Difference between revisions of "America's Cup" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
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{{otheruses4|the yachting competition|the football championship|Copa América}}
 
{{otheruses4|the yachting competition|the football championship|Copa América}}
  
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The '''America’s Cup''' is the most famous and most prestigious [[regatta]] and ''[[Match race|Match Race]]'' in the sport of [[sailing]], and the oldest active [[trophy]] in international [[sport]], predating the [[Summer Olympics|Modern Olympics]] by 45 years. The America's Cup was formerly known as The Hundred Guinea Cup and was the prize for the race around the Isle of Wight. The sport attracts top sailors and yacht designers because of its long history and prestige as the “Holy Grail” of yachting.  Although the most salient aspect of the regatta is its yacht races, it is also a test of boat design, sail design, fundraising, and management skills. The cup, originally offered as the [[Royal Yacht Squadron]] cup, is now named after the first yacht to win the trophy, the schooner ''[[America (yacht)|America]]''. The trophy remained in the hands of the [[New York Yacht Club]] of the [[United States]] from 1852 or 1857 (when the syndicate that won the Cup donated the trophy to the club) until 1983 when the Cup was won by the challenger, ''[[Australia II]]'' of [[Australia]], ending the longest winning streak in the history of sport.  The skipper of ''Australia II'', [[John Bertrand]], was quoted in saying, “This puts yacht racing back on the map!”.
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The '''America’s Cup''' is the most famous and most prestigious [[regatta]] and ''[[Match race|Match Race]]'' in the sport of [[sailing]], and the oldest active [[trophy]] in international sport]. Formerly known as The [[Hundred Guinea Cup]] and was the prize for the race around the [[Isle of Wight]]. The sport attracts top [[sailors]] and [[yacht]] designers because of its long history and prestige as the “Holy Grail” of yachting.  Although the most salient aspect of the regatta is its yacht races, it is also a test of [[boat design]],[[ sail design]], [[fundraising]], and management skills. The cup, originally offered as the [[Royal Yacht Squadron]] cup, is now named after the first [[yacht]] to win the trophy, the schooner ''[[America (yacht)|America]]''.  
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The America’s Cup [[regatta]] is a challenge-driven yacht series that currently involves a best-of-nine series of [[match race|match racing]] (a duel between two boats). Since the 1992 match, the regatta has been sailed with the ''[[International America’s Cup Class]]'' (IACC) [[sloop]], a monohull class.  [[List of IACC yachts|Boats]] that conform to the IACC rules typically have a length of about 75 feet (23 m).  Any challenger who meets the requirements specified in the Deed of Gift, which governs the regatta, has the right to challenge the yacht club that holds the Cup. Since 1983, [[Louis Vuitton]] has sponsored the [[Louis Vuitton Cup]] as a prize for the winner of the challenger selection series (which was inaugurated for the 1970 match).  The America’s Cup is a race between the winner of the Louis Vuitton Cup and the current holder. If the challenging team wins the cup, the cup’s ownership is transferred from the defender’s yacht club to the winning team’s yacht club.
 
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
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[[Image:Yacht America, by Currier & Ives.jpg|thumb|right|Yacht ''[[America (yacht)|America]]'' in 1851 by [[Currier & Ives]]]]
 
[[Image:Yacht America, by Currier & Ives.jpg|thumb|right|Yacht ''[[America (yacht)|America]]'' in 1851 by [[Currier & Ives]]]]
  
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The Cup itself is an ornate silver-plated [[Britannia metal]] bottomless [[ewer]], crafted in 1848 by [[Garrard & Co]]. The trophy is inscribed with names of the yachts that competed in the regatta’s matches. Bases matching the silver cup were added in 1958 and 2003 to accommodate more names. The cup is one of three or six that were made as off-the-shelf trophies. [[Henry Paget, 4th Marquess of Anglesey|Sir Henry Paget]], the [[Marquess of Anglesey]] bought one and donated it for the [[Royal Yacht Squadron|Royal Yacht Squadron’s]] 1851 Annual Regatta around the [[Isle of Wight]]. It was originally known by the Squadron as the “Royal Yacht Squadron Cup” or the “RYS Cup for One Hundred Sovereigns”.  The Cup subsequently became known as the “One Hundred Guinea(s) Cup”, by the American syndicate that won it.  As time went by, the Cup was also referred to as the “Queen’s Cup”, the “America Cup”, and the “''America''’s Cup”.  Today, the trophy is officially known as the America’s Cup and affectionately called the “Auld Mug” by the sailing community.
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===1851 First exibition===
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During the year of the first World's Fair, American boatbuilders reputation grew throughout the boating world. With the energy of the fair behind them, several [[New York]] businessmen persuaded [[John C. Stevens]], a [[Commmodore]] of the new [[New York Yacht Club]] to sponsor a [[yacht]] against [[British]] competition for money.  
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The regatta’s origins date back to [[August 22]], [[1851]] when the 30.86 m schooner-yacht ''America'', owned by a syndicate that represented the New York Yacht Club, raced 15 yachts representing the Royal Yacht Squadron around the Isle of Wight. ''America'' won by 20 minutes.  Apocryphally, [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] asked who was second; the answer famously was: “There is no second, your Majesty.”
 
  
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[[Image:JSJ-volunteer turning.jpg |thumb|right| [[Volunteer (yacht)|''Volunteer'']] turning Sandy Hook Lightship on Sept. 27, 1887 during the seventh America’s Cup.]]  
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After Stevens discussed the idea with his friends [[James Hamilton]], [[Georeg L. Schuyler]], [[Hamilton Weeks]], and [[J.B Finley]] they decided to ask a successful ship maker by the name of [[George Steers]] to build the winning boat. Steers obliged and even offered to give the team $45,000 of his own money if the [[America]] boat lost.
  
