Difference between revisions of "Bhagavad Gita" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:krishna-arjun.jpg|thumb|right|Krishna reveals his ''[[Vishvarupa]]'' form to Arjuna during their discourse of the Bhagavad Gita.]]  
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[[File:BhagavadGita-19th-century-Illustrated-Sanskrit-Chapter 1.20.21.jpg|thumb|400px|A nineteenth-century illustrated Sanskrit manuscript from the ''Bhagavad Gita'']]
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The '''''Bhagavad Gita''''' ([[Sanskrit]] {{lang|sa|भगवद्‌ गीता}} ''{{IAST|Bhagavad Gītā}}'', "Song of [[Bhagavan|God]]") is a [[Epic Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] text from the ''Bhishma Parva'' of the [[Mahabharata]] epic. Due to differences in recensions they may be numbered in the full text of the Mahabharata as chapters 6.25 &ndash; 42<ref>[http://veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/sastras-studies1.htm#5 Sastras studies] 'Consists of chapters 25-42 of Bhisma Parva, Mahabharata' </ref> or as chapters 6.23-40<ref>The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI) electronic edition. Electronic text (C) Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, India, 1999.</ref>. According to the recension of the Gita commented on by [[Adi Shankara|Shankaracharya]], the number of verses is 700, but there is evidence to show that some old manuscripts had 745 verses.<ref>Gambhiranda (1997), p. xvii.</ref>
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The '''''Bhagavad Gita''''' ([[Sanskrit]] {{lang|sa|भगवद् गीता}} ''{{IAST|Bhagavad Gītā}}'', "Song of God" or “The Lord’s Song”) is a [[Epic Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] text from the ''Bhishma Parva'' of the [[Mahabharata]] epic. For its religious depth, quintessential Upanishadic and Yogic philosophy and beauty of verse, the Bhagavad Gita is one of the most compelling and important texts of the [[Hindu]] tradition. It is considered by many to be one of the world's greatest religious and spiritual scriptures.
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The Bhagavadgita is written in the form of a conversation between [[Krishna]] and [[Arjuna]] on the battlefield of [[Kurukshetra]] just prior to the start of a climactic Kurukshetra war. Responding to Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a [[kshatriya|warrior]] and [[Prince]] and elaborates on a number of different [[Yoga|Yogic]] and [[Vedantic]] philosophies, with examples and analogies. During the discourse, Krishna reveals his identity as the Supreme Being Himself (''[[Bhagavan]]''), blessing Arjuna with an awe-inspiring glimpse of His [[divinity|divine]] absolute form. In many ways seemingly a heterogeneous text, the Gita reconciles many facets and schools of Hindu philosophy, including those of Brahmanical (orthodox Vedic) origin and the parallel ascetic and Yogic traditions. It comprises primarily Vedic (as in the four Vedas, as opposed to the Upanishads/Vedanta), Upanishadic, Sankhya and Yogic philosophies.  
  
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[[Krishna]], as the speaker of the Bhagavad Gita, is referred to within as [[Bhagavan]]<ref> [http://www.vedabase.net/b/bhagavan Bhagavan] </ref> (the divine one), and the verses themselves, using the range and style of Sanskrit [[meter (poetry)|meter]] (''[[chandas]]'') with similes and metaphors, are written in a poetic form that is traditionally chanted;  hence the title, which translates to "the Song of the Divine One." The Bhagavad Gita is revered as sacred by the majority of [[Hindu]] traditions,<ref> [http://www.crystalinks.com/indiaphilosophy.html Philosophy in Ancient India] "The Bhagavad Gita is revered as a sacred text of Hindu philosophy"</ref> and especially so by [[Vaishnavism|followers of Krishna]]. It is commonly referred to as ''The Gita''.<ref> [http://www.hindunet.org/gita/ hindunet.org] "more commonly known as the Gita" </ref>
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==Name==
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[[Krishna]], as the speaker of the Bhagavad Gita, is referred to within as [[Bhagavan]] (the divine one), and the verses themselves, using the range and style of Sanskrit [[meter (poetry)|meter]] (''[[chandas]]'') with similes and metaphors, are written in a poetic form that is traditionally chanted;  hence the title, which translates to "the Song of the Divine One." It is commonly referred to as ''The Gita''.
  
