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| | [[Category:Politics and social sciences]] | | [[Category:Politics and social sciences]] |
| | [[Category:Anthropology]] | | [[Category:Anthropology]] |
| | + | [[Category:Paranormal]] |
| | + | [[Image:White indian conjuror.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Native American]] "conjuror" in a 1590 engraving.]] |
| | + | The word '''conjuration''' (from [[Latin]] ''conjuratio, conjurare,'' to swear together) can be interpreted in several different ways: As an [[invocation]] or [[evocation]] (the latter in the sense of binding by a vow); as an [[exorcism]]; or as an act of [[magic (illusion)|illusionism]]. The word is often used synonymously with "invocation," although the two are not synonyms. One who performs conjurations is called a conjurer or conjuror. |
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| | + | The verb ''conjure'' is used to refer to the use of [[magic]] or [[spell]]s to affect or bring something into being. Conjuring can also refer to the invocation of a [[spirit]] or [[devil]], a practice that is widespread in traditional cultures worldwide. As a noun, "conjure," is often used in the southern [[United States]] to refer to an act of folk magic performed by practitioners of [[hoodoo]]. |
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| | + | Sorcerers, magicians, and conjurers who use powers of the supernatural may be pursuing either a good or evil purpose. Often the ability of a conjuror to gain power over another human being invites abuse. Conjuring in this sense has nothing in common with [[Magic_(Illusion)|entertainers who practice the art of illusion]] as a means of employment, putting on shows that delight their audiences. This article deals only with conjuration of the former type. |
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| | + | ==Conjuring as ritual== |
| | + | Conjuring [[spirit]]s has been part of the spiritual side of many [[culture]]s throughout history, including [[Native American]] cultures like the [[Cherokee]], as well as cultures in [[medieval]] [[Europe]], [[shamanism]] in [[Asia]], and [[West Africa]]n influenced [[hoodoo]] (Hudu). The conjuring of spirits has also been a part of many [[Wicca]]n practices and rituals. |
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| − | [[Image:White indian conjuror.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Native American]] "conjuror" in a 1590 engraving]]
| + | The text of the charms to be recited to conjure the spirit varies considerably from simple sentences to complex paragraphs with plenty of magic words. The language usually is that of the conjurer's, but since the [[Middle Ages]] in [[Western tradition]], [[Latin]] was the most common (although many texts have been translated into other languages). |
| − | The verb '''conjure''' is used to refer to the use of [[magic]] or [[spells]] to affect or bring something into being. Conjuring can also refer to the invocation of a spirit or devil, as well as the less sinister use of the term to refer to magic done by entertainers. As a noun, "conjure" generally refers to an act of folk magic performed by practicioners of [[hoodoo]] in the southern United States. | |
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| − | ==Conjuring as Ritual== | + | ===Methods of conjuring=== |
| | + | [[Spirit]]s can be conjured either to aid and benefit a person or group or to harm an enemy. When it is said that a person is calling upon or conjuring misfortune or disease, it is due to the ancient belief that personified diseases and misfortune as evil [[deity|deities]], spirits or [[demon]]s could enter a human or animal body; see demon possession. The conjuring of spirits is often associated with a certain amount of [[ritual]], no matter what the culture. |
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| − | Conjuring spirits has been part of the spiritual side of many cultures throughout history, including [[Native American]] cultures like the [[Cherokee]], as well as cultures in medieval [[Europe]], [[shamanism]] in Asia, and West African influenced [[hoodoo]]. The conjuring of spirits has also been a part of many [[Wiccan]] practices and rituals.