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The surviving members of the syndicate which owned the ''America'' donated the Cup through a [[Deed of Gift]] (written in 1852) to the New York Yacht Club on [[July 8]] [[1857]]. The trophy would be held in trust as a “challenge” trophy to promote friendly competition among nations.
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When the boat sailed six days from [[New York]] bound for the course at [[Le Harve]], the [[British]] oppostion did not know what to expect. When news hit that the boat was amazingly quick, the [[American]] [[Commodore]] could hardly land a bet for the race. When the 30.86 meter long schooner-yacht finished twenty minutes ahead of the field without another boat in sight, the betters were proved right.
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{{seealso|Deed of Gift}}
 
  
 
===The Start of the Challenges===  
 
===The Start of the Challenges===  
  
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Stung by this blow to contemporary perceptions of invincible [[United Kingdom|British]] sea power, a succession of British syndicates attempted to win back the cup, but the New York Yacht Club remained unbeaten for 25 challenges over 113 years, the longest winning streak in the history of [[sport]]. Matches were held in the vicinity of [[New York City]] from 1870 and 1920, which includes the “Herreshoff Period” between 1893 and 1920, when cup defenders were designed by [[Nathanael Herreshoff]]. From 1930 to 1983, the races were sailed off [[Newport, Rhode Island|Newport]], [[Rhode Island]] for the rest of the NYYC’s reign.
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Stung by this blow to contemporary perceptions of invincible [[United Kingdom|British]] sea power, a succession of British syndicates attempted to win back the cup, but the New York Yacht Club remained unbeaten for 25 challenges over 113 years, the longest winning streak in the history of [[sport]]. Matches were held in the vicinity of [[New York City]] from [[1870]] and [[1920]], which includes the “Herreshoff Period” between [[1893]] and [[1920]], when cup defenders were designed by [[Nathanael Herreshoff]]. From [[1930]] to [[1983]], the races were sailed off [[Newport, Rhode Island|Newport]], [[Rhode Island]] for the rest of the NYYC’s reign.
  
 
[[Image:Shamrock III in Drydock.jpg|thumb|left|''Shamrock III'' would lose to ''[[Reliance (yacht)|Reliance]]'' in 1903]]
 
[[Image:Shamrock III in Drydock.jpg|thumb|left|''Shamrock III'' would lose to ''[[Reliance (yacht)|Reliance]]'' in 1903]]
  
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One of the most famous and determined challengers was [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[tea]] baron Sir [[Thomas Lipton]].  Between 1899 and 1930 he mounted five challenges, all in yachts named ''Shamrock'', two of which were designed by [[William Fife]]. One of Lipton’s motivations for making so many challenges was the publicity that racing generated for his [[Lipton|Lipton Tea]] company, though his original entry was at the personal request of the [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Prince of Wales]] in hopes of repairing trans-[[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] ill-will generated by the contentious earlier challenger, [[Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl|Lord Dunraven]]. Lipton was preparing for his sixth challenge when he died in 1931. The yachts used during the Lipton era were very large sailing [[sloop]]s; for example, ''Shamrock V'', which is still sailing today, measures 120 feet (36 m) long.
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One of the most famous and determined challengers was [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[tea]] baron Sir [[Thomas Lipton]].  Between [[1899]] and [[1930]] he mounted five challenges, all in yachts named ''Shamrock'', two of which were designed by [[William Fife]]. One of Lipton’s motivations for making so many challenges was the publicity that racing generated for his [[Lipton|Lipton Tea]] company, though his original entry was at the personal request of the [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Prince of Wales]] in hopes of repairing trans-[[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] ill-will generated by the contentious earlier challenger, [[Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl|Lord Dunraven]]. Lipton was preparing for his sixth challenge when he died in [[1931]]. The yachts used during the Lipton era were very large sailing [[sloop]]s; for example, ''Shamrock V'', which is still sailing today, measures 120 feet (36 m) long.
  
 
===After World War II===
 
===After World War II===
  
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After [[World War II]], the huge and expensive [[J-class yacht]]s were replaced by the much smaller [[12-metre class]] yachts, which measure from approximately 65 feet to 75 feet (20 to 23 m) overall. The New York Yacht Club’s unbeaten streak continued in eight more defenses, running from 1958 to 1980. The inventor of the [[cunningham (sailing)|cunningham]] sail control device to increase performance, [[Briggs Cunningham]], skippered the ''[[Columbia (yacht)|Columbia]]'' during its 1958 victory in the first challenge after 1937. [[Alan Bond (businessman)|Alan Bond]], a flamboyant and controversial Australian businessman made three challenges for the cup between 1974 and 1980, failing all three times, including a loss to [[Ted Turner]] in 1977, who skippered ''Courageous''. He returned in 1983 with a golden [[spanner]] which he claimed would be used to unbolt the cup from its [[plinth]], so he could take it home.
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After [[World War II]], the huge and expensive [[J-class yacht]]s were replaced by the much smaller [[12-metre class]] yachts, which measure from approximately 65 feet to 75 feet (20 to 23 m) overall. The [[New York Yacht Club]]’s unbeaten streak continued in eight more defenses, running from 1958 to 1980. The inventor of the [[cunningham (sailing)|cunningham]] sail control device to increase performance, [[Briggs Cunningham]], skippered the ''[[Columbia (yacht)|Columbia]]'' during its [[1958]] victory in the first challenge after [[1937]]. [[Alan Bond (businessman)|Alan Bond]], a flamboyant and controversial Australian businessman made three challenges for the cup between 1974 and 1980, failing all three times, including a loss to [[Ted Turner]] in 1977, who skippered ''Courageous''. He returned in 1983 with a golden [[spanner]] which he claimed would be used to unbolt the cup from its [[plinth]], so he could take it home.
  
 
In 1983 there were seven foreign challengers for the cup. Bond’s campaign, representing the [[Royal Perth Yacht Club]], won the elimination series for the “right to challenge” the NYYC, the prize for which was the [[Louis Vuitton Cup]]. In the challenger series, Bond’s ''Australia II'', skippered by John Bertrand and designed by [[Ben Lexcen]] won easily. The Australians recovered from a bad start to win the America’s Cup 4-3 in a best-of-seven format and break the 132-year winning streak.  
 
