Anti-clericalism

File:House of the people.jpg

Spanish anti-clericals turn Church into a "casa del pueblo" (house of the people) during the Spanish Red Terror

Anti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes religious institutional power and influence in public and political life. It its more extreme manifestations, anti-clericalism has led to violent attacks, vandalism against religious sites, and the seizure of church property.

Often directed against the Catholic clergy, anti-clericalism goes beyond mere secularism or the French tradition of laïcité, which advocates both the absence of religious interference in government affairs and government interference in religious affairs. The goal of anti-clericalism is that religion should become a strictly private activity.

Although anti-clericalism in one form or another has existed through most of Christian history, it became a major force underlying the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation. During the Enlightenment, philosophers such as Voltaire bitterly attacked the alleged moral corruption of the Catholic Church, a factor contributing to the suppression of the Jesuits and playing a major part in the wholesale attacks on the very existence of the Catholic Church during the French Revolution. With the reaction against the excesses of the Revolution, especially after 1815, the Catholic church began to play a more welcome role in official European life once more, and nation by nation the Jesuits made their way back.

Anti-clericalism once again came to the fore during the Russian Revolution and other Communist revolutions, which saw religion itself as an agent of capitalism and engaged in the violent repression and even murder of clergy, including Orthodox, Buddhist, Muslim, and Jewish, as well as Roman Catholic.

Protestantism and its antecedents

Although anti-clericalism normally applies to later movements, the phenomenon of popular resentment and violence directed toward the clergy can also be seen as early as the twelfth century. The Italian monk Arnold of Brescia (d. 1155) called on the Catholic church to renounce ownership of property and led the Commune of Rome's temporary overthrow of papal rule. The Waldensians likewise the church to return to the ideal of poverty. In the next century, extremist groups among the Spiritual Franciscans, such as the Dulcinians and Brethren of the Free Spirit, not only argued that apostolic poverty be practiced by the entire clergy, but physically attacked the palaces of wealthy bishops, destroying property and killing some in the process.

Criticism of clerical corruption continued to be an important theme in reformist movements up to and including the Protestant Reformation. Martin Luther found it necessary to distance himself from the Peasants' Revolt which had taken his own bitter attacks on the Catholic bureaucracy to the point of rebellion not only against the Church, but the feudal order as well. Protestant propaganda during the Reformation period laid the foundation for later anti-clerical ideology.

The French Revolution

Storming of the Bastille

Anti-clerical became particularly virulent during the French Revolution. Eighteenth century writers such as Voltaire and the Encyclopedists wrote biting critiques and satires exposing priest corruption and the excesses of Catholic institutional power. This intellectual movement more violent fruit in the French Revolution's direct assault on the privileges of the Catholic Church, including the state's confiscation of Church property, as well as mob actions inflicting severe damage to Catholic shrines and art.

Under the Ancien Régime, the Church had been the largest landowner in the country. The revolutionary government addressed seized the property of the Churc, through the law of December 2 1789. Further legislation on February 13, 1790 abolished monastic vows. Later that year, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy made the Catholic Church an arm of the state and turned the remaining clergy into state employees, requiring them to take a loyalty oath. The pope rejected these terms, leading to a schism between those clergy who took the oath and those who refused. The ensuing years saw violent repression of the clergy, including the imprisonment and massacre of priests throughout France.

Napoleon Bonaparte reestablished the Church's rights, in 1801, under terms which made the Church clearly subservient to the state.

Classical anti-clericalism

France

Anti-clericalism is particularly discussed in the context of the French Third Republic (1871-1940) and its dissensions with the Roman Catholic Church. Prior to 1905, the Catholic Church enjoyed preferential treatment from the French state, along with the Jewish, Lutheran, and Calvinist minority religions. During the nineteenth century, priests were employed as teachers in public schools, where the Catholic religion was also taught. Teachers were obliged to lead the class to Mass.

During the 1880s, Jules Ferry, then minister of education, began to expel religious figures from public schools, dismissing approximately 5,000 on November 29, 1880. In 1881-1882, his government passed the so-called "Jules Ferry laws," establishing universal free education in 1881 and mandatory and lay education (1882), providing the basis of modern French public education. These laws were a crucial step in the foundation of the Third Republic, which had been previously dominated by the Catholic Legitimists whom hoped for a return to the Ancien Régime.