| + | [[Charm]]s have often been used to summon spirits, as well as [[magic]] or [[sacred]] [[symbol]]s marked on the floor/ground, an [[altar]], or embroidered on the [[clothing]] of the conjurer. [[Amulet]]s and protective [[purification]] rituals to cleanse the body, mind, and [[soul]] are often used to ward off any potential harm that could befall the conjurer. Some rituals consider the hour of the day or night and the [[Astrology|astrological]] configuration of the [[zodiac]] important to the success of a ritual. [[Incense]] and specific herbs may be used, often used in conjunction with candlelight to create a certain atmosphere. |
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| − | ===Methods of Conjuring===
| + | In addition to the conjuring of spirits, the conjuring of the dead has also been practiced. [[Necromancy]], or the act of conjuring the dead for [[divination]], dates back to ancient times. In the [[Middle Ages]], necromancy was widely practiced by [[magician]]s, [[sorcerer]]s, and [[witch]]es, until it was condemned by the [[Catholic Church]]. Necromancy is still a part of [[Voodoo]]. Many consider necromancy to be a dark and repugnant practice.<ref>The Mystica, [http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/n/necromancy.html Necromancy.] Retrieved January 4, 2008.</ref> |
| − | Spirits can be conjured to aid and benefit, as well as harm an enemy. Spirits were often conjured to insure long life, success in love, the destruction of an enemy. The conjuring of spirits is often associated with a certain amount of ritual, no matter what the culture. [[Charms]] have often been used to summon spirits, as well as magic or sacred symbols marked on the floor/ground, an altar, or embroidered on the clothing of the conjurer. [[Amulets]] and protective [[purification]] rituals to cleanse the body, mind, and soul are often used to ward off any potential harm that could befall the conjurer. Some rituals consider the hour of the day or night and the [[Astrology|astrological]] configuration of the [[zodiac]] important to the success of a ritual. [[Incense]] and specific herbs may be used, often used in conjunction with candlelight to create a certain atmosphere.
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| − | In addition to the conjuring of spirits, the conjuring of the dead has also been practiced. [[Necromancy]], or the act of conjuring the dead for [[divination]], dates back to ancient times. In the [[Middle Ages]], necromancy was widely practiced by [[magician]]s, [[sorcerer]]s, and [[witch]]es, until it was condemned by the [[Catholic Church]]. Necromancy is not currently practiced in New-pagan [[Witchcraft]], but is still a part of [[Voodoo]]. Many consider necromancy to be a dark and repugnant practice.<ref>[http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/n/necromancy.html "Necromancy"] The Mystica. Retrieved May 15, 2007.</ref>
| + | ===Good and evil=== |
| − | | + | [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] view conjuration, as well as other forms of [[magic]], as an inherently [[evil]] practice, explicitly forbidden in Scripture. In societies that do not view magic as inherently evil, some people use conjuring and other forms of magic for evil purposes. Gaining control over others by magical means, they can destroy people or relationships for the purposes of revenge or selfish gain. Known as [[black magic]]ians, such individuals are opposed by other traditional magicians who use conjuration to undo their evil spells. |
| − | ===Good and Evil=== | |
| − | Many [[Christian]] religions view conjuration, as well as other forms of [[magic]] as an inherently evil practice, explicitly forbidden in the [[Old Testament]]. In societies that do not view magic as inherintly evil, there exist those who use conjuring and other forms of magic for selfish and evil purposes. Known as [[black magic]]ians, such individuals are not generally the rule, and have opposition amongst more tradition magicians.
