and the Cadre. A body count revealed five Argentine dead. Seven members of the British Special Forces were wounded during the actions. One [[Special_Boat_Service|SBS]] Sergeant was killed as the Mount Kent ranges were secured for the arrival of the British battalion.
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From May 27, men of 45 Cdo and 3 Para started walking across East Falkland towards the coastal settlement of Teal Inlet. Meanwhile 42 Cdo prepared to move by helicopter to Mount Kent. For the next week, the SAS and Mountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre waged intense patrol battles with reconnaissance patrols of the 602nd Commando Company. Despite casualties, Stanley was now within sight.
  
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===Bluff Cove & Fitzroy{{fn|3}}===
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===Bluff Cove & Fitzroy===
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By June 1, with the arrival of a further 5,000 British troops of the 5th Infantry Brigade <!-- landed at [[San Carlos]] from [[SS Canberra|''Canberra'']], ''[[Norland]]'' and ''Stromness'' having transferred from the liner [[RMS Queen Elizabeth 2|''QE2'']] at [[South Georgia]] —>, the new British divisional commander, Major General [[JJ Moore]] RM, had sufficient force to start planning an offensive against [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]].
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By June 1, with the arrival of a further 5,000 British troops of the 5th Infantry Brigade the new British divisional commander, Major General JJ Moore RM, had sufficient force to start planning an offensive against Stanley.
  
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During this build-up, the Argentine air assaults on the British naval forces continued, killing 48. 32 of these deaths were from the [[Welsh Guards]] on [[RFA Sir Galahad (1966)|RFA ''Sir Galahad'']] and [[RFA Sir Tristram|''Sir Tristram'']] on June 8. Many others suffered serious burns (including, famously, [[Simon Weston]]).
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During this build-up, the Argentine air assaults on the British naval forces continued, killing 48. 32 of these deaths were from the Welsh Guards on RFA ''Sir Galahad'' and ''Sir Tristram'' on June 8. Many others suffered serious burns.
  
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The Guards were sent to support a ''dashing'' advance along the southern approach to Stanley. On 2nd June a small advance party of 2 Para moved to Swan Inlet house in a number of Army [[Scout (helicopter)|Scout]] helicopters. Telephoning ahead to Fitzroy, they discovered the area clear of Argentines and (exceeding their authority) commandeered the one remaining Chinook to frantically ferry another part of 2 Para ahead to Fitzroy (a settlement on Port Pleasant) and Bluff Cove (a settlement confusingly, and perhaps ultimately fatally, on Port Fitzroy).
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The Guards were sent to support a "dashing" advance along the southern approach to Stanley. On June 2, a small advance party of 2 Para moved to Swan Inlet house in a number of Army Scout helicopters. Telephoning ahead to Fitzroy, they discovered the area clear of Argentines and (exceeding their authority) commandeered the one remaining Chinook to frantically ferry another part of 2 Para ahead to Fitzroy (a settlement on Port Pleasant) and Bluff Cove (a settlement confusingly, and perhaps ultimately fatally, on Port Fitzroy).
  
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This unco-ordinated advance caused planning nightmares for the commanders of the combined operation, as they now found themselves with a 30-mile string of undefendable positions on their southern flank. Support could not be sent by air as the single remaining Chinook was already heavily oversubscribed. The soldiers could march, but their equipment and heavy supplies would need to be ferried by sea. Plans were drawn up for half the Welsh Guards to march light on the night of the 2nd, whilst the Scots Guards and the second half of the Welsh were to be ferried from San Carlos Water in the [[LSL (Amphibious Assault Ship)|landing ship (LSL)]] ''Sir Tristram'' and the [[landing platform dock]] (LPD) ''Intrepid'' on the night of the 5th. ''Intrepid'' was planned to stay one day and unload itself and as much of ''Sir Tristram'' as possible leaving the next evening for the relative safety of San Carlos. Escorts would be provided for this day, whilst ''Sir Tristram'' would be left to unload using an inflatable platform known as a [[Mexeflote]] for as long as it took.
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This uncoordinated advance caused planning nightmares for the commanders of the combined operation, as they now found themselves with a 30-mile string of undefendable positions on their southern flank. Support could not be sent by air as the single remaining Chinook was already heavily oversubscribed. The soldiers could march, but their equipment and heavy supplies would need to be ferried by sea. Plans were drawn up for half the Welsh Guards to march light on the night of the 2nd, whilst the Scots Guards and the second half of the Welsh were to be ferried from San Carlos Water in the landing ship (LSL) ''Sir Tristram'' and the landing platform dock (LPD) ''Intrepid'' on the night of the 5th. ''Intrepid'' was planned to stay one day and unload itself and as much of ''Sir Tristram'' as possible, leaving the next evening for the relative safety of San Carlos. Escorts would be provided for this day, whilst ''Sir Tristram'' would be left to unload using an inflatable platform known as a [[Mexeflote]] for as long as it took.
  
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Political pressure from above to not risk the LPD forced Mike Clapp (Commander Amphibious Forces) to alter this plan. Two lower-value LSLs would be sent, but without suitable beaches to land, ''Intrepid'''s [[landing craft]] would need to accompany them to unload. A complicated operation across several nights with ''Intrepid'' and ''Fearless'' (her sister ship) sailing half-way to despatch their craft was devised. The attempted overland march by half the Welsh Guards had failed, possibly as they refused to march light and attempted to carry their equipment. They returned to San Carlos and were landed direct to Bluff Cove when ''Fearless'' despatched her landing craft. ''Sir Tristram'' sailed on the night of the 6th and was joined by ''Sir Galahad'' at dawn on the 7th.
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Political pressure from above to not risk the LPD forced Mike Clapp (Commander Amphibious Forces) to alter this plan. Two lower-value LSLs would be sent, but without suitable beaches to land, ''Intrepid'''s landing craft would need to accompany them to unload. A complicated operation across several nights with ''Intrepid'' and ''Fearless'' (her sister ship) sailing half-way to dispatch their craft was devised. The attempted overland march by half the Welsh Guards had failed, possibly because they refused to march light and attempted to carry their equipment. They returned to San Carlos and were landed direct to Bluff Cove when ''Fearless'' dispatched her landing craft. ''Sir Tristram'' sailed on the night of the 6th and was joined by ''Sir Galahad'' at dawn on the 7th.
  
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Anchored 1200 feet apart in Port Pleasant, the landing ships were near Fitzroy, the ordered landing point. The landing craft should have been able to unload the ships to here relatively quickly, but confusion over the ordered disembarkation point (the first half of the Guards going direct to Bluff Cove) resulted in the senior Welsh Guards infantry officer aboard insisting his troops be ferried the far longer distance direct to Port Fitzroy/Bluff Cove. The intention was for the infantrymen to march via the recently repaired Bluff Cove bridge (destroyed by retreating Argentinian [[combat engineers]]) to their destination, a journey of around 7 miles.
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Anchored 1200 feet apart in Port Pleasant, the landing ships were near Fitzroy, the ordered landing point. The landing craft should have been able to unload the ships to here relatively quickly, but confusion over the ordered disembarkation point (the first half of the Guards going direct to Bluff Cove) resulted in the senior Welsh Guards infantry officer aboard insisting his troops be ferried the far longer distance direct to Port Fitzroy/Bluff Cove. The intention was for the infantrymen to march via the recently repaired Bluff Cove bridge (destroyed by retreating Argentinian combat engineers) to their destination, a journey of around 7 miles.
  
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The longer journey time of the landing craft taking the troops direct and the squabbling over how the landing was to be performed caused enormous delay in unloading. It had disastrous consequences. Without escorts, having not yet established their air defence and still almost fully laden the two LSLs in Port Pleasant were sitting targets for two waves of Argentinian-FAA [[A-4 Skyhawk]]s.
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The longer journey time of the landing craft taking the troops direct and the squabbling over how the landing was to be performed caused enormous delay in unloading. It had disastrous consequences. Without escorts, having not yet established their air defense and still almost fully laden, the two LSLs in Port Pleasant were sitting targets for two waves of Argentinian-FAA A-4 Skyhawks.
  
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The disaster at Port Pleasant (although often known as Bluff Cove) would provide the world with some of the most sobering images of the war as TV news video footage showed [[Royal Navy|Navy]] helicopters hovering in thick smoke to winch survivors from the burning landing ships.
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The disaster at Port Pleasant (although often known as Bluff Cove) would provide the world with some of the most sobering images of the war as TV news video footage showed Navy helicopters hovering in thick smoke to winch survivors from the burning landing ships.
  