French anti-clericalist politician Émile Combes

A 1905 law on secularism was enacted by the government of Radical-Socialist Émile Combes, meeting violent protests by the clergy and their supporters. Most Catholic schools and educational foundations were closed, and many religious orders were dissolved.

In the Affaire Des Fiches (1904-1905), it was discovered that the militantly anti-clerical war minister, General Louis André, was determining promotions based on a file on public officials, detailing which were Catholic and, among these, who attended Mass.

French Republican anti-clericalism softened after the First World War, as even conservative Catholics began to accept secularism as long as it guaranteed freedom of religion and equal rights for Catholics.

Anti-clericalism is still is present in France today, however, especially among the French left wing. in addition, the issue of private schools in France, which are often Catholic and whose professors are paid by the state, remains a sensitive issue in French politics.

Italy

Anti-clericalism in Italy is connected with reaction against the absolutism of the Papal States, which were overthrown in 1870. For many years, the popes required Catholics not to participate in the public life of the Kingdom of Italy, which had invaded conquered the Papal States to complete the unification of Italy, leaving the pope confined to Vatican City.

The hostility between the Holy See and the Italian state was finally settled by fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, who sought an agreement with the Church to gain its support. These so-called Lateran treaties were finalized in 1929. The agreements created Vatican City full as independent sovereignty under the Holy See. The pope pledged perpetual neutrality in international relations and to refrain from mediation in controversies unless specifically requested by all parties. The concordat established Catholicism as the official religion of Italy. Finally a financial agreement was accepted as settlement of all the claims of the Holy See against Italy arising from the loss of its temporal power in 1870.

After World War II, anti-clericalism was embodied by the communist and socialist parties, in opposition to the Vatican-endorsed Christian Democracy.

The revision of the Lateran treaties in the 1980s by the socialist prime minister of Italy Bettino Craxi removed the Catholic Church's status as "official religion" of Italy but still granted a series of provisions in favor of the Church, state finanical support of the Church, the teaching of the Catholic religion in schools, and other privileges.

Recently, the Catholic Church has been taking a more active stance in Italian politics. Anti-clericalism is rejected by the Italian political parties, with the exception of the Italian Radicals, who, identify themselves as laicist.

Mexico

Following the revolution of 1860, President Benito Juárez issued a decree nationalizing church property, separating church and state, and suppressing religious orders.

After the revolution of 1910, the New Mexican Constitution of 1917 contained even more drastic anti-clerical provisions. Article 3 called for secular education in the schools and prohibited the Church from engaging in primary education; Article 5 outlawed monastic orders; Article 24 forbade public worship outside the confines of churches; and Article 27 placed restrictions on the right of religious organizations to hold property. Most obnoxious to Catholics was Article 130, which deprived clergy members of basic political rights.

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Father Miguel Pro, arms spread in the form of a cross, was executed by the anti-clerical regime in Mexico on November 23, 1927.

Many of these laws were resisted, leading to the Cristero Rebellion, of 1927 - 1929, initiated under the administration of President Plutarco Elías Calles. The repression of the Catholic Church included the closing of many churches even the killing and forced marriage of priests. The persecution was most severe in Tabasco under the strident atheist governor Tomás Garrido Canabal.

The effects of the war on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934, at least 40 priests were killed. While there were 4,500 active priests before the rebellion, in 1934 only 334 priests were licensed by the government to serve 15 million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, assassination, and attrition. As many as 10 states were left without even a single priest.

Portugal

A first wave of anti-clericalism occurred in 1834 when under the government of Dom Pedro all convents and monasteries in Portugal were abolished, simultaneously closing some of Portugal's primary educational establishments. The fall of the monarchy in the Republican revolution of 1910 led to another wave of anti-clerical activity. Most church property was placed under state control, and the Church was not allowed to inherit property from private donors. The wearing of religious garb and religious instruction in schools were also abolished.