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| − | ===Hoodoo===
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| − | Not to be confused with the [[Voodoo]] religion, [[hoodoo]] is the practice of folk magic, primarily by African-Americans in the southern states. Originating in the 19th century or before, hoodoo incorporates African folkloric practices/beliefs with Native American botanical knowledges and European folklore. Hoodoo is also known as "conjuration," "conjure," "witchcraft," "rootwork," and "tricking." Practitioners of hoodoo may be known as "conjure men/women." Contrary to what such a term implies, hoodoo practitioners use neither invocatory magic or sleight of hand illusions; the only connection of hoodoo to true conjuring is the use of the word.<ref>Yronwode, Catherine. [http://www.luckymojo.com/hoodoohistory.html "Hoodoo: African American Magic"] Lucky Mojo. Retrieved May 15, 2007.</ref>
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| − | ==Conjuring as Entertainment==
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| − | As entertainment, conjurers use psychological deceptions and manipulative methods to perform feats that are apparently in violation of [[natural law]]. [[Sleight of hand]] and complicated secret mechanical apparatus help to convince witnesses that they have just seen the conjurer perform the impossible. This type of conjuring existed as early as 2700 B.C.E., where the Ancient Egyptian magician [[Dedi]] performed a trick where he decapitated two birds and an ox, then restored their heads. Other Egyptian magicians were known for their skill at slight of hand tricks involving cups and balls.<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761578840/Magic_(conjuring).html "Magic (conjuring)"] MSN Encarta. Retrieved May 15, 2007.</ref>
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| − | ==Illusionist==
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| − | '''Magic''', including the arts of [[sleight of hand|prestidigitation]] and [[conjuration|conjuring]], is the art of entertaining an audience by performing illusions that baffle and amaze, often by giving the impression that something impossible has been achieved, almost as if the performer had magic or [[supernatural]] powers. Yet, this illusion of magic is created entirely by natural means. The practitioners of this mystery art may be called ''magicians'', ''conjurors'', ''illusionists'' or ''prestidigitators.'' Artists in other media such as theatre, cinema, dance and the visual arts increasingly work using similar means but regard their magical ''techniques'' as of secondary importance to the goal of creating a complex cultural performance.
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| − | == Categories of illusions ==
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| − | Although there is much discussion among magicians as to how a given effect is to be categorized, and in fact, disagreements as to what categories actually exist — for instance, some magicians consider "penetrations" to be a separate category, others consider penetrations a form of restoration or teleportation — it is generally agreed that there are very few different types of illusions.
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| − | Perhaps because it is considered a magic number, it has often been said that there are only ''seven'' types of illusion:
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| − | === Production ===
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| − | The magician pulls a rabbit from an empty hat; a fan of cards from 'thin air'; a shower of coins from an empty bucket; or appears in a puff of smoke on an empty stage— all of these effects are ''productions'', the magician produces "something from nothing."
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| − | === Vanish ===
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| − | The magician snaps his fingers and a coin disappears; places a dove in a cage, claps his hands and the bird vanishes, including the cage, stuffs a silk into his fist and opens his hands revealing nothing, or waves a [[magic wand]] and the [[Vanishing the Statue of Liberty|Statue of Liberty magically "goes away"]]. A vanish, being the reverse of a production, may use a similar technique, in reverse.
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| − | === Transformation ===
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| − | A Drift King pulls a red handkerchief through his fist twice, and then it suddenly turns into a blue one on the third pass. A spectator is shown a penny to hold in a closed fist. After squeezing it tightly, it becomes a dime in the spectator's hand. A magician requests a volunteer to "pick a card, any card" from a deck. With a flourish the magician shows the card to the volunteer and asks "is this your card?" — it is ''not'' the card, and the magician tells the volunteer, "here, hold it for a second," handing them the card and then picking card after card from the deck, none of which is the card the volunteer picked. The magician asks, "will you look at that first card again?" — whereupon the volunteer finds it has magically ''become'' their card.
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| − | === Restoration ===
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| − | The cut-and-restored rope is a restoration: a rope is cut into two pieces, the two pieces are tied together, the knot vanishes, leaving one piece of rope. A newspaper is torn to bits. The magician rubs the pieces together and the newspaper becomes whole. A [[sawing a woman in half|woman is sawn]] into two separate parts and then magically rejoined. A card is torn in fourths and then restored piece by piece to a normal state. Restorations put something back into the state it once was.
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| − | === Teleportation ===
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| − | A teleportation transfers an object from one place to another. A coin is vanished, then later found inside a tightly bound bag, which is inside a box that is tied shut, inside ''another'' box, which is in a locked box - all of which were across the stage.
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| − | The magician locks his assistant in a cage, then locks himself in another. Both cages are uncovered and the pair have magically exchanged places. This is a ''transposition'', a simultaneous, double teleportation.