 
===Battle for Stanley===
 
===Battle for Stanley===
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On the night of 11 June, after several days of painstaking reconnaissance and logistic build-up, British forces launched a brigade-sized night attack against the heavily defended ring of high ground surrounding Stanley. Units of 3 Commando Brigade, supported by naval gunfire from several Royal Navy ships, simultaneously assaulted [[Battle of Mount Harriet|Mount Harriet]], [[Battle of Two Sisters|Two Sisters]], and [[Battle of Mount Longdon|Mount Longdon]]. During this battle, thirteen were killed when [[HMS Glamorgan|HMS ''Glamorgan'']], which was providing naval gunfire support, was struck by an Exocet fired from the back of a truck, further displaying the vulnerability of ships to anti-ship missiles. On this day, Sgt [[Ian McKay]] of 4 Platoon, B Company, 3 Para died in a grenade attack on an Argentine bunker which was to earn him a posthumous [[Victoria Cross]]. After a night of fierce fighting, all objectives were secured.
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On the night of 11 June, after several days of painstaking reconnaissance and logistic build-up, British forces launched a brigade-sized night attack against the heavily defended ring of high ground surrounding Stanley. Units of 3 Commando Brigade, supported by naval gunfire from several Royal Navy ships, simultaneously assaulted Mount Harriet, Two Sisters, and Mount Longdon. During this battle, thirteen were killed when HMS ''Glamorgan,'' which was providing naval gunfire support, was struck by an Exocet fired from the back of a truck, further displaying the vulnerability of ships to anti-ship missiles. On this day, Sgt Ian McKay of 4 Platoon, B Company, 3 Para died in a grenade attack on an Argentine bunker which was to earn him a posthumous [[Victoria Cross]]. After a night of fierce fighting, all objectives were secured.
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The night of June 13 saw the start of the second phase of attacks, in which the momentum of the initial assault was maintained. 2 Para captured [[Battle of Wireless Ridge|Wireless Ridge]], and the 2nd battalion, [[Scots Guards (1946)|Scots Guards]] captured [[Battle of Mount Tumbledown|Mount Tumbledown]].
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The night of June 13 saw the start of the second phase of attacks, in which the momentum of the initial assault was maintained. 2 Para captured Wireless Ridge, and the 2nd battalion, Scots Guards captured Mount Tumbledown.
  
 
===War ended===
 
===War ended===
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On June 14, the commander of the Argentine garrison in Stanley, Mario Menendez, surrendered to Major General JJ Moore, RM. 9,800 Argentine troops were made POWs and were repatriated to Argentina on the liner ''Canberra.'' On June 20, the British retook the South Sandwich Islands, (which involved accepting the surrender of the Southern Thule Garrison at the ''Corbeta Uruguay'' base) and declared the hostilities were at an end.
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As the fighting was coming to a close, the Falklands Islanders on the eastern edge of Stanley were in imminent danger of being shot at by a platoon of a 3rd Infantry Regiment company as the conscripts and regulars steeled themselves for the final house-to-house battle near Government House. This is revealed in the book ''The Battle For The Falklands'' by [[Max Hastings]] and [[Simon Jenkins]].
 
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On 14 June the commander of the Argentine garrison in Stanley, Mario Menendez, surrendered to Major General [[JJ Moore]] [[Royal Marines]]. 9,800 Argentine troops were made [[POW]]s and were repatriated to Argentina on the liner ''Canberra''. On 20 June the British retook the [[Southern Thule|South Sandwich Islands]], (which involved accepting the surrender of the [[Southern Thule]] Garrison at the ''[[Corbeta Uruguay]]'' base) and declared the hostilities were at an end.
 
  
 
The war lasted 74 days, with 255 British and 649 Argentine soldiers, sailors, and airmen, and three civilian Falklanders killed.
 
The war lasted 74 days, with 255 British and 649 Argentine soldiers, sailors, and airmen, and three civilian Falklanders killed.
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==Analysis==
 
==Analysis==
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===Military===
 
===Military===
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Militarily, the Falklands War was important for a number of reasons.
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Militarily, the Falklands War was important for a number of reasons. For example, as one of the few naval battles to have taken place after [[World War II]], it illustrated the vulnerability of surface ships to anti-ship missiles and reaffirmed the effectiveness of aircraft in naval warfare. The conflict also re-emphasized the value of total air supremacy, which neither side achieved, but both sides gained results from the air. All of the UK losses at sea were achieved by aircraft or missile strikes. The French [[Exocet missile]] proved its lethality, which resulted in the retrofitting of most major ships with close-in weapons systems (CIWS). The war vindicated the UK decision to develop the Harrier aircraft, that showed its capability of operating from forward bases with no runways. At sea, it demonstrated the domination of airpower in major engagements and the usefulness of carriers. The logistics capability of the UK armed forces was stretched to the absolute limit in order to mount an amphibious operation so far from a home-base, onto mountainous islands which have few roads. After the war, much work was done to improve both the logistics and amphibious capability of the Royal Navy. The role of Special Forces units, which destroyed many Argentine aircraft (such as those destroyed during the SAS raid on Pebble Island) and carried out intelligence gathering operations, was reaffirmed. So was the usefulness of helicopters operations.
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It was one of the few major naval battles so far to have occurred after the end of [[World War II]]. As such, this conflict illustrated the vulnerability of surface ships to anti-ship missiles and reaffirmed the effectiveness of aircraft in naval warfare. The viability of stealth (in the form of submarines) again proved its usefulness, much as it did during World War II and the Cold War.
 
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Neither side achieved total air supremacy, but the power of air forces during a conflict like this proved invaluable, due to the isolated, rough landscape of the Falklands. Air strikes were staged against ground, sea and air targets on both sides and often with clear results. All of the UK losses at sea were achieved by aircraft or missile strikes (by both the [[Argentine Air Force]] and [[Argentine Navy|Naval Aviation]]). The French [[Exocet|Exocet missile]] proved its lethality in [[air-to-surface missile|air-to-surface]] operations, leading to retrofitting of most major ships with [[CIWS]] (close-in weapons systems).
 
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''See also main article [[Air forces in the Falklands War]]''.
 
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It vindicated the UK decision to develop the [[VTOL]] Harrier aircraft, that showed its capability of operating from forward bases with no runways. At sea, it demonstrated the domination of airpower in major engagements and the usefulness of carriers. It also proved the small but manoeuvrable jump jet as a true fighter aircraft able to take on adversaries with a much higher top speed.  Royal Navy Sea Harriers shot down 23 fast jets with no air-to-air losses themselves. Six Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire and/or accidents. It should be noted that the disparity in figures, with the Argentine fighters failing to shoot down a single Sea Harrier, can arguably be attributed to a number of factors including that the Argentine planes were operating at the extent of their range with little fuel for dogfights, the inarguably superior combat air training of the British pilots, the employment by the British of the latest Sidewinder missiles, the almost unparalleled at the time Blue Fox radar, the extreme manoeuvrability of the jump-jet and the frequent provision of fighter control by warships in San Carlos Water.
 
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The logistics capability of the UK armed forces was stretched to the absolute limit in order to mount an amphibious operation so far from a home-base, onto mountainous islands which have few roads. After the war, much work was done to improve both the logistics and amphibious capability of the Royal Navy.
 
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The role of Special Forces units, which destroyed many Argentine aircraft (such as those destroyed during the SAS raid on Pebble Island) and carried out intelligence gathering operations, was reaffirmed.
 
  
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The usefulness of helicopters in combat, logistic, and [[casevac]] operations was reaffirmed.  
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On the other hand, the British Ministry of Defense had been accused of a systematic failure to prepare service personnel for the horrors of war and provide adequate care for them afterwards. Hardly any soldiers had experienced actual conflict.
  
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[[Nylon]] was shown to be a poor choice of fabric in uniforms, as it is more flammable than cotton and also melts with heat, sticking the incendiary fabric to the skin and causing avoidable casualties.
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The Ministry of Defense is also accused of ignoring the issue of [[Post Traumatic Stress Disorder]] (PTSD), which left many sufferers emotionally scarred and unable to work, immersed in social dislocation, alcoholism, and depression. Most veterans have suffered prolonged personality disorders, flashbacks and anxiety levels sometimes reaching pathological levels.
  
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The importance of [[AEW|Airborne Early Warning]] was shown. The Royal Navy had effectively zero over-the-horizon radar capability. This was to be hastily rectified later as Sea King helicopters were fitted with retractable radomes containing a variant of the Nimrod ASW aircraft Searchwater radar. The first travelled south after the war on the brand new ''Illustrious'', sister ship to ''Invincible''.
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More veterans have committed suicide since the Falklands War ended than the number of servicemen killed in action.
  
 
===Political===
 
===Political===
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The Falklands War illustrates the role of political miscalculation and miscommunication in creating war. Both sides seriously underestimated the importance of the Falklands to the other. The Falklands War illustrates the role of chance in determining what happens in a war. Some commentators believe that the war could have ended in an Argentine victory if one of the Exocets had hit an aircraft carrier, or if the frequent unexploded bombs had detonated on striking some of the ships, or if Argentina had attacked the British artillery, using the three paratroop regiments already deployed at [[Comodoro Rivadavia]]. Equally, if the Argentines had made better preparations to hold the islands, they might have been able to do so, but they did not expect that the British would attempt to carry out a war 8,000 miles (13,000 km) from home. Either way, an Argentine victory might have been an unacceptable show of weakness on the part of the UK during an intense period of the [[Cold War]], and as a result some have doubted that such an outcome would have been allowed to remain for long. With the UK being an integral U.S. ally and important part of [[NATO]], to permit a loss would have been a signal to the [[USSR]] that the NATO alliance was militarily and politically weak.
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The Falklands War illustrates the role of political miscalculation and miscommunication in creating war. Both sides seriously underestimated the importance of the Falklands to the other. The Falklands War illustrates the role of chance in determining what happens in a war. Some commentators believe that the war could have ended in an Argentine victory if one of the Exocets had hit an aircraft carrier, or if the frequent unexploded bombs had detonated on striking some of the ships, or if Argentina had attacked the British artillery, using the three paratroop regiments already deployed at Comodoro Rivadavia. Equally, if the Argentines had made better preparations to hold the islands, they might have been able to do so, but they did not expect that the British would attempt to carry out a war 8,000 miles (13,000 km) from home. Either way, an Argentine victory might have been an unacceptable show of weakness on the part of the UK during an intense period of the [[Cold War]], and as a result some have doubted that such an outcome would have been allowed to remain for long. With the UK being an integral U.S. ally and important part of NATO, to permit a loss would have been a signal to the USSR that the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]] alliance was militarily and politically weak.
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<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:MargaretThatcher.jpg|frame|right|Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister during the Falklands War]] —>
 
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The war cost the UK 255 men, six ships (10 others suffered varing degrees of battle damage), thirty-four aircraft (most of which were the helicopters stored on board the ''Atlantic Conveyor'', as only a fraction of this number were actually shot down) and more than £1.6 billion, but the campaign was considered a great victory for the United Kingdom. The war provided a substantial boost to the popularity of Margaret Thatcher and played a role in ensuring her [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|re-election in 1983]]. Several members of her government resigned, including the former [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]]. It has also been said by diplomats that following the British victory there was an increase in international respect for Britain, formerly regarded as a fading colonial power. As mentioned earlier, the victory was not overlooked by the USSR, which increased troop levels facing the British Army of the Rhine soon after, and was an important junction in the Cold War.
 