Spain

The first instance of anti-clerical violence due to political conflict in Spain occurred during the First Spanish Civil War (1820-1823). During riots in Catalunya, 20 clergymen were killed by members of the liberal movement in retaliation for the Church's siding with absolutist supporters of Ferdinand VII.

In 1836, following the First Carlist War, the new regime abolished the major Spanish convents and monasteries. The Radical Alejandro Lerroux distinguished himself by his inflammatory anti-clerical writing.

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Spanish anti-clericals shoot at statue of Christ during the Red Terror

During the Spanish Civil War of the 1930s, and in the context of atrocities on both sides, many of the Republican forces were violently anti-clerical anarchists and Communists. The numerous assaults against Catholic institutions, clergy, and supporters during this period have been been termed Spain's Red Terror. These included the sacking and burning monasteries and churches and killing 283 nuns and more than 6,000 priests, including 13 bishops, 4184 diocesan priests, 2365 members of male religious orders. Among these were 259 Claretians, 226 Franciscans, 204 Piarists, 176 Brothers of Mary, 165 Christian Brothers, 155 Augustinians, 132 Dominicans, and 114 Jesuits. There are accounts of Catholic faithful being forced to swallow rosary beads, thrown down mine shafts, and priests being forced to dig their own graves before being buried alive. The Catholic Church has canonized several martyrs of the Spanish Civil War and has beatified hundreds more.

The Role of Freemasonry

Freemasonry has historically been seen, especially by the Catholic Church as a principal source of anti-Clericalism - especially in, but not limited to, historically Catholic countries. Certain branches of Freemasonry are acknowledged by Masonic sources as a major source of anti-clericalism in Mexico, Italy, and France.

Communism

Most Communist governments have been officially anti-clerical, abolishing religious holidays, teaching atheism in schools, closing monasteries, church social and educational institutions and many churches. In the USSR, anti-clericalism was expressed through the state; some have estimated thousands of priests and monks were either executed or sent to forced-labor camps to die during the Stalin era.

Poland

Anti-clericalism has been hard to notice in Poland until it became one of the policies of the communist People's Republic of Poland. It was nonetheless not a policy that gained any significant public support, as the Catholic Church became one of the publicly recognized and respected centers of the opposition to the government. Ironically, this has been reversed following the fall of communism in Poland, when the role of Catholic Church in political life increased. Some priests gained much influence in politics (ex. Henryk Jankowski, Tadeusz Rydzyk) and although their views and actions don't necessarily represent that of the Church, their views are supported by some political parties (ex. League of Polish Families) and groups (ex. Radio Maryja). This has led to the creation of opposition based on anti-clericalism philosophy (ex. Moherowe berety).

Today

Today, traditional anti-clericalism tends to be less common. In Western democratic nations, this is largely due to states recognizing freedom of religion and hence being disinclined to interfere in religious matters. Many states which engaged anti-clericalism in the past would be prohibited by their constitutions from engaging in the meddling in internal Church affairs and in abridging the free exercise of religion as they had previously. Some argue that the involvement of the Roman Catholic Church in public life is relatively limited, causing a decline in anti-clericalism.

Anti-clericalism has recently focused on Islam, particularly its treatment of women, such as segregation of the sexes. Recently, several Western European nations, dealing with cultural clashes between secular, Christian, and Islamic populations, have adopted rules that can be perceived as anti-clerical, or as merely anti-Islamic-clerical. France, for instance, adopted a law banning conspicuous religious symbols in schools, widely perceived to be in response to local Islamic practices of female dress codes.

A notably anti-clericalist party in Israel is Shinui, which actively opposes the presence of rabbis in Israel's political structure.

Canada

Anti-clerical waves have been seen in Quebec since 1960. The Quiet Revolution is characterized essentially by an opening toward socialism and the objection to the social model dictated by the church and the clergy.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Bertocci, Philip A. Jules Simon: Republican Anticlericalism and Cultural Politics in France, 1848-1886. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1978. ISBN 978-0826202390
• Dykema, Peter A., and Oberman, Heiko A. Anticlericalism in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe. New York: E.J. Brill. 1963. ISBN 978-9004095182
• Sanchez, Jose M. Anticlericalism: A Brief History. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1972. ISBN 978-0268004712

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