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| − | === Levitation ===
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| − | The magician "puts his assistant into a trance" and then floats him or her up and into the air, passing a ring around his or her body as proof that there are 'no wires' supporting them. A close-up artist wads up your dollar bill and then floats it in the air. A playing card hovers over a deck of cards. A penny on an open palm rises onto its edge on command. A scarf dances in a sealed bottle. Levitations are illusions where the conjurer magically raises something — possibly including the magician into the air. There are many ways to create the illusion of levitation, such as the [[Balducci levitation]], the [[King levitation|King Rising]], [[Criss Angel's Levitation|Criss Angel's stool levitations]], the [[Tony Andruzzi|Andruzzi]] levitations, and the [[zero gravity (magic)|zero gravity]] or the [[eight gravity]].
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| − | === Penetration ===
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| − | One solid object passes through another, as in such old standbys as "the Linking Rings" (a magical effect the magician creates by seemingly passing solid steel rings through one another), the "Cups and Balls" (in which the balls appear to pass through the bottom of an inverted cup to the table below), and the classic "[[Saltshaker Penetration]]."
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| − | == Secrecy ==
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| − | The purpose of a magic trick is to amuse and create a feeling of wonder; the audience is generally aware that the magic is performed using trickery, and derives enjoyment from the magician's skill and cunning. Traditionally, magicians refuse to reveal the secrets to the audience. The reasons include:
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| − | * [[Exposure (magic)|Exposure]] is claimed to "kill" magic as an artform and transforms it into mere intellectual puzzles and riddles. It is argued that once the secret of a trick is revealed to a person, that one can no longer fully enjoy subsequent performances of that magic, as the amazement is missing. Sometimes the secret is so simple that the audience feels let down, and feels disappointed it was taken in so easily.
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| − | * Keeping the secrets preserves the professional mystery of magicians who perform for money.
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| − | Membership in professional magicians' organizations often requires a solemn commitment to the "Magician's Oath" never to reveal the secrets of magic to non-magicians.
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| − | :'''The Magician's Oath''' (though it may vary, 'The Oath' takes the following, or similar form):
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| − | ::''"As a magician I promise never to reveal the secret of any illusion to a non-magician, unless that one swears to uphold the Magician's Oath in turn. I promise never to perform any illusion for any non-magician without first practicing the effect until I can perform it well enough to maintain the illusion of magic"''.
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| − | Once sworn to The Oath, one is considered a magician, and is expected to live up to this promise. A magician who reveals a secret, either purposely or through insufficient practice, may typically find oneself without any magicians willing to teach one any more secrets.
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| − | However, it is considered permissible to reveal secrets to individuals who are determined to learn magic and become magicians. It is typically a sequential process of increasingly valuable and lesser known secrets. The secrets of almost all magical effects are available to the public through numerous books and magazines devoted to magic, available from the specialised magic trade. There are also web sites which offer videos, DVDs and instructional materials for the aspiring conjuror see [[Marc Spelmann]]. In this sense, there are very few classical illusions left unrevealed, however this does not appear to have diminished the appeal of performances. In addition, magic is a living art, and new illusions are devised with surprising regularity. Sometimes a 'new' illusion will be built on an illusion that is old enough to have become unfamiliar.
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| − | Some magicians have taken the controversial position that revealing the methods used in certain works of magic can enhance the appreciation of the audience for cleverness of magic. [[Penn and Teller]] frequently perform tricks using transparent props to reveal how it is done, for example, although they almost always include additional unexplained effects at the end that are made even more astonishing by the revealing props being used.
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| − | Often what seems to be a revelation of a magical secret is merely another form of misdirection. For instance, a magician may explain to an audience member that the linking rings "have a hole in them" and hand the volunteer two unlinked rings, which the volunteer finds to have become linked as soon as he handles them. At this point the magician may shove his arm through the ring ('the hole in the ring'), proclaiming: "See? Once you know that every ring has a hole, it's easy!"