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However, it is believed that with the renewed confidence gained from the victory, Margaret Thatcher suggested in her September 1982 China visit an extension of the British rule of the New Territories in [[Hong Kong]] which, legally, was to end in 1997 with the expiry of the 99-year lease (Although [[Beijing]] never formally recognized any of the 19th century treaties over Hong Kong). Thatcher was famously threatened during a meeting with then Chinese leader [[Deng Xiaoping]] with comments such as "China is no Argentina," and "We can order troops into Hong Kong this afternoon." Formal discussions of British withdrawal from the territory started after this Beijing visit and Hong Kong was [[Transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong|returned to China]] on 1 July 1997.  On the day of the handover of Hong Kong, former British Foreign Secretary [[Douglas Hurd]] remarked to Argentine Foreign Minister [[Guido di Tella]]; "I know what you're thinking, but you will never see this happen in Port Stanley."
 
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The Argentine military government was ousted after mounting protests by human rights and war veterans groups. Galtieri was forced to resign, paving the way for the restoration of democracy. Elections were held on 30 October 1983 and [[Raúl Alfonsín]], the [[Radical Civic Union]] (UCR) party candidate, took office on 10 December 1983. Alfonsín defeated [[Italo Luder]], the candidate for the [[Justicialist Party]] ([[Peronist]] movement).
 
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===Weapon export controls===
 
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The [[Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls]] (COCOM) failed to anticipate a conflict between Argentina and the UK when approving weapon exports to Argentina.
 
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===Medical===
 
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During the operations, several wounded British soldiers had to spend hours in the cold before receiving medical aid; although, famously, no British soldiers evacuated to medical aid stations died. Many recovered beyond what medicine of the time thought possible, and subsequent theories have suggested that this was due to the extreme cold (similar anecdotal tales had originated during the bitter winter fighting of the [[Korean War]]).  Britain also had medical staff familiar with high velocity gunshot wounds, due to their experiences in the Northern Ireland conflict with the [[IRA]]. One British doctor, who treated all patients according to need rather than nationality, and was hence credited with saving Argentinian lives, was the only person to be honoured by both sides.{{citation needed}}
 
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==Impact in Argentina==
 
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[[Image:Malvinaswarmemorialbbaa217.jpg|thumb|Monument for the fallen soldiers, [[Buenos Aires]]]]
 
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The Argentine loss of the War led to ever-larger protests against the military regime and is credited with giving the final push to drive out the [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional|military government]] that had overthrown [[Isabel Perón]] in 1976 and participated in the crimes of the [[Dirty War]]. Democracy returned to Argentina in 1983.
 
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The famous writer [[Jorge Luis Borges]], himself partly of British descent and bilingual from birth in Spanish and English, wrote in 1985 in literature|1985 a short poem ([http://www.uoregon.edu/~caguirre/juanlopez.html ''Juan López y John Ward'']) about two fictional soldiers (one of each side) that died in the Falklands, which he refers to as "islands that were too famous". He also said about the war: "The Falklands thing was a fight between two bald men over a comb."
 
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−
Among the latest Argentine productions about the war is the 2005 in film|2005 film ''[[Iluminados por el Fuego]]'' ("Enlightened by Fire") [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0288569/], directed by [[Tristán Bauer]] and starred by [[Gastón Pauls]], which received a [[Donostia-San Sebastian International Film Festival|San Sebastián Festival]] special award. The film tells about a veteran's memories, re-awakened after he learns of the suicide of a former soldier comrade.
 
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−
The start of the Falklands War is commemorated as ''Día del Veterano de Guerra y los Caídos en Malvinas'', a [[Public holidays in Argentina|public holiday in Argentina]], usually on the first Monday of April. It is sometimes referred to as [[Malvinas Day]].
 
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−
==Cultural impact in the UK==
 
−
The war provided a wealth of material for writers, and many dozens of books came from it; in the UK the definitive account became [[Max Hastings]] and [[Simon Jenkins]]' ''[[The Battle for the Falklands]]''. Other titles focused on the [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]] (Sharkey Ward's ''[[Sea Harrier over the Falklands]]''), the land battles leading up to the Argentine surrender (Christian Jennings and Adrian Weale's ''[[Green Eyed Boys]]''), and the general experience of battle ([[Ken Lukowiak]]'s ''[[A Soldier's Song]]''). [[Jack Higgins]]' thriller ''[[Exocet]]'' dealt with one of the war's most famous "buzz-words"; for many years afterwards, "Exocet" became synonymous with "rocket" in the UK ("[[Yomp]]" and "[[Task force|Task Force]]" also entered the language).
 
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−
Very few films emerged from the conflict, one such being the 1989 BBC drama ''[[Tumbledown]]'', which starred [[Colin Firth]] in an early role. It told the tale of a soldier in the [[Scots Guards]], brain-damaged by a sniper's bullet, adjusting to disabled life after the war. In 1992 the BBC produced ''[[An Ungentlemanly Act]]'', relating the story of the initial defence of the Islands during the Argentine Invasion, with [[Bob Peck]] as Mike Norman and [[Ian Richardson]] as Rex Hunt. [[Ian Curteis]]' ''[[The Falklands Play]]'' was commissioned by the BBC in 1986, but was not filmed until 2004; the BBC claimed that it would have been broadcast too close to the 1987 General Election. Curteis maintained that the generally sympathetic portrayal of [[Margaret Thatcher]] refuted a perceived BBC anti-government bias. On a lighter note, the character of [[Grant Mitchell (EastEnders)|Grant Mitchell]] from the popular, gritty [[soap opera]] ''[[EastEnders]]'' was written as a traumatised Falklands veteran, although this characterisation was swiftly abandoned.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur's]] popular Argentine midfielder [[Ossie Ardiles]] had helped beat [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] one day after the invasion, to no ill effect, although he subsequently left the UK for a year, of his own volition. The war also created heightened passions between [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] and [[English national football team|England]] in the [[Football World Cup 1986|1986]], [[Football World Cup 1998|1998]], and [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]] FIFA World Cups, featuring memorable, and sometimes infamous, performances by [[Diego Maradona]], [[Peter Shilton]], and [[David Beckham]]. (See [[Argentina and England football rivalry]]).
 
−
 
 
−
Although the war did not have a direct impact on British civilians, it nonetheless had impacts on British pop culture. Popular music referencing the war included [[Elvis Costello]]'s song "[[Punch the Clock|Shipbuilding]]", [[New Order]]'s song "Blue Monday", [[Iron Maiden]]'s song "Como Estais Amigos", [[Pink Floyd]]'s songs "Get Your Filthy Hands Off My Desert", "The Fletcher Memorial Home", "Southampton Dock" and "Not Now John" from the album ''[[The Final Cut (album)|The Final Cut]]'', [[Billy Bragg]]'s song "Island of No Return", [[New Model Army (band)|New Model Army]]'s "Spirit of the Falklands" and [[The Bluebells]]' song "South Atlantic Way". [[Joe Jackson (musician)|Joe Jackson]]'s 1986 song "Tango Atlantico" deals with a description of the end of the war and the aftermath.  Several years later, in 1994, British [[death metal]] band [[Bolt Thrower]] featured a photograph of British commandos participating in the Falklands War on the cover of their release [[...For Victory]].
 
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−
The popular computer games ''[[Harrier Attack]]'' and ''[[Yomp (computer game)|Yomp]]'' presented unofficial portraits of the fighting.
 
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The aforementioned [[Simon Weston]], a [[Welsh Guards|Welsh Guardsman]] who had suffered serious burns during the bombing of ''Sir Galahad'', became a popular figure due to British media coverage. A series of television documentaries followed his progress and eventual recovery from his injuries (''[[Simon's War]]'' being the first).
 
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The film version of ''[[Whoops Apocalypse]]'' features a conflict very similar to the Falklands War between the United Kingdom and a fictional country Maguadora over the fictional Santa Maya.
 
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At the time of the Falklands War, the BBC banned the song "Six Months In A Leaky Boat" by Split Enz because the lyrics were considered too provocative. [http://www.dummocrats.com/archives/000809.php]
 
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==Pope John Paul II visits==
 
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In May 1982, [[Pope]] [[John Paul II]] carried out a long scheduled visit to the [[United Kingdom|UK]].  In view of the crisis it was decided that this should be balanced with an unscheduled trip to Argentina in June. It is contended that his presence and words spiritually prepared Argentines for a possible defeat, contrary to the [[propaganda]] issued by the Junta. He would return to Argentina in 1987 after [[Democracy|democratisation]].
 