In 1983 there were seven foreign challengers for the cup. Bond’s campaign, representing the [[Royal Perth Yacht Club]], won the elimination series for the “right to challenge” the NYYC, the prize for which was the [[Louis Vuitton Cup]]. In the challenger series, Bond’s ''Australia II'', skippered by John Bertrand and designed by [[Ben Lexcen]] won easily. The Australians recovered from a bad start to win the America’s Cup 4-3 in a best-of-seven format and break the 132-year winning streak.  
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Beaten skipper [[Dennis Conner]] won the Cup back four years later, with the yacht [[Stars & Stripes (yacht)|''Stars & Stripes'']] representing the [[San Diego Yacht Club]], but had to fend off an unprecedented 13 challenger syndicates to do it. Bond’s syndicate lost the ''Defender'' series and did not race in the final.
 
Beaten skipper [[Dennis Conner]] won the Cup back four years later, with the yacht [[Stars & Stripes (yacht)|''Stars & Stripes'']] representing the [[San Diego Yacht Club]], but had to fend off an unprecedented 13 challenger syndicates to do it. Bond’s syndicate lost the ''Defender'' series and did not race in the final.
  
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===The changing face of the Cup===
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===The end of the 12-metre era===
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In [[1988]], soon after ''Stars and Stripes’'' victory had redeemed [[Dennis Conner]]’s reputation but before the [[San Diego Yacht Club]] had publicly issued terms for the next regatta, a New Zealand syndicate, led by merchant banker [[Michael Fay (banker)|Michael Fay]], lodged a surprise “big boat” challenge under the original rules of the cup trust deed. The challenge used a gigantic yacht named '''New Zealand''' (''[[KZ1]]'') or the '''Big Boat'''. Fay had challenged using the maximum size yacht possible – even larger than a J-class yacht – which was swiftly built and presented for the contest. Conner’s syndicate, however, recognised that a [[catamaran]] was not expressly prohibited under the rules.  Catamarans, due to lower mass to sail area ratios and other factors, are in general vastly quicker than monohulls.  Conner did not leave anything to chance, however, and commissioned a cutting-edge design with a [[wing]] sail, also named ''Stars and Stripes''. A legal battle ensued over whether Conner or Fay had broken the rules or if both had merely skirted the edges of them. The teams were directed by one American court to compete in the race, which New Zealand predictably lost by a huge margin. A second court then awarded [[New Zealand]] the cup, only to have a third court decide the [[San Diego Yacht Club]] should hold the cup.
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 +
===IACC Era===
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In the wake of the [[1988]] challenge, the [[International Americas Cup Class|International America’s Cup Class]] (IACC) of yachts was introduced, replacing the 12-metre class that had been used since [[1958]]. First raced in [[1992]], the IACC yachts were used until the [[2007 America's Cup]].
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The debut of the [[IACC]] yachts were devloped to use the advantage of their new tehcnology with [[carbon fibre]] used to constcut the masts and hulls. This led to faster and lighter boats with a much larger sail area than the previously used yachts. New rules were also introdcuted that gave heavier boats more sail, and also helped lift restrictions that were previously put on the underwater and beam construction.
  
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Technology was now playing an increasing role in the yacht design. The 1983 winner, Australia II, had sported its innovative [[winged keel]], and the [[New Zealand]] boat that Conner had beaten in the Louis Vuitton Cup final in [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] was the first [[12-metre class]] to have a [[fibreglass]] hull construction rather than [[aluminium]]. The New Zealand syndicate had to fight off legal challenges from Conner’s team who were demanding that “core samples” be taken from the plastic hull to prove that it met class specifications. “Why would you build a plastic yacht unless you wanted to cheat?” said Conner at a press conference. The legal challenge created a legacy of bitterness between Team New Zealand and Conner.
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'''IACC Sixteen Man Crew'''
  
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===The end of the 12-metre era===
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<ref>History of the America's Cup, Ranulf Rayner</ref>
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1. ''Observer''- One non executive lace is kept for the owner or his nominee; on early racing days this might be one of the designers.
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2. "Helmsman"- The most important member of the crew, who can also be the skipper. Steers the yacht with one of two wheels, oten giving tacking and sail changing orders
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3. "Tactician"- Responsbile for mosttactical race decisions, reached on the basis of wind and sea conditions and the relative positions, strengths and likely strategy of the opposition
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 +
4."Navigator"- Plost the optimum course between market buoys using a sophisticated array of wind direction and speed instruments, together with satellite navigation dislays and weather data.
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 +
5. "Mainsheet Trimmer"- Adjusts the shape of the mainsail, tension-ing the mainsheet on the winch with the traveller positioning the boom correctly over the boat.
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6,7. "Headsail Trimmers"- Responsbile for adjustments to the weather, port or starboard (jib) sheet. They may often by heard shouting instructions to the grinders.
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8-12. "Grinders"- Chosen largely for muscle-power, their job is to hoist the sails and adjust them as quickly as possible by tensioning the sheets using the "coffee-grinder" winches.
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13. "Spinnaker Trimmer"- He has to think quickly and make rapid alterations to the set of the spinnaker. A key member of the crew.
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14. "Sewer/Halyard Man"- Pcks the parachutes to the pit below decks and feeds sails to the deckhands through the sewer or forehatch. Mans the sail halyards.
  
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In 1988, soon after ''Stars and Stripes’'' victory had redeemed Dennis Conner’s reputation but before the San Diego Yacht Club had publicly issued terms for the next regatta, a New Zealand syndicate, led by merchant banker [[Michael Fay (banker)|Michael Fay]], lodged a surprise “big boat” challenge under the original rules of the cup trust deed. The challenge used a gigantic yacht named '''New Zealand''' (''[[KZ1]]'') or the '''Big Boat'''. Fay had challenged using the maximum size yacht possible – even larger than a J-class yacht – which was swiftly built and presented for the contest. Conner’s syndicate, however, recognised that a [[catamaran]] was not expressly prohibited under the rules.  Catamarans, due to lower mass to sail area ratios and other factors, are in general vastly quicker than monohulls.  Conner did not leave anything to chance, however, and commissioned a cutting-edge design with a [[wing]] sail, also named ''Stars and Stripes''. A legal battle ensued over whether Conner or Fay had broken the rules or if both had merely skirted the edges of them. The teams were directed by one American court to compete in the race, which New Zealand predictably lost by a huge margin. A second court then awarded New Zealand the cup, only to have a third court decide the San Diego Yacht Club should hold the cup.
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15. "Foredeck Hand"- Helps the bowman position the massive spinnaker pole, liasises closely with the swer man and helps hoist, stow and generally handle the sails.
  