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| − | == Learning magic ==
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| − | The teaching of performance magic was once a secretive art. Professional magicians were unwilling to share knowledge with anyone outside the profession to prevent the laity from learning their secrets. This made it difficult for an interested apprentice to learn magic beyond the basics. Some organizations of magicians had strict rules against members discussing magic secrets with anyone but established magicians.
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| − | From the 1584 publication of [[Reginald Scot]]'s ''Discoverie of Witchcraft'' until the end of the 19th century, only a few books had helped budding magicians to learn the craft. Books remain useful today. For the modern student, a DVD or video recording exceeds the power of a book, letting the apprentice mimic the master, following along as the magician dissects presentation and performance of latter-day versions of ancient artistry.
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| − | The next step up from a DVD is joining a magic club or workshop. Here magicians, both seasoned and novitiate, can work together and help one another for mutual improvement, to learn new techniques, to discuss all aspects of magic, to perform for each other — sharing advice, encouragement and criticism.
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| − | The world's largest magic organization is the [[International Brotherhood of Magicians]]. It publishes a monthly journal, ''[[The Linking Ring]]''.
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| − | == Types of magic performance ==
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| − | Magic performances fall into five broad genres:
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| − | *'''Close-up magic''', which is performed with the audience close to the magician, possibly in physical contact. It usually makes use of everyday items as props, such as [[playing card|cards]] and [[coin]]s (see [[Coin magic]]). ([[Ricky Jay]], [[Lee Asher]]), following in the traditions of [[Dai Vernon]] and [[Max Malini]], is considered the foremost practitioner of close-up magic today. This is also sometimes called "table magic" particularly when performed as dinner entertainment.
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| − | *'''Platform magic''', in which the magician stands while performing and is seen by more people simultaneously than the close-up performer. Examples of platform magicians include [[David Abbott (magician)|David Abbott]].
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| − | *'''Cabaret Magic''', in which the magician performs for a medium to large audience, but at or almost at floor level and much closer to many spectators than in auditorium performances. Night club magic and comedy club magic are typical examples. Cabaret performers can generally also function as stage performers. The long-obsolete term [[parlor magic]] is sometimes misused as a synonym for cabaret magic.
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| − | *'''Stage magic''', which is performed for large audiences, typically within an auditorium. This type of magic is distinguished by elaborate, large-scale props. The most famous magicians in the world, such as [[David Copperfield (illusionist)|David Copperfield]], [[Siegfried & Roy]], and [[Penn and Teller]], are best known for their ability in stage-magic.
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| − | *'''Children's magic''', which is performed for an audience primary of children, typically performed at a birthday party, daycare or preschool, elementary school, or library. This type of magic is usually comedic in nature and involves audience interaction as well as volunteer assistants. Some magicians, such as [http://www.magicmaninfo.com/page360.html Todd McKinney], Luis Villamonte, David Ginn, Samuel Patrick Smith, Richard Green and Barry Mitchell are best known for their ability to entertain children through their performances, books, [[DVD]]s, and CDs.
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| − | Other specialties or niches have been created:
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| − | *'''Street magic''' (sometimes called "guerilla magic"), a hybrid of stage magic and close-up magic, which is performed for audiences that don’t always know that they are audiences. The street magician uses magic to gather a crowd and convinces them that it is good enough to deserve money at the end of the show. One of the classics of street magic is the [[cups and balls]] routine. Famous street performers include [[Cyril Takayama]], Gazzo, Cellini, Tom Payne, [[Marc spelmann]], [[David Blaine]], and [[Criss Angel]].
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| − | *'''Bizarre magic''', which uses [[mystical]], [[horror (genre)|horror]], [[fantasy]] and other similar themes in performance. Bizarre magic is typically performed in a close-up venue, although some performers have effectively presented it in a stage setting. [[Charles Cameron (magician)|Charles Cameron]] has generally been credited as the "godfather of bizarre magic." Others such as Tony Raven, [[Tony Andruzzi]], and Tony "Doc" Shiels contributed significantly to its development.