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==Falklands veterans' afflictions==
 
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The British Ministry of Defence was accused several times of a systematic failure to prepare service personnel for the horrors of war and provide adequate care for them afterwards.
 
  
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There are strong allegations that the Ministry of Defence has tried to ignore the issue of [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|Post Traumatic Stress Disorder]] (PTSD), which left many sufferers emotionally scarred and unable to work, immersed in social dislocation, alcoholism, and depression. Most veterans have suffered prolonged personality disorders, flashbacks and anxiety levels sometimes reaching pathological levels.
+
It has also been said by diplomats that following the British victory there was an increase in international respect for Britain, formerly regarded as a fading colonial power. As mentioned earlier, the victory was not overlooked by the USSR, which increased troop levels facing the British Army of the Rhine soon after, and was an important junction in the Cold War.
  
−
It was revealed that more veterans have committed suicide since the Falklands War ended than the number of servicemen killed in action [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/witness/april/24/newsid_2947000/2947639.stm].
+
With the renewal of confidence gained from the victory, Margaret Thatcher suggested in her September 1982 China visit an extension of the British rule of the New Territories in [[Hong Kong]] which, legally, was to end in 1997 with the expiry of the 99-year lease.  
  
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SAMA82 - the South Atlantic Medal Association, which represents and helps Falklands veterans - believe some 264 veterans have now taken their own lives (2002), a number that contrasts with the 255 who died on active service.
+
The Argentine military government was ousted after mounting protests by human rights and war veterans groups. Galtieri was forced to resign, paving the way for the restoration of democracy. Elections were held on October 30, 1983. The start of the Falklands War is commemorated as ''Día del Veterano de Guerra y los Caídos en Malvinas,'' a public holiday in Argentina, usually on the first Monday of April. It is sometimes referred to as Malvinas Day.
  
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A similar situation afflicts the veterans on the Argentine side, many of whom have similarly suffered from psychiatric disorders, drug and alcohol abuse, and social turmoil. According to an Argentine movie (''Iluminados por el fuego'' by Tristán Bauer, 2006) about the suicide of a Malvinas veteran, the current suicide toll is 454.
+
In May 1982, Pope [[John Paul II]] carried out a long scheduled visit to the UK. In view of the crisis it was decided that this should be balanced with an unscheduled trip to Argentina in June. It is contended that his presence and words spiritually prepared Argentines for a possible defeat, contrary to the propaganda issued by the Junta. He would return to Argentina in 1987 after democratization.
  
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==Artistic treatments==
+
==Notes==
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''NB'': no critique of the arguments presented in the following is offered.
+
<references/>
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===Music===
 
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*Pop musician [[Elvis Costello]] wrote the song "Shipbuilding" (1983) in response to the Falklands War.  With the opening line "Is it worth it?"[http://www.seeklyrics.com/lyrics/Elvis-Costello/Shipbuilding.html], it is considered to be a protest against the war.
 
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*Much material produced around this time by the [[anarchist]] [[punk rock|punk]] band [[Crass]] was extremely critical of the war, in particular the album ''[[Yes Sir, I Will]]'' and the singles "Sheep Farming in the Falklands" and "How Does it Feel to be the Mother of 1000 Dead?" The latter, intended as a statement directed at Mrs. Thatcher, led to questions in parliament and a request for prosecution for [[Obscene Publications Act|obscenity]] from Conservative MP for [[Enfield]] North [[Timothy Eggar]] [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/09422b.html]. Crass were also responsible for [[Thatchergate]], a [[hoax]] tape, originally attributed to the [[Soviet]] [[KGB]], on which the spliced voice of Margaret Thatcher appears to imply that the HMS ''Sheffield'' was deliberately sacrificed in order to escalate the conflict.
 
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*The Falklands War provided much of the subject matter for [[Pink Floyd]]'s 1983 album ''The Final Cut'', written by Roger Waters.  The lyrics are highly critical of perceived British jingoism and of the Thatcher government's actions.  A specific lyric protesting the sinking of ''[[ARA General Belgrano]]'' reads: "[[Brezhnev]] took [[Afghanistan]]; [[Menachem Begin|Begin]] took [[Beirut]].  Galtieri took the Union Jack.  And Maggie, over lunch one day, took a cruiser with all hands... apparently to make him give it back."
 
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*The folk rock band [[The Levellers (band)|The Levellers]] wrote and produced the song "Another mans cause" featuring the lyrics "Your daddy well he died in the Falklands."
 
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*Beer fuelled northern punk band The Macc Lads penned a typically un-pc track called Buenos Aires (1982, Falklands War Mix) with such great lines as "Costas Mendes lives in fear / Of men who drink real beer!" and "hey hey hey / The Boys are on their way / With their planes and tanks and tommy guns / and their bellies full of Boddingtons."
 
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===Theatre===
 
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* British playwright [[Steven Berkoff]] wrote the highly critical satirical play [[Sink the Belgrano!]] about the British decision to go to war and the sinking of ''Belgrano''.
 
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* ''An Ungentlemanly Act'' portrays the lives of the governor, the token garrison and everyday people of The Islands as the Argentines invade and attempt to impose their will.
 
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* ''Tumbledown'' portrays the experiences of a British soldier who loses use of his legs during the war (specifically on Mount Tumbledown in the final push for Stanley), focusing on its effect on his post-war years.
 
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===Computer games===
 
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*[[Malvinas 2032]] its a real-time strategy game, in which you have to command the Argentinean forces and recover the Malvinas Islands back to Argentina developed by [[Sabarasa Entertainment]].
 
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*[http://www.harpoonhq.com/harpoon3/scenarios/plot-falklands.html Falklands War - 1982] &mdash; This scenario collection, created with the Harpoon3 naval warfare simulator, is intended to accurately recreate the real-life war from 1982.
 
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<!-- Re-add when it appears — see [[WP:Wikipedia_is_not_a_crystal_ball#Wikipedia_is_not_a_crystal_ball]] — *[http://www.thunder-works.com Jet Thunder: Falklands/Malvinas] &mdash; Flight simulator focused in the air war in the South Atlantic, will feature a historic 1982 scenario, carrier operations and realistic Flight Modelling (FM), including V/STOL. It's expected to be out in 2007. —>
 
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==See also==
 
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{{commons|Falklands war}}
 
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*[[Operation Algeciras]] - A failed plan conceived by the Argentine military to send some [[Montoneros]] to sabotage the British military facilities in [[Gibraltar]].
 
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*[[1833 invasion of the Falkland Islands]]
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
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{{Wikiquote}}
+
* Barnett, Anthony. ''Iron Britannia''. London : Allison & Busby, 1982. ISBN 0850314933
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* Barnett, Anthony. ''IRON BRITANNIA Why Parliament waged its Falklands war''. Allison & Busby, 1982. ISBN 0-85031-493-3
+
* Dalyell, Tam. ''One Man's Falklands''. London : Cecil Woolf, 1982. ISBN 0900821647
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* Dalyell, Tam, MP. ''One Man's Falklands''. Cecil Woolf, 1982. ISBN 0-900821-65-5
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* Dalyell, Tam. ''Thatcher's Torpedo''. London : Cecil Woolf, 1983. ISBN 0900821663
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* Dalyell, Tam, MP. ''Thatcher's Torpedo''. Cecil Woolf, 1983. ISBN 0-900821-66-3
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* Freedman, Sir L. ''Official History of the Falklands, Vol 2(Cabinet Office Series of Official Histories)''. Frank Cass, 2005. ISBN 0714652075  
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* Franks et al. ''Falkland Islands Review, Report of a Committee of Privy Counsellors''. HMSO, January 1983. Cmnd. 8787.
+
* Gavshon, Arthur L. and Desmond Rice. ''The Sinking of the Belgrano''. London : Secker & Warburg, 1984. ISBN 0436413329
−
*Freedman, Sir L. ''Official History of the Falklands: Vol 2''. Frank Cass, 2005 ISBN 0714652075
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* Harris, Robert. ''Gotcha! The Media, the Government and the Falklands Crisis.'' London ; Boston : Faber and Faber, 1983. ISBN 0571130526
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* Gavshon, Arthur and Rice, Desmond. ''The Sinking of the Belgrano''. Secker & Warburg, 1984. ISBN 0-436-41332-9
+
* Tinker, David. ''A Message from the Falklands, The Life and Gallant Death of David Tinker, Lieut. R.N. from his Letters and Poems.'' Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England ; New York, N.Y., U.SA: Penguin, 1983. ISBN 0140067787
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* Harris, Robert. ''GOTCHA! The Media, the Government and the Falklands Crisis''. Faber and Faber, 1983. ISBN 0-571-13052-6
+
* Underwood, Geoffrey. ''Our Falklands War, The Men of the Task Force Tell Their Story''. Duloe, Liskeard, Cornwall: Maritime Books, 1983. ISBN 0907771084
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* Kon, Daniel. ''Los Chicos de la Guerra, The Argentine conscripts' own moving accounts of their Falklands War'' (English translation). New English Library 1983. ISBN 0-450-05611-2
 
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* Norton-Taylor, Richard. ''The Ponting Affair''. Cecil Woolf, 1985. ISBN 0-900821-73-6
 
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* Sunday Times Insight Team. ''The Falklands War''. Sphere Books, 1982. ISBN 0-7221-8282-1
 
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* Tinker, Lieut. David, R.N. ''A Message from the Falklands, The Life and Gallant Death of David Tinker, Lieut. R.N. from his Letters and Poems''. Penguin, 1982. ISBN 0-14-006778-7
 
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* Underwood, Geoffrey. ''Our Falklands War, The Men of the Task Force Tell Their Story''. Maritime Books, 1983. ISBN 0-907771-08-4
 
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*[http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/diglibrary/oralhistory/falklands/falklands_2003_0515.html Falklands Roundtable — Ronald Reagan Oral History Project, Scripps Library]
 
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*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/newspaper/0,,170-1670775,00.html The Times article on Freedman's work] June 27 2005, Evans, M. and Hamilton, A.
 