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===IACC Era=== 
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16. "Bowman"- The hero who organises all the sail changes and acts as a forward lookout. In rough weather the bowman has the most difficult task and may be constantly under water.
  
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In the wake of the 1988 challenge, the [[International Americas Cup Class|International America’s Cup Class]] (IACC) of yachts was introduced, replacing the 12-metre class that had been used since 1958. First raced in 1992, the IACC yachts were used until the [[2007 America's Cup]].
 
  
 
*In [[1992]], [[List of IACC yachts|USA-23]] of the ''[[America 3|America<sup>3</sup>]]'' team, skippered by [[billionaire]] [[Bill Koch (businessman)|Bill Koch]] and sailing legend [[Buddy Melges|Harry “Buddy” Melges]], defeated the Italian challenger ''[[List of IACC yachts|Il Moro ITA-25]]'', owned by billionaire [[Raul Gardini]]’s [[Il Moro di Venezia]] 5-1. (Team New Zealand led 4-1 in the Louis Vuitton final before a protest by the Italians about the use of Team New Zealand’s bowsprit for certain spinnaker manoeuvres, allowed the Italians to come back and narrowly advance to the cup final).
 
*In [[1992]], [[List of IACC yachts|USA-23]] of the ''[[America 3|America<sup>3</sup>]]'' team, skippered by [[billionaire]] [[Bill Koch (businessman)|Bill Koch]] and sailing legend [[Buddy Melges|Harry “Buddy” Melges]], defeated the Italian challenger ''[[List of IACC yachts|Il Moro ITA-25]]'', owned by billionaire [[Raul Gardini]]’s [[Il Moro di Venezia]] 5-1. (Team New Zealand led 4-1 in the Louis Vuitton final before a protest by the Italians about the use of Team New Zealand’s bowsprit for certain spinnaker manoeuvres, allowed the Italians to come back and narrowly advance to the cup final).
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The Golden Gate Yacht Club has lodged a complaint against the Société Nautique de Genève in [[New York Supreme Court]], [[New York County, New York|New York County]] pleading violations of the Deed of Gift (the deed specifies the NY Supreme Court is the arbiter of last resort). The suit alleges that the Spanish club does not meet the terms of the Deed of Gift as a legitimate yacht club that would qualify to be the Challenger of Record<ref name=GGYC2007Complaint>[http://www.ggyc.org/Verified_Complaint.PDF GGYC Complaint Against SNG]</ref>.
 
The Golden Gate Yacht Club has lodged a complaint against the Société Nautique de Genève in [[New York Supreme Court]], [[New York County, New York|New York County]] pleading violations of the Deed of Gift (the deed specifies the NY Supreme Court is the arbiter of last resort). The suit alleges that the Spanish club does not meet the terms of the Deed of Gift as a legitimate yacht club that would qualify to be the Challenger of Record<ref name=GGYC2007Complaint>[http://www.ggyc.org/Verified_Complaint.PDF GGYC Complaint Against SNG]</ref>.
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==The Courses==
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===Isle of Wight===
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At the start of the race, the sport was not viewed by many spectators. It was not until after more than a decade of competition that the [[Prince of Wales]], later on known as [[King Edward VII]], started to visit [[Cowes]] for the race.
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Today the course would not be an ideal place for competition, but at the time was a good place to host the event because the local boats had a no advantage over the [[Americans]] because of the swift currents.
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===Inside Course- New York Yacht Club===
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In [[1844]] the [[New York Yacht Club]] created two race courses approaching the harbor for the cup. The first ran insdie [[Tompkinsville]] and by the shores of [[Staten Island]]. As with the Isle of Wight, local advantage did not exist because of the currents.
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Its first time hosting the cup was in [[1870] with ocal steamboats circling the racers with positive reinforcement, and bands playing songs such as [[Yankee Doodle]] and [[God Save the Queen]]. Some of the larger boats had more than 300 spectators, and were a risk for blocking the path of the yachts. It was because of this that in [[1887]] the inside course was discontinued because it gave an advantage to the quicker, skinnier [[American]] boats.
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===Outside Course- New York Yacht Club===
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The outside course was very convient because it eliminated a race with a lack of wind, and challenged all the racers as if they were on the open water.  The triangle course made the tougher conditons a real variable during the cup. In [[1871]] the boat [[Livonia]] couldn't pass on the correct side, disqualifying the boat. As was the case with the first [[New York]] course, the outside course was questioned as specatator crafts continued to increase. [[Mike Vanderbilt]] ordered a new course to be made in [[Rhode Island]].
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===Newport===
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From [[1930]] to [[1962]], the cup made its home in Newport and soon enough, the new area developed its own environment for the race. [[World War II]] limited spectators, but within time the town becamse a paradise for saling fans. According to Ranulf Rayner's book on the race, mansions soon  were filled by crews, streets became traffic jams, and the shops in town became virtual museums for the [[America Cup]]. At the [[Newport]] course, committee boats would judge the weather for the day, and use buoy's to mark the race points.
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 +
'''Revised Course'''
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In [[1964]] a new course was created in [[Newport]] to create less of an advantage for boats downwind.  With the new course, the hazards were still just as difficult, but the speed increased significantly. This made the race much more slick and exciting, as decisions were even more vital and needed in a quick amount of time.
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===Perth===
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On [[October 30, 1983]] over 900,000 people showed up to congradulate the winners from [[Austrailia]]. This led to a ton of publicity for the nation, and in [[1987]] hosted the cup. The new location was beautiful, but the course was deadly. As soon as the [[Royal Perth Yacht Club]] took home the cup, they set up a special committe to design a tight, demanding, 11 mile course that would set up the host nations strengths. With the new course came new marinas, and the teams that made the trip were greeted by the fast winds, and wild seas that the Aussies set up.
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===San Diego===
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When [[Dennis Conner]] left [[Perth]] victorious, he was left with the decision of the new location. Many speulated on its location, with some thinking Conner would head to [[Hawaii]], the location he used to train for his [[1987]] victory.  The rough [[Hawaiian]] sees were passed over, and the race headed to [[San Diego]]. The course in [[1992]] was set up for a explosion of excitement with several [[hairpin]] turns, and the first ever downward finish.  Even though the course was new and difficult, the atmosphere did not match that of previous locations.
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===Auckland===
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The course from [[1995]] to [[2003]] was hosted by the [[Kiwis]], with no more prepartion and attention given to the process to host the [[2000]] [[Olympic Games]].
  