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| − | *'''[[Mentalism]]''', which creates the impression in the minds of the audience that the performer possesses special powers to read thoughts, predict events, control other minds, and other similar feats. Magicians in this field include [[Marc spelmann]], [[Max Maven]], [[Luke Jermay]], [[Derren Brown]], [[Mark Cairns]] and [[Banachek]].
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| − | *'''Shock magic''' is a genre of magic that shocks the audience, hence the name. Sometimes referred to as "geek magic," it takes its roots from circus sideshows, in which "freakish" performances were shown to audiences. Common shock magic or geek magic effects include eating razor blades, [[needle-through-arm]], string through neck and pen-through-tongue. Magicians known for performing shock magic include [[Criss Angel]], [[Andrew Mayne]], [[Marc spelmann]] [[Sean Fields]] and [[Brian Brushwood]].
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| − | *'''[[Corporate Magic]]''' uses magic as a communication tool as opposed to just straight forward entertainment. Corporate magicians come from a business background and have typically moved in to magic later in their careers. This allows them to not only perform magic but to also understand how this can be applied to business communications. Corporate magicians typically present at meetings, conferences and product launches also they run workshops and can sometime be found at trade shows.
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| − | == Misuse of magic ==
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| − | In modern conjuring, it is not considered fully honest to give a performance which claims to be anything other than a clever and skillful deception. In today's skeptical world, claims of actual supernatural powers would likely be greeted with ridicule, although many people believed that the hugely successful 1970s illusionist [[Uri Geller]] had a paranormal ability to bend spoons, for example.
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| − | Other performers have capitalised on popular belief in [[Extra-sensory perception|ESP]] and other [[paranormal]] phenomena as a way of presenting magical effects. However, there are dishonest performers who use the techniques of conjuring for fraudulent goals. Cheating at [[card game]]s is an obvious example, and is no more than a form of theft. During the height of the vogue for [[spiritualism]] and the wave of popularity for [[séance]]s in the late [[19th century]], many fraudulent mediums used conjuring methods to perform illusions at séances designed to convince those present of actual supernatural events, for financial gain. The great escapologist and illusionist [[Harry Houdini]] devoted much of his time to exposing fraudulent mediums. Spiritualists and mediums at work today tend to shy away from effects such as making knocking sounds in darkened rooms, and objects apparently moving without being touched, as these were devices often used in the past by fraudulent practitioners.
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| − | Many [[Confidence trick|grifters]] still use simple magician's effects to defraud the innocent, yet often such abuses have been exposed and debunked. The three card ruse known as "Find the Lady" or "[[Three-card Monte]]," is an old favourite of street hustlers and con men who sucker the victim into betting on what seems like an easy and obvious "game." Another example is the [[shell game]], in which a pea is hidden under one of three walnut shells subsequently shuffled around the table (or sidewalk) so slowly as to make the pea's apparently position only seemingly obvious to the victim. Although these are well known as frauds, some people are willing to lose money on them just for the [[entertainment]] value. There are other street hustles which use conjuring techniques and methods such as misdirection to commit theft.