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*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2002%2F03%2F13%2Fnot13.xml "How France helped us win Falklands war, by John Nott", By George Jones, Political Editor (Filed: 13/03/2002)]
 
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*{{fnb|1}} {{cite web
 
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| title = 1982: Marines land in South Georgia
 
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| work = BBC
 
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| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/25/newsid_2503000/2503977.stm
 
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| accessdate = 20 June
 
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| accessyear = 2005
 
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}}
 
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*{{fnb|2}} D. George Boyce, The Falklands War, Palgrave MacMillan, (2005). page 92.  Also see Richardson, L., When Allies Differ: Anglo-American relations during the Suez and Falklands Crises, London, (1996).
 
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*{{fnb|3}} Michael Clapp, Amphibious Assault Falklands. ISBN 0752811096
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
*[http://www.falklandswar.org.uk/index.htm Falklandswar.org.uk]
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All links retrieved March 23, 2024.
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*[http://www.gazettes-online.co.uk/archiveViewFrameSetup.asp?IssueNumber=49134&pageNumber=1&PageDuplicate=x0 Victoria Cross and other citations], [[London Gazette]], 11 October 1982
 
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*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/falklands/story/0,11707,657871,00.html The Guardian: Julian Barnes]
 
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*[http://www.gregoryferdinandsen.com/EZE2001/Falklands_Memorial.htm Malvinas War Memorial] ([[Buenos Aires]])
 
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*[http://www.falklands-malvinas.com/forum Falklands/Malvinas Forum] ([[English language|English]]/[[Spanish language|Spanish]])
 
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*[http://www.cecim.org.ar ex-7th Argentine Infantry Regiment veterans] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]])
 
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*[http://www.falklands.info/history/82timeline.html Falklands War Timeline]
 
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*[http://www.falklands.info/history/82doc.html Falklands War Documents]
 
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*[http://www.falklands.info/history/82articles.html Falklands War Articles]
 
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*[http://www.escuadronfenix.org.ar/ Escuadron Fenix] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]])
 
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*[http://www.dradio.de/dlf/sendungen/einewelt/485782/ Movie ''Iluminados por el fuego'' regarding Argentine veterans suicide] (German)
 
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*[http://www.raf.mod.uk/falklands MoD - 20 years anniversary]
 
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*[http://www.naval-history.net/NAVAL1982FALKLANDS.htm Naval-History.Net - "Battle Atlas of the Falklands War 1982"]
 
  
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{{Falklands War}}
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*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/falklands/story/0,11707,657871,00.html The Guardian: Julian Barnes].
 +
*[http://www.naval-history.net/NAVAL1982FALKLANDS.htm Naval-History.Net—"Battle Atlas of the Falklands War 1982"].
  
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[[Category:History and biography]]
 
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[[Category:History]]
 
  
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{{Link FA|es}}
 
 
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[[Category:History]]

Latest revision as of 00:33, 25 March 2024


The Falklands War (Spanish: Guerra de las Malvinas) was an effective state of war in 1982 between Argentina and the United Kingdom over the Falkland Islands (known in Spanish as the Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The Falklands consist of two large and many small islands in the South Atlantic Ocean east of Argentina, whose ownership had long been disputed.

Some Argentinians occupied South Georgia March 19, 1982. Initially, HMS Endurance was dispatched to remove the camp on March 25, but was prevented from doing so and forced to retreat by the Argentine Navy corvette ARA Guerrico. Military occupation of the Falklands followed on April 2nd. The war ended with Argentina's surrender on June 14, 1982. War was not declared by either side, and there was no military activity outside the islands; the conflict was considered by Argentina as reoccupation of its own territory, and by Britain as an invasion of a British dependency.

Argentina was in the midst of a devastating economic crisis and large-scale civil unrest against the repressive military junta that was governing the country in the period leading up to the war. The Argentine military government, headed by General Leopoldo Galtieri, thought that by launching what it thought would be a quick and easy war to reclaim the Falkland Islands, it would re-kindle national pride and popular support. Britain and Argentina generally enjoyed good relations, although controversy over the islands' sovereignty had been the cause of some tension. This increased on March 19, when 50 Argentines landed on the British dependency of South Georgia and raised their flag, an act that is seen as the first offensive action in the war. On April 2, Galtieri ordered the invasion, triggering the Falklands War.

Though initially surprised by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, Britain launched a naval task force to engage the Argentine Navy and Air Force, and retake the islands by amphibious assault. After combat resulting in 255 British and 649 Argentinian deaths, the British eventually prevailed and the islands remained under British control, although as of 2006, Argentina shows no sign of relinquishing its claim to the Falkland Islands.

The political effects of the war were strong in both countries. The Argentine loss prompted even larger protests against the military government, which hastened its downfall, while a wave of patriotic sentiment swept through the United Kingdom, bolstering the government of British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and ensuring its victory in the 1983 general election, which, prior to the war, was seen as by no means certain. The war has played an important role in the culture of both countries, and has been the subject of several books, movies, and songs, although due to the low number of casualties on both sides it is not seen as a truly major event of either military or twentieth century history. The cultural and political weight of the conflict has had less effect on the British public than on that of Argentina, where the war is still a topic of discussion. Militarily, however, it remains important as the sole example of a major naval and amphibious operation between modern forces since the Korean War. The wider context of the conflict was Britain's role as a Cold War ally of the U.S. and as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. Thatcher was anxious to demonstrate that Britain was more than a once-great but no longer significant power, that, even if not a super-power, she still merited her place at the UN.

Lead up to the war

Build-up

President Galtieri of Argentina raised the profile of the Falkland Islands issue in order to deflect public concern away from the failing economy. He exerted pressure in the United Nations by raising subtle hints of a possible invasion, but the British either missed or ignored this threat and did not react. Galtiera misread this as a sign of British disengagement from the Falklands, and assumed that the British would not use force if the islands were invaded. Britain had given up almost all her colonial possessions. The Falklands had no particular strategic significance. Britain was already in the process of rationalizing her naval presence in the area by withdrawing the icebreaker, HMS Endurance, while British Nationality Act of 1981 replaced the full British citizenship of Falkland Islanders with a more limited version. Most Britons did not even know that they existed, or were still colonies.

It is not known when serious plans to invade the Falklands were first considered, but following the failure of diplomatic talks in January 1982, the invasion plans were updated. Although it is often thought that the Falklands invasion was a long-planned action, it became clear after the war that it had been largely improvised. The isles were not fortified, sea mines were not deployed at strategic landing spots, and a large part of the infantry forces sent to the Falklands consisted of young recruits doing military service. Arguments that the war was a last minute decision are bolstered by the fact that the Argentine Navy would have received, at the end of the year, additional Exocet anti-ship missiles, Super Étendards and new ships being built in West Germany.

The Argentine military knew they were hardly a match for their British counterparts, and the Argentine Air Force (FAA) had realized, in training attacks made during April after the landings against the modern Argentine Navy British-type vessels Type 42, that they could lose more than half of their units in the process of destroying only a few British warships. However, the actual course of the war surprised many observers, since Argentina's losses had been expected to be far worse, given their level of preparedness.

Argentina's original intention was to mount a quick symbolic occupation, quickly followed by a withdrawal, and only a small garrison was left to support the new military governor. All Argentine assault units were withdrawn to the mainland on the following days, but strong popular support and the rapid British reaction encouraged the Junta to change their objectives and reinforce the islands. They misjudged the political climate in Britain, believing that democracies were weak, indecisive, and averse to risk, and did not anticipate that the British would move their fleet halfway across the globe. Margaret Thatcher, however, despite being told by her advisors that it was impossible to retake the islands, was determined to defend British people living on British territory.

Failed diplomacy

During the conflict, there were no formal diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina, so negotiations were carried out in a rather indirect way, via third parties who spoke with one then with the other belligerent nation in a form of shuttle diplomacy. The Secretary-General of the United Nations, Peruvian Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, announced that his efforts in favor of peace were futile. Although Peru (which represented Argentina's diplomatic interests in Britain) and Switzerland (which represented Britain's diplomatic interests in Argentina) exerted great diplomatic pressure to avoid war, they were unable to resolve the conflict, and a peace plan proposed by Peruvian president Fernando Belaúnde Terry was rejected by both sides. The U.S. Secretary of State, Alexander Haig, also attempted to act as a mediator.

Invasion

The Argentine Lieutenant-Commander in charge of the invasion, Guillermo Sanchez-Sabarots, landed his squadron of special forces at Mullet Creek. He proceeded to attack the Moody Brook Barracks, the Government House, and Stanley, Falkland Islands, until the British Falkland Islands government located at the Government House surrendered on April 4. One British Royal Marine was wounded, and one Argentine was killed in the main invasion, a further three Argentines were killed in fighting to take control of South Georgia. Royal Marines stationed on the islands may have killed as many 30 Argentinians in defending the island against a much larger invasion force supported by a destroyer and helicopters.