 
==Most wins by country==
 
==Most wins by country==
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==References==
 
==References==
 
{{reflist}}
 
{{reflist}}
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*Rayner, R. 2003. "The Story of The America's Cup 1851-2003". Warwick Publishing. ISBN
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
 
{{commons|America's Cup|America’s Cup}}
 
{{commons|America's Cup|America’s Cup}}

Revision as of 05:45, 31 August 2007


America's Cup
The America’s Cup Trophy
Sport Sailing
Founded 1851
No. of teams 13 (2009)
Country International
Flag of Spain Spain (2009 Host)
Most recent champion(s) Flag of Switzerland Alinghi
Official website http://www.americascup.com
This article is about the yachting competition. For the football championship, see Copa América.

The America’s Cup is the most famous and most prestigious regatta and Match Race in the sport of sailing, and the oldest active trophy in international sport]. Formerly known as The Hundred Guinea Cup and was the prize for the race around the Isle of Wight. The sport attracts top sailors and yacht designers because of its long history and prestige as the “Holy Grail” of yachting. Although the most salient aspect of the regatta is its yacht races, it is also a test of boat design,sail design, fundraising, and management skills. The cup, originally offered as the Royal Yacht Squadron cup, is now named after the first yacht to win the trophy, the schooner America.

History

File:Yacht America, by Currier & Ives.jpg
Yacht America in 1851 by Currier & Ives

1851 First exibition

During the year of the first World's Fair, American boatbuilders reputation grew throughout the boating world. With the energy of the fair behind them, several New York businessmen persuaded John C. Stevens, a Commmodore of the new New York Yacht Club to sponsor a yacht against British competition for money.

After Stevens discussed the idea with his friends James Hamilton, Georeg L. Schuyler, Hamilton Weeks, and J.B Finley they decided to ask a successful ship maker by the name of George Steers to build the winning boat. Steers obliged and even offered to give the team $45,000 of his own money if the America boat lost.

When the boat sailed six days from New York bound for the course at Le Harve, the British oppostion did not know what to expect. When news hit that the boat was amazingly quick, the American Commodore could hardly land a bet for the race. When the 30.86 meter long schooner-yacht finished twenty minutes ahead of the field without another boat in sight, the betters were proved right.

The Start of the Challenges

Stung by this blow to contemporary perceptions of invincible British sea power, a succession of British syndicates attempted to win back the cup, but the New York Yacht Club remained unbeaten for 25 challenges over 113 years, the longest winning streak in the history of sport. Matches were held in the vicinity of New York City from 1870 and 1920, which includes the “Herreshoff Period” between 1893 and 1920, when cup defenders were designed by Nathanael Herreshoff. From 1930 to 1983, the races were sailed off Newport, Rhode Island for the rest of the NYYC’s reign.

Shamrock III would lose to Reliance in 1903

One of the most famous and determined challengers was Scottish tea baron Sir Thomas Lipton. Between 1899 and 1930 he mounted five challenges, all in yachts named Shamrock, two of which were designed by William Fife. One of Lipton’s motivations for making so many challenges was the publicity that racing generated for his Lipton Tea company, though his original entry was at the personal request of the Prince of Wales in hopes of repairing trans-Atlantic ill-will generated by the contentious earlier challenger, Lord Dunraven. Lipton was preparing for his sixth challenge when he died in 1931. The yachts used during the Lipton era were very large sailing sloops; for example, Shamrock V, which is still sailing today, measures 120 feet (36 m) long.

After World War II

After World War II, the huge and expensive J-class yachts were replaced by the much smaller 12-metre class yachts, which measure from approximately 65 feet to 75 feet (20 to 23 m) overall. The New York Yacht Club’s unbeaten streak continued in eight more defenses, running from 1958 to 1980. The inventor of the cunningham sail control device to increase performance, Briggs Cunningham, skippered the Columbia during its 1958 victory in the first challenge after 1937. Alan Bond, a flamboyant and controversial Australian businessman made three challenges for the cup between 1974 and 1980, failing all three times, including a loss to Ted Turner in 1977, who skippered Courageous. He returned in 1983 with a golden spanner which he claimed would be used to unbolt the cup from its plinth, so he could take it home.

In 1983 there were seven foreign challengers for the cup. Bond’s campaign, representing the Royal Perth Yacht Club, won the elimination series for the “right to challenge” the NYYC, the prize for which was the Louis Vuitton Cup. In the challenger series, Bond’s Australia II, skippered by John Bertrand and designed by Ben Lexcen won easily. The Australians recovered from a bad start to win the America’s Cup 4-3 in a best-of-seven format and break the 132-year winning streak.

Beaten skipper Dennis Conner won the Cup back four years later, with the yacht Stars & Stripes representing the San Diego Yacht Club, but had to fend off an unprecedented 13 challenger syndicates to do it. Bond’s syndicate lost the Defender series and did not race in the final.