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| | + | == Conjuration in the Middle East == |
| | + | Conjuration is a very common [[mystic]] practice in the Middle East, most commonly found in [[Morocco]], [[Oman]], [[Saudi Arabia]], the [[United Arab Emirates]], and [[Iraq]]. Many practice it to settle personal grudges or for healing, personal enhancement, or foretelling the future. There are also those who will sell their services as conjurers to others. |
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| | + | [[Islam]] strongly forbids the use of conjuration, because it is seen as an unholy procedure, and therefore to perform it is to give an insult to God. It is also considered to, in the end, harm people more than help them: Those who regularly contact demons are believed to go mad through overdosing on power, or being possessed (since demons are thought to be short-tempered beings, and given the opportunity might overpower and enslave the one who summoned them). |
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| | + | Conjuration is such a widespread phenomenon in these regions that special television shows and satellite channels have started broadcasting about it. People will phone in to these shows to ask the resident conjurers to aid them in some way—by showing them how to make charms, for example, or how to conjure by themselves. Though it is obvious that what is going on is conjuration, the conjurers tend to portray themselves as men of religion to add an air of respectability. |
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| | + | Islam has strongly forbidden this new development, with many imams stating that it is more dangerous than going to a conjurer to get service, because it teaches people how to conjure, and by the time the [[Dajjal]] (false [[messiah]] or [[antichrist]]) arrives at the end of days people will not be able to differentiate between him and [[Islamic view of Jesus|Isa]] (Jesus), as the Dajjal would impose himself as Isa and trick those who are weak in belief. |
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| | + | ===Hoodoo=== |
| | + | Not to be confused with the [[Voodoo]] religion, [[hoodoo]] is the practice of folk magic, primarily by [[African-American]]s in the southern states. Originating in the nineteenth century or before, hoodoo incorporates [[Africa]]n folkloric practices/beliefs with [[Native American]] botanical knowledge and [[Europe]]an [[folklore]]. Hoodoo is also known as "conjuration," "conjure," "witchcraft," "rootwork," and "tricking." Practitioners of hoodoo may be known as "conjure men/women." Contrary to what such a term implies, hoodoo practitioners use neither invocatory magic or sleight of hand illusions; the only connection of hoodoo to conjuring is the use of the word.<ref>Catherine Yronwode, [http://www.luckymojo.com/hoodoohistory.html Hoodoo: African American Magic,] ''Lucky Mojo.'' Retrieved January 4, 2008.</ref> |
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| | ==Notes== | | ==Notes== |
| | <references/> | | <references/> |
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| − | ==References== | + | ==References== |
| − | *Milbourne Christopher, ''Panorama of Magic'' (1962). | + | *Mangan, Michael. 2007. ''Performing Dark Arts: A Cultural History of Conjuring''. Intellect Ltd. ISBN 1841501492. |
| − | *Joseph Dunninger, ''The Complete Encyclopedia of Magic'' (no date).
| + | *Randi, James. 1992. ''Conjuring: A Definitive History.'' St Martins Press. |
| − | *Michael Mangan, ''Performing Dark Arts: A Cultural History of Conjuring'' (Intellect, 2007).
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| − | *James Randi, ''Conjuring: A Definitive History'' (1992). | |
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| − | {{Credits|Conjuration|123301722|Magic_(illusion)|131385706|}} | + | {{Credits|Conjuration|123301722|Conjuration|175831558}} |
The word conjuration (from Latin conjuratio, conjurare, to swear together) can be interpreted in several different ways: As an invocation or evocation (the latter in the sense of binding by a vow); as an exorcism; or as an act of illusionism. The word is often used synonymously with "invocation," although the two are not synonyms. One who performs conjurations is called a conjurer or conjuror.
The verb conjure is used to refer to the use of magic or spells to affect or bring something into being. Conjuring can also refer to the invocation of a spirit or devil, a practice that is widespread in traditional cultures worldwide. As a noun, "conjure," is often used in the southern United States to refer to an act of folk magic performed by practitioners of hoodoo.
Sorcerers, magicians, and conjurers who use powers of the supernatural may be pursuing either a good or evil purpose. Often the ability of a conjuror to gain power over another human being invites abuse. Conjuring in this sense has nothing in common with entertainers who practice the art of illusion as a means of employment, putting on shows that delight their audiences. This article deals only with conjuration of the former type.
Conjuring as ritual
Conjuring spirits has been part of the spiritual side of many cultures throughout history, including Native American cultures like the Cherokee, as well as cultures in medieval Europe, shamanism in Asia, and West African influenced hoodoo (Hudu). The conjuring of spirits has also been a part of many Wiccan practices and rituals.