Life under the occupation

Argentina enforced several unwelcome changes to the culture of the Falkland Islands, in spite of earlier assurances that the Islanders' way of life and cultural identity would be maintained. Argentina changed Port Stanley's name to Puerto Argentino, made Spanish the official language of the Islands, and commanded traffic to drive on the right by painting arrows on the road indicating the direction of traffic and changing the location of street and traffic signs. Despite these arrows, the islanders defiantly continued to drive on the left, demonstrating their determination to remain British.

Task force

The British were quick to organize diplomatic pressure against Argentina. Because of the long distance to the Falklands, Britain had to rely on a naval task force for military action. The force was commanded by Rear Admiral John "Sandy" Woodward and centered around the aircraft carriers HMS Hermes and the newly-commissioned HMS Invincible carrying only 20 Fleet Air Arm (FAA) Sea Harriers between them for defense against the combined Argentintian air force and naval air arm.

A second component was the amphibious group commanded by Commodore M.C. Clapp RN. Contrary to common belief, Admiral Woodward did not command Commodore Clapp's ships. The embarked force comprised of three Commando Brigade Royal Marines, (including units from the Parachute Regiment) under the command of Brigadier J. Thompson RM to bring it up to its wartime strength. Most of this force was aboard the hastily commandeered cruise liner Canberra. Both Clapp and Woodward reported directly to the Commander in Chief Fleet (CINCFLEET), Admiral Sir John Fieldhouse, in Britain, who was the overall commander of the operation. The UK declared a "total exclusion zone" of 200 nautical miles (370 km) around the Falklands before commencing operation, excluding all neutral and Argentine vessels.

Throughout the operation, 43 British merchant ships (ships taken up from trade, or STUFT) served with or supplied the task force. Cargo vessels and tankers for fuel and water formed an 8000-mile logistics chain between Britain and the South Atlantic Ocean.[1]

During the journey and up to the war, beginning on May 1, the Task Force was shadowed by Boeing 707 aircraft of the Argentine Air Force. One of these flights was intercepted outside the exclusion zone by a Sea Harrier; the unarmed airplane was not attacked.

Prince Andrew, then second in line to the British throne, served as a Sea King helicopter pilot on HMS Invincible during the war, flying anti-submarine patrols. His helicopter was equipped with a Marconi Searchwater radar and acted as an improvised Airborne Early Warning platform, making it a valuable target. He revealed in an apparently inadvertent admission shortly after the war that he also flew missions as an Exocet missile decoy.

The British called their counter-invasion Operation Corporate. When the task force sailed from Britain, the American news magazine Newsweek cover headline proclaimed "The Empire Strikes Back," the name of a recent Star Wars movie, in humorous reference to the old British Empire. The whole exercise was reminiscent of some of the policing exercises of the nineteenth century, in the days when the Royal Navy tried to keep the peace around the world.

The public mood in the United Kingdom was in support of an attempt to reclaim the islands. International opinion was divided. To some, Britain was a former colonial power, seeking to reclaim a colony from a local power, and this was a message that the Argentines initially used to garner support. Others supported Britain as a stable democracy invaded by a military dictatorship. Most European countries and the United States supported Britain; most Latin American countries supported Argentina. British diplomacy centered on arguing that the Falkland Islanders were entitled to use the United Nations principle of self-determination, and showing willingness to compromise. The UN Secretary-General said that he was favorable to the compromise that the UK had offered. Nevertheless, Argentina rejected it, basing their arguments on rights to territory based on actions before 1945 and the creation of the UN. Many UN members realized that if territorial claims this old could be resurrected, and invasions of territory allowed unchallenged, then their own borders were not safe. On April 3, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 502, calling for the withdrawal of Argentine troops from the islands and the cessation of hostilities. On April 10, the European Community approved trade sanctions against Argentina. The United States administration did not issue direct diplomatic condemnations, instead providing intelligence support to the British military. The U.S. had treaty relations with both sides and adopted a policy of non-interference. Ronald Reagan was also confident that Britain could handle the matter on its own.

Galtieri, and a great part of his government, did not think that the UK would react. This would have astonished British people at the time, already familiar with Margaret Thatcher's uncompromising style of government. She declared that the democratic rights of the Falkland Islanders had been assaulted, and would not surrender the islands to the Argentine jackboot. This stance was aided, at least domestically, by the staunchly loyalist British press, especially The Sun, which ran such headlines as "GOTCHA" (following the sinking of General Belgrano). The Daily Mirror, on the other hand, vehemently opposed the war, attacking their tabloid rival The Sun, and claiming it would "damage your mind."

American non-interference was actually vital to the American-British relationship. Ascension Island, a UK possession, was vital in the long term supply of the Task Force South: however the airbase stationed on it was run and operated by the United States. The American commander of the base was ordered to assist the British in any way, and soon there was more air traffic in and out of Ascension Air Field than at the busiest international airport of the time. The most decisive American contribution was spy satellite and intelligence information, and the rescheduled supply of AIM-9L Sidewinder missiles (which were much more efficient than older models of the Sidewinder, due to their all-aspect targeting capability), allowing the UK to ship its NATO inventory south. Margaret Thatcher stated that "without the Harrier jets and their immense maneuverability, equipped as they were with the latest version of the Sidewinder missile, supplied to us by U.S. Defense Minister Caspar Weinberger, we could never have got back the Falklands." Most of the Sidewinder air to air engagements however, proved to be from the rear.

French involvement

French president François Mitterrand gave full support to the UK in the Falklands war. As a large part of Argentina's military equipment was French-made, French support was crucial. France provided aircraft, identical to the ones it supplied to Argentina, for British pilots to train against. France provided intelligence to help sabotage the Exocet missiles it sold to Argentina. In her memoirs, Margaret Thatcher remarked of Mitterrand that "I never forgot the debt we owed him for his personal support … throughout the Falklands Crisis." Sir John Nott, who was UK Secretary of State for Defense during the conflict later acknowledged: "In so many ways Mitterrand and the French were our greatest allies."[2]

Latin American support

Despite receiving cursory support from the Organization of American States in a resolution supporting Argentina's sovereignty and deploring European Community sanctions (with Chile, Colombia, Trinidad & Tobago and the United States attending but abstaining), Argentina received military assistance only from Peru (Peruvian president Belaunde announced that his country was "ready to support Argentina with all the resources it needed") and Venezuela. This came in the form of aircraft supplies like long range air fuel tanks and spare parts. With the War over, Argentina received Mirage 5P fighter planes from the Peruvian Air Force whilst the Argentine Navy received Aermacchi MB-326 and Embraer Bandeirantes from the Brazilian Air Force.

Cuba and Bolivia offered ground troops, but their offers were seen as political posturing and not accepted.

Neighboring Chile became the only major Latin American country to support Britain (and then only indirectly) by providing a military and naval diversion. Chile and Argentina had almost gone to war over the possession of islands south of Tierra del Fuego in 1978 (the dispute ended peacefully with the 1984 Argentina and Chile Peace and Friendship Treaty mediated by Pope John Paul II). The relationship between these two countries was still very tense. The Chilean government was possibly concerned that, if Argentina succeeded in taking the Falklands, General Galtieri's government would invade or attack Chile. The Chilean Connection is described in detail by Sir Lawrence Freedman in his book The Official History of the Falklands Campaign.[3]

War

By mid-April the Royal Air Force had set up an airbase at Wideawake on the mid-Atlantic island of Ascension, including a sizable force of Vulcan bombers, Victor refuelling aircraft, and F-4 Phantom fighters to protect them. Meanwhile the main British naval task force arrived at Ascension to prepare for war. A small force had already been sent south to re-capture South Georgia.

Recapture of South Georgia

The South Georgia force, Operation Paraquet, under the command of Major Guy Sheridan RM, consisted of Marines from 42 Commando, a troop of the Special Air Service (SAS) and Special Boat Service (SBS) troops who were intended to land as reconnaissance forces for an invasion by the Royal Marines; embarked on RFA Tidespring. First to arrive was the Churchill class submarine HMS Conqueror on the 19th, and the island was over-flown by a radar-mapping Handley Page Victor on the 20th. The first landings of SAS troops took place on the 21st, but the weather was so bad that their landings and others made the next day were all withdrawn after several helicopters crashed in fog on Fortuna Glacier.

On the 23rd a submarine alert was sounded and operations were halted, with the Tidespring being withdrawn to deeper water to avoid interception. On the 24th the British forces regrouped and headed in to attack the submarine, the ARA Santa Fe, locating it on the 25th and damaging it enough that the crew decided to abandon it. With the Tidespring now far out to sea and an additional defending force of the submarine's crew now landed, Major Sheridan decided to gather the 75 men he had and make a direct assault that day. After a short forced march by the British force, the Argentine forces surrendered without resistance. The British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, broke the news to the media telling them to "Just rejoice at that news!."

The Black Buck Raids

On May 1, operations against the Falklands opened with an attack by RAF Avro Vulcan V bombers on the airfield at Stanley from Wideawake airbase on Ascension. The Vulcan had originally been designed for medium-range stand-off nuclear missions in Europe and did not have the range to fly to the Falklands, requiring several in-flight refuelings. The RAF's tanker planes were mostly converted Victors with similar range, so they too had to be refueled in the air. Thus a total force of 11 tankers were required for only two Vulcans, a massive logistical effort, given both tankers and bombers had to use the same airfield. In the end only a single bomb from all the Black Buck raids hit the runway at Stanley.