The end of the 12-metre era

In 1988, soon after Stars and Stripes’ victory had redeemed Dennis Conner’s reputation but before the San Diego Yacht Club had publicly issued terms for the next regatta, a New Zealand syndicate, led by merchant banker Michael Fay, lodged a surprise “big boat” challenge under the original rules of the cup trust deed. The challenge used a gigantic yacht named New Zealand (KZ1) or the Big Boat. Fay had challenged using the maximum size yacht possible – even larger than a J-class yacht – which was swiftly built and presented for the contest. Conner’s syndicate, however, recognised that a catamaran was not expressly prohibited under the rules. Catamarans, due to lower mass to sail area ratios and other factors, are in general vastly quicker than monohulls. Conner did not leave anything to chance, however, and commissioned a cutting-edge design with a wing sail, also named Stars and Stripes. A legal battle ensued over whether Conner or Fay had broken the rules or if both had merely skirted the edges of them. The teams were directed by one American court to compete in the race, which New Zealand predictably lost by a huge margin. A second court then awarded New Zealand the cup, only to have a third court decide the San Diego Yacht Club should hold the cup.

IACC Era

In the wake of the 1988 challenge, the International America’s Cup Class (IACC) of yachts was introduced, replacing the 12-metre class that had been used since 1958. First raced in 1992, the IACC yachts were used until the 2007 America's Cup.

The debut of the IACC yachts were devloped to use the advantage of their new tehcnology with carbon fibre used to constcut the masts and hulls. This led to faster and lighter boats with a much larger sail area than the previously used yachts. New rules were also introdcuted that gave heavier boats more sail, and also helped lift restrictions that were previously put on the underwater and beam construction.

IACC Sixteen Man Crew

[1]

1. Observer- One non executive lace is kept for the owner or his nominee; on early racing days this might be one of the designers.

2. "Helmsman"- The most important member of the crew, who can also be the skipper. Steers the yacht with one of two wheels, oten giving tacking and sail changing orders

3. "Tactician"- Responsbile for mosttactical race decisions, reached on the basis of wind and sea conditions and the relative positions, strengths and likely strategy of the opposition

4."Navigator"- Plost the optimum course between market buoys using a sophisticated array of wind direction and speed instruments, together with satellite navigation dislays and weather data.

5. "Mainsheet Trimmer"- Adjusts the shape of the mainsail, tension-ing the mainsheet on the winch with the traveller positioning the boom correctly over the boat.

6,7. "Headsail Trimmers"- Responsbile for adjustments to the weather, port or starboard (jib) sheet. They may often by heard shouting instructions to the grinders.

8-12. "Grinders"- Chosen largely for muscle-power, their job is to hoist the sails and adjust them as quickly as possible by tensioning the sheets using the "coffee-grinder" winches.

13. "Spinnaker Trimmer"- He has to think quickly and make rapid alterations to the set of the spinnaker. A key member of the crew.

14. "Sewer/Halyard Man"- Pcks the parachutes to the pit below decks and feeds sails to the deckhands through the sewer or forehatch. Mans the sail halyards.

15. "Foredeck Hand"- Helps the bowman position the massive spinnaker pole, liasises closely with the swer man and helps hoist, stow and generally handle the sails.

16. "Bowman"- The hero who organises all the sail changes and acts as a forward lookout. In rough weather the bowman has the most difficult task and may be constantly under water.


  • In 1992, USA-23 of the America3 team, skippered by billionaire Bill Koch and sailing legend Harry “Buddy” Melges, defeated the Italian challenger Il Moro ITA-25, owned by billionaire Raul Gardini’s Il Moro di Venezia 5-1. (Team New Zealand led 4-1 in the Louis Vuitton final before a protest by the Italians about the use of Team New Zealand’s bowsprit for certain spinnaker manoeuvres, allowed the Italians to come back and narrowly advance to the cup final).
  • In 1995, The Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron syndicate Team New Zealand, skippered by Russell Coutts, first won the challenger series in NZL 32, dubbed Black Magic because of its black hull and uncanny speed. Black Magic then easily defeated Dennis Connor’s Stars & Stripes team 5–0 to win the cup for New Zealand. Although “Stars & Stripes” won the defender selection trials sailing “USA-34” they decided to sail USA-36 to defend the America’s Cup. USA-36 was the yacht campaigned by the Young America team in the defender trials and beaten by USA-34. The 1995 Cup was notable for the televised sinking of oneAustralia during the fourth round robin of the Louis Vuitton challenger selection series. Luckily no-one was injured during the incident. The Australians advanced to the Louis Vuitton final using their second boat. Team New Zealand won the Louis Vuitton final 5-1 over oneAustralia.
  • In March 1997, a person entered the Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron’s clubroom and damaged the America’s Cup with a sledgehammer. The attacker, a recidivist petty criminal, claimed the attack was politically motivated; he was convicted and sent to prison. The damage was so severe that it was feared that the cup was irreparable. London’s Garrards silversmiths, who had manufactured the cup in 1848, painstakingly restored the trophy to its original condition over three months, free of charge.
  • At Auckland in 1999–2000, Team New Zealand, led by Peter Blake, and again skippered by Russell Coutts, defeated Challenger Italy’s Prada Challenge from the Yacht Club Punta Ala. The Italians had previously beaten the AmericaOne syndicate from the St Francis Yacht Club in the Louis Vuitton Cup Finals. This was the first America’s Cup to be contested without an American challenger or defender.
  • In 2003 several strong challengers vied for the cup in Auckland during the challenger selection series. Notably a number of original members of Team New Zealand including previous helmsman Russell Coutts were key members of the Swiss challenge “Alinghi” sponsored by pharmaceutical billionaire Ernesto Bertarelli. Alinghi advanced surprisingly comfortably through the Louis Vuitton series into the America’s Cup final. The Alinghi team won the America’s Cup with surprising ease (5-0), multiple gear failures not helping Team New Zealand’s defence.
  • It was announced on November 27, 2003 that Alinghi would defend the America’s Cup in 2007 in Valencia, Spain, the first time since the original 1851 Isle of Wight race that the America’s Cup has been held in Europe. The deadline to challenge for the 32nd America’s Cup was April 29 2005, by which time 11 challengers from 9 countries had submitted formal entries. The challenger selection series, the Louis Vuitton Cup 2007, began in Valencia on April 16, 2007 and concluded on June 6 2007 after 122 matches. Emirates Team New Zealand won the challenger series 5-0 against Italians Luna Rossa and met Alinghi between June 23 and July 3, 2007. Alinghi successfully defended the America's Cup on July 3, 2007 by beating Emirates Team New Zealand 5-2. The racing was much closer than the scoreline suggests including a 1 second winning margin by Alinghi in the seventh and final race.