The text of the charms to be recited to conjure the spirit varies considerably from simple sentences to complex paragraphs with plenty of magic words. The language usually is that of the conjurer's, but since the Middle Ages in Western tradition, Latin was the most common (although many texts have been translated into other languages).
Methods of conjuring
Spirits can be conjured either to aid and benefit a person or group or to harm an enemy. When it is said that a person is calling upon or conjuring misfortune or disease, it is due to the ancient belief that personified diseases and misfortune as evil deities, spirits or demons could enter a human or animal body; see demon possession. The conjuring of spirits is often associated with a certain amount of ritual, no matter what the culture.
Charms have often been used to summon spirits, as well as magic or sacred symbols marked on the floor/ground, an altar, or embroidered on the clothing of the conjurer. Amulets and protective purification rituals to cleanse the body, mind, and soul are often used to ward off any potential harm that could befall the conjurer. Some rituals consider the hour of the day or night and the astrological configuration of the zodiac important to the success of a ritual. Incense and specific herbs may be used, often used in conjunction with candlelight to create a certain atmosphere.
In addition to the conjuring of spirits, the conjuring of the dead has also been practiced. Necromancy, or the act of conjuring the dead for divination, dates back to ancient times. In the Middle Ages, necromancy was widely practiced by magicians, sorcerers, and witches, until it was condemned by the Catholic Church. Necromancy is still a part of Voodoo. Many consider necromancy to be a dark and repugnant practice.[1]
Good and evil
Christianity and Islam view conjuration, as well as other forms of magic, as an inherently evil practice, explicitly forbidden in Scripture. In societies that do not view magic as inherently evil, some people use conjuring and other forms of magic for evil purposes. Gaining control over others by magical means, they can destroy people or relationships for the purposes of revenge or selfish gain. Known as black magicians, such individuals are opposed by other traditional magicians who use conjuration to undo their evil spells.
Conjuration in the Middle East
Conjuration is a very common mystic practice in the Middle East, most commonly found in Morocco, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Iraq. Many practice it to settle personal grudges or for healing, personal enhancement, or foretelling the future. There are also those who will sell their services as conjurers to others.
Islam strongly forbids the use of conjuration, because it is seen as an unholy procedure, and therefore to perform it is to give an insult to God. It is also considered to, in the end, harm people more than help them: Those who regularly contact demons are believed to go mad through overdosing on power, or being possessed (since demons are thought to be short-tempered beings, and given the opportunity might overpower and enslave the one who summoned them).
Conjuration is such a widespread phenomenon in these regions that special television shows and satellite channels have started broadcasting about it. People will phone in to these shows to ask the resident conjurers to aid them in some way—by showing them how to make charms, for example, or how to conjure by themselves. Though it is obvious that what is going on is conjuration, the conjurers tend to portray themselves as men of religion to add an air of respectability.
Islam has strongly forbidden this new development, with many imams stating that it is more dangerous than going to a conjurer to get service, because it teaches people how to conjure, and by the time the Dajjal (false messiah or antichrist) arrives at the end of days people will not be able to differentiate between him and Isa (Jesus), as the Dajjal would impose himself as Isa and trick those who are weak in belief.
Hoodoo
Not to be confused with the Voodoo religion, hoodoo is the practice of folk magic, primarily by African-Americans in the southern states. Originating in the nineteenth century or before, hoodoo incorporates African folkloric practices/beliefs with Native American botanical knowledge and European folklore. Hoodoo is also known as "conjuration," "conjure," "witchcraft," "rootwork," and "tricking." Practitioners of hoodoo may be known as "conjure men/women." Contrary to what such a term implies, hoodoo practitioners use neither invocatory magic or sleight of hand illusions; the only connection of hoodoo to conjuring is the use of the word.[2]
Notes
References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Mangan, Michael. 2007. Performing Dark Arts: A Cultural History of Conjuring. Intellect Ltd. ISBN 1841501492.
- Randi, James. 1992. Conjuring: A Definitive History. St Martins Press.
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