The raids, at almost 8,000 miles and 16 hours for the return journey were the longest ranged bombing raids in history at that time. They are credited with the strategic success of causing the Argentine Air Force to withdraw all their Mirage III aircraft to protect against the possibility of similar bombing raids on Argentina but the real fact was that their lack of aerial refueling capability prevent them to effectively used them over the islands so the FAA Grupo 8 Mirages were deployed to Comodoro Rivadavia and Rio Gallegos in April (before the raids) and they remained there until June to protect against the Chilean threat and as reserve for the strike units.

The escalation of the air war

Fleet Air Arm Sea Harrier FA2. Its predecessor, the FRS1, performed admirably in the conflict.

Stanley's runway was too short to support fast jets, so the Argentine Air Force (FAA) had to launch its major strikes from the mainland, severely hampering their efforts in staging combat air patrols and close air support over the islands. Stanley was used as an Argentine strong point throughout the conflict.

The first major strike force comprised 36 aircraft (Skyhawks, Daggers, Canberras, and Mirage escorts), and was launched on May 1, in the belief that the British invasion was imminent or landings had already taken place. Only a section of Grupo 6 (flying IAI Dagger Aircraft) found ships, which were firing at Argentine defenses, near the islands. The Daggers managed to attack the ships and return safely. This was a great stimulus for the Argentine pilots, for they now knew that they could survive an attack against a modern warship, protected by radar ground clutter from the islands and a late "pop-up" profile.

Some of Argentine aircraft were intercepted by Sea Harriers operating from Invincible, and a Dagger and a Canberra airplanes were shot down.

Combat broke out between other Harriers and Mirage fighters of Grupo 8. Both sides refused to fight at the other's best altitude, until two Mirages finally descended to engage. One was shot down by an AIM-9L Sidewinder, while the other escaped but without enough fuel to return to its mainland airfield. The plane made for Stanley, where it fell victim to friendly fire from the Argentine defenders.

As a result of this experience, Argentine Air Force staff decided to employ Skyhawks and Daggers only as strike units, the Canberras only during the night, and Mirages (without air refueling capability or any capable air-to-air missile) as decoys to lure away the British Sea Harriers. The decoying was later extended with the formation of the Escuadron Fenix, a squadron of civilian jets flying 24 hours a day simulating strike aircraft preparing to attack the fleet. On one of these flights, an Air Force Learjet was shot down killing the squadron commander, Vice Commodore Rodolfo De La Colina, who became the highest-ranking Argentine officer to die in the War.

Sinking of the Belgrano

On May 2 the World War II-vintage Argentine light cruiser ARA General Belgrano—formerly the USS Phoenix (CL-46), a survivor of the 1941 Pearl Harbor attacks—was sunk by the nuclear-powered submarine HMS Conqueror, captained by Commander Christopher Wreford-Brown, using WWII vintage design Mk 8 mod 4 torpedoes. 321 lives were lost, although initial casualty reports were confused. The Murdoch-owned British tabloid newspaper The Sun infamously greeted the initial reports of the attack (and the sinking of a small gunboat) with the headline "GOTCHA." This first edition was published before news that the Belgrano had actually sunk was known and carried no reports of actual Argentine deaths. The headline was replaced in later editions by the more temperate "Did 1,200 Argies drown?"

In all, 323 Argentines died, half of all their War losses.

The gunboat was the ARA Alferez Sobral, an ocean/patrol tug sent to search for the crew of an Argentinian plane shot down on May 1. Two Sea Lynxs fired four Sea Skua against her. Badly damaged and with eight crew dead, the Sobral managed to return to Puerto Deseado two days later, but the plane's crew was never found.

The loss of General Belgrano hardened the stance of the Argentine government and also became a cause celebre for anti-war campaigners (such as Labour MP Tam Dalyell), who declared that the ship had been sailing away from the Falklands at the time. The vessel was inarguably outside the exclusion zone, and sailing away from the area of conflict. However, during war, under international law, the heading of a belligerent naval vessel has no bearing on its status and the captain of the Belgrano, Hector Bonzo, has testified that the attack was legitimate. In later years it has been claimed that the information on the position of the ARA General Belgrano came from a Soviet spy satellite which was tapped by the Norwegian intelligence service station at Fauske in Norway, and then handed over to the British. As of 2006 the Belgrano remains the only warship sunk by a nuclear-powered submarine in time of war.

Regardless of controversies over the sinking, it had an important strategic effect. After the loss of ARA General Belgrano, the entire Argentine fleet returned to port and did not leave again for the duration of hostilities. The two destroyers supporting General Belgrano and the task force built around the aircraft carrier ARA Veinticinco de Mayo both withdrew from the area, ending the direct threat to the British fleet that their pincer movement had represented. The attack on General Belgrano was the second time since the end of World War II that a submarine had fired torpedoes in wartime and the only time that a nuclear powered submarine has done so.

Sinking of HMS Sheffield

Two days after the sinking of General Belgrano, on May 4, the British lost the Type 42 destroyer HMS Sheffield to fire following an Exocet missile strike. Sheffield had been ordered forward with two other Type 42s in order to provide a radar and missile "picket" far from the British carriers. After the ships were detected by a COAN (Argentine Naval Aviation Command) P-2 Neptune patrol aircraft, two COAN Dassault Super Étendards were launched from their base at Rio Grande, each armed with a single Exocet missile. Refuelled by an Air Force KC-130H Hercules after launch, they went in at low altitude, popped up for a radar check and released the missiles from 20 to 30 miles (30 to 50 km) away. One missed HMS Yarmouth, due to her deployment of radar chaff, but the other hit the Sheffield. The weapon struck with devastating effect, hitting the center of the ship and starting raging fires which quickly spread, killing 20 crew members and severely injuring 24 others. While fighting the fire, Yarmouth fired anti-submarine weaponry in response to a possible Argentine submarine attack. Sheffield was deaf to the tell-tale Exocet seeker radar at the time as the ESM equipment on board had been switched off to enable the use of the satellite transceiver. The two systems, due to poor design, interfered and couldn't be used simultaneously.

Landing at San Carlos Water

San Carlos landing sites
Context of landings in the Falklands

During the night of May 21, the British made an amphibious landing on beaches around San Carlos Water, on the northern coast of East Falkland, putting the 4,000 men of 3 Commando Brigade, including 2nd and 3rd battalions of the Parachute Regiment (2 and 3 Para), ashore from the amphibious ships and the liner Canberra: 2 Para and 40 Commando landing at San Carlos beach; 45 Commando at Ajax bay; 3 Para at Port San Carlos. By dawn the next day they had established a secure beachhead from which to conduct offensive operations. From there Brigadier Thompson's plan was to capture Darwin and Goose Green before turning towards Stanley.

At sea, the paucity of British ships' anti-aircraft defenses was demonstrated in the sinking of HMS Ardent on the 21, HMS Antelope on the 23, and MV Atlantic Conveyor, with a vital cargo of helicopters, runway building equipment, and tents on the 25th. The loss of all but one of the Chinook helicopters being carried by the Atlantic Conveyor was a severe blow from a logistics perspective: The sole surviving Chinook was called Bravo November. Also lost on this day was HMS Coventry, a sister to HMS Sheffield, whilst in company with HMS Broadsword. HMS Argonaut and HMS Brilliant were badly damaged. However, many British ships escaped terminal damage due to the Argentine pilots' bombing tactics. In order to avoid the high concentration of British air defenses, Argentine pilots were forced to swoop in and launch their bombs from a low altitude at the very last moment. The Argentines lost nearly twenty aircraft in these attacks, including several Pucarás on the ground.

Goose Green

Starting early on May 27, and through May 28, 2 Para approached and attacked Darwin and Goose Green, which was held by the Argentine 12th Inf Regt. After a tough struggle, which lasted all night and into the next day, 17 British and 55 Argentine soldiers had been killed, and 1,050 Argentine troops taken prisoner. Due to an error by the British Broadcasting Company, the taking of Goose Green was announced on the BBC World Service before it had actually happened. It was during this attack that Lt Col H. Jones, the commanding officer of 2 Para was killed. He was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross.

East Falkland showing San Carlos bridgehead, Teal Inlet, Mt Kent and Mt Challenger

From May 27, men of 45 Cdo and 3 Para started walking across East Falkland towards the coastal settlement of Teal Inlet. Meanwhile 42 Cdo prepared to move by helicopter to Mount Kent. For the next week, the SAS and Mountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre waged intense patrol battles with reconnaissance patrols of the 602nd Commando Company. Despite casualties, Stanley was now within sight.

Bluff Cove & Fitzroy

By June 1, with the arrival of a further 5,000 British troops of the 5th Infantry Brigade the new British divisional commander, Major General JJ Moore RM, had sufficient force to start planning an offensive against Stanley.

During this build-up, the Argentine air assaults on the British naval forces continued, killing 48. 32 of these deaths were from the Welsh Guards on RFA Sir Galahad and Sir Tristram on June 8. Many others suffered serious burns.

The Guards were sent to support a "dashing" advance along the southern approach to Stanley. On June 2, a small advance party of 2 Para moved to Swan Inlet house in a number of Army Scout helicopters. Telephoning ahead to Fitzroy, they discovered the area clear of Argentines and (exceeding their authority) commandeered the one remaining Chinook to frantically ferry another part of 2 Para ahead to Fitzroy (a settlement on Port Pleasant) and Bluff Cove (a settlement confusingly, and perhaps ultimately fatally, on Port Fitzroy).