The 33rd Americas Cup - a new era

The protocols for the 33rd America's Cup were released on July 5, 2007. The protocol agreed to with Club Náutico Español de Vela, the Challenger of Record, will feature boats of 90 feet in length and crews of up to 20. The 33rd America's Cup will be again the Mediterranean city of Valencia and it will take place in May - July 2009 [2].

The Golden Gate Yacht Club has lodged a complaint against the Société Nautique de Genève in New York Supreme Court, New York County pleading violations of the Deed of Gift (the deed specifies the NY Supreme Court is the arbiter of last resort). The suit alleges that the Spanish club does not meet the terms of the Deed of Gift as a legitimate yacht club that would qualify to be the Challenger of Record[3].

The Courses

Isle of Wight

At the start of the race, the sport was not viewed by many spectators. It was not until after more than a decade of competition that the Prince of Wales, later on known as King Edward VII, started to visit Cowes for the race.

Today the course would not be an ideal place for competition, but at the time was a good place to host the event because the local boats had a no advantage over the Americans because of the swift currents.

Inside Course- New York Yacht Club

In 1844 the New York Yacht Club created two race courses approaching the harbor for the cup. The first ran insdie Tompkinsville and by the shores of Staten Island. As with the Isle of Wight, local advantage did not exist because of the currents.

Its first time hosting the cup was in [[1870] with ocal steamboats circling the racers with positive reinforcement, and bands playing songs such as Yankee Doodle and God Save the Queen. Some of the larger boats had more than 300 spectators, and were a risk for blocking the path of the yachts. It was because of this that in 1887 the inside course was discontinued because it gave an advantage to the quicker, skinnier American boats.

Outside Course- New York Yacht Club

The outside course was very convient because it eliminated a race with a lack of wind, and challenged all the racers as if they were on the open water. The triangle course made the tougher conditons a real variable during the cup. In 1871 the boat Livonia couldn't pass on the correct side, disqualifying the boat. As was the case with the first New York course, the outside course was questioned as specatator crafts continued to increase. Mike Vanderbilt ordered a new course to be made in Rhode Island.

Newport

From 1930 to 1962, the cup made its home in Newport and soon enough, the new area developed its own environment for the race. World War II limited spectators, but within time the town becamse a paradise for saling fans. According to Ranulf Rayner's book on the race, mansions soon were filled by crews, streets became traffic jams, and the shops in town became virtual museums for the America Cup. At the Newport course, committee boats would judge the weather for the day, and use buoy's to mark the race points.

Revised Course In 1964 a new course was created in Newport to create less of an advantage for boats downwind. With the new course, the hazards were still just as difficult, but the speed increased significantly. This made the race much more slick and exciting, as decisions were even more vital and needed in a quick amount of time.

Perth

On October 30, 1983 over 900,000 people showed up to congradulate the winners from Austrailia. This led to a ton of publicity for the nation, and in 1987 hosted the cup. The new location was beautiful, but the course was deadly. As soon as the Royal Perth Yacht Club took home the cup, they set up a special committe to design a tight, demanding, 11 mile course that would set up the host nations strengths. With the new course came new marinas, and the teams that made the trip were greeted by the fast winds, and wild seas that the Aussies set up.

San Diego

When Dennis Conner left Perth victorious, he was left with the decision of the new location. Many speulated on its location, with some thinking Conner would head to Hawaii, the location he used to train for his 1987 victory. The rough Hawaiian sees were passed over, and the race headed to San Diego. The course in 1992 was set up for a explosion of excitement with several hairpin turns, and the first ever downward finish. Even though the course was new and difficult, the atmosphere did not match that of previous locations.

Auckland

The course from 1995 to 2003 was hosted by the Kiwis, with no more prepartion and attention given to the process to host the 2000 Olympic Games.

Most wins by country

Club Nationality Wins Losses
Flag of United States United States 28 2
Flag of New Zealand New Zealand 2 3
Flag of Switzerland Switzerland 2 0
Flag of Australia Australia 1 7
Flag of England England 0 11
Flag of Ireland Ireland 0 4
Flag of Canada Canada 0 2
Flag of Italy Italy 0 2
Flag of Scotland Scotland 0 1
Flag of Northern Ireland Northern Ireland 0 1

America’s Cup challengers and defenders

Year Host City Defending Club Defender Result Challenger
2009
Details 		Flag of Spain.svg
Valencia, Spain 		ACFlagAlinghi.gif
Société Nautique de Genève
 ACFlagAlinghi.gif Alinghi
Flag of Switzerland Switzerland
2007
Details 		Flag of Spain.svg
Valencia, Spain 		ACFlagAlinghi.gif
Société Nautique de Genève
 ACFlagAlinghi.gif Alinghi, SUI-100
Flag of Switzerland Switzerland 		5-2 ACFlagNZ.jpg Team New Zealand, NZL-92
Flag of New Zealand New Zealand
2003
Details 		Flag of New Zealand.svg
Auckland 		ACFlagNZ.jpg
Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron 		ACFlagNZ.jpg Team New Zealand
Flag of New Zealand New Zealand 		0-5 ACFlagAlinghi.gif Alinghi
Flag of Switzerland Switzerland


2000
Details 		Flag of New Zealand.svg
Auckland 		ACFlagNZ.jpg
Royal New Zealand Yacht Squadron 		ACFlagNZ.jpg Team New Zealand
Flag of New Zealand New Zealand 		5-0 ACFlagLunaRossa.jpg Prada Challenge
Flag of Italy Italy
1995
Details 		30px
San Diego 		ACFlagSD.gif
San Diego Yacht Club 		ACFlagSD.gif Young America
Flag of United States United States 		0-5 ACFlagNZ.jpg Black Magic
Flag of New Zealand New Zealand
1992
Details 		30px
San Diego 		ACFlagSD.gif
San Diego Yacht Club 		ACFlagSD.gif America³
Flag of United States United States 		4-1 ACFlagLunaRossa.jpg Il Moro di Venezia
Flag of Italy Italy
1988
Details 		30px
San Diego 		ACFlagSD.gif
San Diego Yacht Club 		ACFlagSD.gif Stars & Stripes
Flag of United States United States 		2-0 ACFlagNZ.jpg New Zealand Challenge
Flag of New Zealand New Zealand
1987
Details 		Flag of Australia.svg
Fremantle 		ACFlagPerth.jpg
Royal Perth Yacht Club 		ACFlagPerth.jpgKookaburra III
Flag of Australia Australia 		0-4 ACFlagSD.gif Stars & Stripes
Flag of United States United States
1983
Details 		30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Liberty
Flag of United States United States 		3-4 ACFlagPerth.jpgAustralia II
Flag of Australia Australia
1980
Details 		30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Freedom
Flag of United States United States 		4-1 ACFlagPerth.jpg Australia
Flag of Australia Australia
1977 30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Courageous
Flag of United States United States 		4-0 ACFlagPerth.jpg Australia
Flag of Australia Australia
1974 30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Courageous
Flag of United States United States 		4-0 ACFlagPerth.jpg Southern Cross
Flag of Australia Australia
1970 30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Intrepid
Flag of United States United States 		4-1 ACFlagSydney.gif Gretel II
Flag of Australia Australia
1967 30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Intrepid
Flag of United States United States 		4-0 ACFlagSydney.gif Dame Pattie
Flag of Australia Australia
1964 30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Constellation
Flag of United States United States 		4-0 ACFlagEngland.GIF Sovereign
Flag of England England
1962 30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Weatherly
Flag of United States United States 		4-1 ACFlagSydney.gif Gretel
Flag of Australia Australia
1958 30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Columbia
Flag of United States United States 		4-0 ACFlagEngland.GIF Sceptre
Flag of England England
1937 30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Ranger
Flag of United States United States 		4-0 ACFlagEngland.GIF Endeavour IIl
Flag of England England
1934 30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Rainbow
Flag of United States United States 		4-2 ACFlagEngland.GIF Endeavour
Flag of England England
1930 30px
Newport, Rhode Island 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Enterprise
Flag of United States United States 		4-0 ACFlagIreland.gif Shamrock V
Flag of Northern Ireland Northern Ireland
1920 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Resolute
Flag of United States United States 		3-2 ACFlagIreland.gif Shamrock IV
Flag of Ireland Ireland
1903 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Reliance
Flag of United States United States 		3-0 ACFlagIreland.gif Shamrock III
Flag of Ireland Ireland
1901 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Columbia
Flag of United States United States 		3-0 ACFlagIreland.gif Shamrock II
Flag of Ireland Ireland
1899 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Columbia
Flag of United States United States 		3-0 ACFlagIreland.gif Shamrock
Flag of Ireland Ireland
1895 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Defender
Flag of United States United States 		3-0 ACFlagEngland.GIF Valkyrie III
Flag of England England
1893 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Vigilant
Flag of United States United States 		3-0 ACFlagEngland.GIF Valkyrie II
Flag of England England
1887 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Volunteer
Flag of United States United States 		2-0 ACFlagScotland.gif Thistle
Flag of Scotland Scotland
1886 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Mayflower
Flag of United States United States 		2-0 ACFlagEngland.GIF Galatea
Flag of England England
1885 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Puritan
Flag of United States United States 		2-0 ACFlagEngland.GIF Genesta
Flag of England England
1881 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Mischief
Flag of United States United States 		2-0 ACFlagCanada.gif Atalanta
Flag of Canada Canada
1876 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Madeleine
Flag of United States United States 		2-0 ACFlagCanada.gif Countess of Dufferin
Flag of Canada Canada
1871 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Columbia
Flag of United States United States 		4-1 ACFlagEngland.GIF Livonia
Flag of England England
1870 30px
New York City 		ACFlagUSA.gif
New York Yacht Club 		ACFlagUSA.gif Magic
Flag of United States United States 		1-0 ACFlagEngland.GIF Cambria
Flag of England England
1851
Details 		Flag of England.svg
Isle of Wight 		ACFlagEngland.GIF
Royal Yacht Squadron 		ACFlagUSA.gif America
Flag of United States United States 		1-0 ACFlagEngland.GIF Aurora
Flag of England England

The defending club only lost its title five times (1851, 1983, 1987, 1995, 2003).

America’s Cup in the media

The America’s Cup series of races, particularly Dennis Conner’s quest to regain the Cup after losing it to Australia and winning it back in the subsequent series, was used as the inspiration for the 1992 film Wind starring Matthew Modine and Jennifer Grey.

Traditionally, commercial airships or blimps built by the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, of Akron, Ohio, USA, have been named after former America’s Cup winning boats. Paul W. Litchfield, an early chairman of Goodyear, envisioned airships as “the aerial yachts of the wealthy” and began the tradition of naming blimps after A.C. boats, in 1925, with the christening of the Pilgram. The tradition continued with Goodyear blimps named Stars & Stripes, Columbia, Ranger, Rainbow, Enterprise, Resolute, Reliance, Defender, Vigilant, Volunteer, Mayflower, Puritan and America.

See also

  • Louis Vuitton Cup
  • Citizen Cup awarded in the defenders series for the America's Cup - not raced for since 1995
  • 2007 America's Cup
  • Little Americas Cup
  • “New” Little Americas Cup

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  1. ↑ History of the America's Cup, Ranulf Rayner
  2. ↑ 33rd America's Cup details published: Valencia, in 2009...and more
  3. ↑ GGYC Complaint Against SNG
  • Rayner, R. 2003. "The Story of The America's Cup 1851-2003". Warwick Publishing. ISBN

External links

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