This uncoordinated advance caused planning nightmares for the commanders of the combined operation, as they now found themselves with a 30-mile string of undefendable positions on their southern flank. Support could not be sent by air as the single remaining Chinook was already heavily oversubscribed. The soldiers could march, but their equipment and heavy supplies would need to be ferried by sea. Plans were drawn up for half the Welsh Guards to march light on the night of the 2nd, whilst the Scots Guards and the second half of the Welsh were to be ferried from San Carlos Water in the landing ship (LSL) Sir Tristram and the landing platform dock (LPD) Intrepid on the night of the 5th. Intrepid was planned to stay one day and unload itself and as much of Sir Tristram as possible, leaving the next evening for the relative safety of San Carlos. Escorts would be provided for this day, whilst Sir Tristram would be left to unload using an inflatable platform known as a Mexeflote for as long as it took.

Political pressure from above to not risk the LPD forced Mike Clapp (Commander Amphibious Forces) to alter this plan. Two lower-value LSLs would be sent, but without suitable beaches to land, Intrepid's landing craft would need to accompany them to unload. A complicated operation across several nights with Intrepid and Fearless (her sister ship) sailing half-way to dispatch their craft was devised. The attempted overland march by half the Welsh Guards had failed, possibly because they refused to march light and attempted to carry their equipment. They returned to San Carlos and were landed direct to Bluff Cove when Fearless dispatched her landing craft. Sir Tristram sailed on the night of the 6th and was joined by Sir Galahad at dawn on the 7th.

Anchored 1200 feet apart in Port Pleasant, the landing ships were near Fitzroy, the ordered landing point. The landing craft should have been able to unload the ships to here relatively quickly, but confusion over the ordered disembarkation point (the first half of the Guards going direct to Bluff Cove) resulted in the senior Welsh Guards infantry officer aboard insisting his troops be ferried the far longer distance direct to Port Fitzroy/Bluff Cove. The intention was for the infantrymen to march via the recently repaired Bluff Cove bridge (destroyed by retreating Argentinian combat engineers) to their destination, a journey of around 7 miles.

The longer journey time of the landing craft taking the troops direct and the squabbling over how the landing was to be performed caused enormous delay in unloading. It had disastrous consequences. Without escorts, having not yet established their air defense and still almost fully laden, the two LSLs in Port Pleasant were sitting targets for two waves of Argentinian-FAA A-4 Skyhawks.

The disaster at Port Pleasant (although often known as Bluff Cove) would provide the world with some of the most sobering images of the war as TV news video footage showed Navy helicopters hovering in thick smoke to winch survivors from the burning landing ships.

Battle for Stanley

On the night of 11 June, after several days of painstaking reconnaissance and logistic build-up, British forces launched a brigade-sized night attack against the heavily defended ring of high ground surrounding Stanley. Units of 3 Commando Brigade, supported by naval gunfire from several Royal Navy ships, simultaneously assaulted Mount Harriet, Two Sisters, and Mount Longdon. During this battle, thirteen were killed when HMS Glamorgan, which was providing naval gunfire support, was struck by an Exocet fired from the back of a truck, further displaying the vulnerability of ships to anti-ship missiles. On this day, Sgt Ian McKay of 4 Platoon, B Company, 3 Para died in a grenade attack on an Argentine bunker which was to earn him a posthumous Victoria Cross. After a night of fierce fighting, all objectives were secured.

The night of June 13 saw the start of the second phase of attacks, in which the momentum of the initial assault was maintained. 2 Para captured Wireless Ridge, and the 2nd battalion, Scots Guards captured Mount Tumbledown.

War ended

On June 14, the commander of the Argentine garrison in Stanley, Mario Menendez, surrendered to Major General JJ Moore, RM. 9,800 Argentine troops were made POWs and were repatriated to Argentina on the liner Canberra. On June 20, the British retook the South Sandwich Islands, (which involved accepting the surrender of the Southern Thule Garrison at the Corbeta Uruguay base) and declared the hostilities were at an end.

The war lasted 74 days, with 255 British and 649 Argentine soldiers, sailors, and airmen, and three civilian Falklanders killed.

The British Government decreed all classified information would be available to the public in the year 2082.

Analysis

Military

Militarily, the Falklands War was important for a number of reasons. For example, as one of the few naval battles to have taken place after World War II, it illustrated the vulnerability of surface ships to anti-ship missiles and reaffirmed the effectiveness of aircraft in naval warfare. The conflict also re-emphasized the value of total air supremacy, which neither side achieved, but both sides gained results from the air. All of the UK losses at sea were achieved by aircraft or missile strikes. The French Exocet missile proved its lethality, which resulted in the retrofitting of most major ships with close-in weapons systems (CIWS). The war vindicated the UK decision to develop the Harrier aircraft, that showed its capability of operating from forward bases with no runways. At sea, it demonstrated the domination of airpower in major engagements and the usefulness of carriers. The logistics capability of the UK armed forces was stretched to the absolute limit in order to mount an amphibious operation so far from a home-base, onto mountainous islands which have few roads. After the war, much work was done to improve both the logistics and amphibious capability of the Royal Navy. The role of Special Forces units, which destroyed many Argentine aircraft (such as those destroyed during the SAS raid on Pebble Island) and carried out intelligence gathering operations, was reaffirmed. So was the usefulness of helicopters operations.

On the other hand, the British Ministry of Defense had been accused of a systematic failure to prepare service personnel for the horrors of war and provide adequate care for them afterwards. Hardly any soldiers had experienced actual conflict.

The Ministry of Defense is also accused of ignoring the issue of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which left many sufferers emotionally scarred and unable to work, immersed in social dislocation, alcoholism, and depression. Most veterans have suffered prolonged personality disorders, flashbacks and anxiety levels sometimes reaching pathological levels.

More veterans have committed suicide since the Falklands War ended than the number of servicemen killed in action.

Political

The Falklands War illustrates the role of political miscalculation and miscommunication in creating war. Both sides seriously underestimated the importance of the Falklands to the other. The Falklands War illustrates the role of chance in determining what happens in a war. Some commentators believe that the war could have ended in an Argentine victory if one of the Exocets had hit an aircraft carrier, or if the frequent unexploded bombs had detonated on striking some of the ships, or if Argentina had attacked the British artillery, using the three paratroop regiments already deployed at Comodoro Rivadavia. Equally, if the Argentines had made better preparations to hold the islands, they might have been able to do so, but they did not expect that the British would attempt to carry out a war 8,000 miles (13,000 km) from home. Either way, an Argentine victory might have been an unacceptable show of weakness on the part of the UK during an intense period of the Cold War, and as a result some have doubted that such an outcome would have been allowed to remain for long. With the UK being an integral U.S. ally and important part of NATO, to permit a loss would have been a signal to the USSR that the NATO alliance was militarily and politically weak.

It has also been said by diplomats that following the British victory there was an increase in international respect for Britain, formerly regarded as a fading colonial power. As mentioned earlier, the victory was not overlooked by the USSR, which increased troop levels facing the British Army of the Rhine soon after, and was an important junction in the Cold War.

With the renewal of confidence gained from the victory, Margaret Thatcher suggested in her September 1982 China visit an extension of the British rule of the New Territories in Hong Kong which, legally, was to end in 1997 with the expiry of the 99-year lease.

The Argentine military government was ousted after mounting protests by human rights and war veterans groups. Galtieri was forced to resign, paving the way for the restoration of democracy. Elections were held on October 30, 1983. The start of the Falklands War is commemorated as Día del Veterano de Guerra y los Caídos en Malvinas, a public holiday in Argentina, usually on the first Monday of April. It is sometimes referred to as Malvinas Day.

In May 1982, Pope John Paul II carried out a long scheduled visit to the UK. In view of the crisis it was decided that this should be balanced with an unscheduled trip to Argentina in June. It is contended that his presence and words spiritually prepared Argentines for a possible defeat, contrary to the propaganda issued by the Junta. He would return to Argentina in 1987 after democratization.

Notes

  1. ↑ BBC News, 1982: Dozens Killed as Argentines hit British ships. Retrieved June 14, 2007.
  2. ↑ The Telegraph, How France helped us win the Falklands War by John Nott. Retrieved June 14, 2007.
  3. ↑ Spy Flight, The Falklands Campaign—the Chilean Connection. Retrieved June 14, 2007.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Barnett, Anthony. Iron Britannia. London : Allison & Busby, 1982. ISBN 0850314933
  • Dalyell, Tam. One Man's Falklands. London : Cecil Woolf, 1982. ISBN 0900821647
  • Dalyell, Tam. Thatcher's Torpedo. London : Cecil Woolf, 1983. ISBN 0900821663
  • Freedman, Sir L. Official History of the Falklands, Vol 2(Cabinet Office Series of Official Histories). Frank Cass, 2005. ISBN 0714652075
  • Gavshon, Arthur L. and Desmond Rice. The Sinking of the Belgrano. London : Secker & Warburg, 1984. ISBN 0436413329
  • Harris, Robert. Gotcha! The Media, the Government and the Falklands Crisis. London ; Boston : Faber and Faber, 1983. ISBN 0571130526
  • Tinker, David. A Message from the Falklands, The Life and Gallant Death of David Tinker, Lieut. R.N. from his Letters and Poems. Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England ; New York, N.Y., U.SA: Penguin, 1983. ISBN 0140067787
  • Underwood, Geoffrey. Our Falklands War, The Men of the Task Force Tell Their Story. Duloe, Liskeard, Cornwall: Maritime Books, 1983. ISBN 0907771084

External links

All links retrieved March 23, 2024.


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