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The content of the text is a conversation between [[Krishna]] and [[Arjuna]] taking place on the battlefield of [[Kurukshetra]] just prior to the start of a [[Kurukshetra war|climactic war]]. Responding to Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a [[kshatriya|warrior]] and [[Prince]] and elaborates on a number of different [[Yoga|Yogic]]<ref> [http://yoga.about.com/od/bhagavadgita/a/thegita.htm Introduction to the Bhagavad Gita] </ref> and [[Vedantic]] philosophies, with examples and analogies. This has led to the Gita often being described as a concise guide to [[Hindu philosophy]] and also as a practical, self-contained guide to life. During the discourse, Krishna reveals his identity as the Supreme Being Himself (''[[Bhagavan]]''), blessing Arjuna with an awe-inspiring glimpse of His [[divinity|divine]] absolute form.
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The ''Bhagavad Gita'' is also called ''Gītopaniṣad'' as well as ''Yogupaniṣad'', implying its status as a '[[Upanishad]]'.<ref> The "tag" found at the end of each chapter in some editions identifies the book as ''Gītopaniṣad.''</ref> The book is identified as the essence of the ''Upanishads''<ref name=Bhaktivedanta> A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, ''Bhagavad-Gita As It Is'' (Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 2001), ISBN 978-9171494375).</ref> Since it is drawn from the [[Mahabharata]], it is a ''[[Smriti|{{Unicode|Smṛti}}]]'' text, however referring to it as an Upanishad is intended to give it status comparable to that of ''[[śruti (scripture)|śruti]]'', or ''revealed knowledge''.
  
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The Bhagavad Gita is also called ''Gītopaniṣad'' as well as ''Yogupaniṣad'', implying its status as an '[[Upanishad]]'.<ref>The "tag" found at the end of each chapter in some editions identifies the book as ''Gītopaniṣad.'' The book is identified as the essence of the ''Upanishads'' in the ''Gītā-māhātmya'' 6, quoted in the [http://vedabase.net/bg/introduction/en introduction] to {{cite book
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==''Bhagavad Gita''==
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  | last = Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
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The ''Bhagavad Gita'' is revered as sacred by the majority of [[Hindu]] traditions.<ref> [http://www.crystalinks.com/indiaphilosophy.html Philosophy in Ancient India]. Retrieved January 14, 2023.</ref> It is not looked upon as a ''śruti'', or a revealed scripture, but is regarded as a ''smŗti'', or  tradition. It is the most popular religious poem of [[Sanskrit]] literature, and perhaps the most influential work in Indian thought.<ref name=RadhakrishnanMoore> Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore (eds.), ''A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy'' (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973, ISBN 0691019584).</ref>  
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  | first = A.C.
 
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  | title = Bhagavad-gītā As It Is
 
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  | publisher = The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust
 
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  | date = 1983
 
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  | location = Los Angeles
 
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  | url = http://vedabase.net/bg
 
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  | id =  }}.</ref> Since it is drawn from the Mahabharata, it is a ''[[Smriti|{{Unicode|Smṛti}}]]'' text, however referring to it as an Upanishad is intended to give it status comparable to that of ''[[śruti (scripture)|śruti]]'', or ''revealed knowledge''.<ref>Tapasyananda, p. 1.</ref>
 
  
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==Background==
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The main inspiration of the Bhagavad Gita is from the [[Upanishads]]. It is universal in scope, integrating elements of the Vedic cult of sacrifice, Upanishadic teaching of Absolute Brahman, the Bhāgavata theism, the Samkhya dualism, and Yoga meditation. It is the  philosophical base of popular Hinduism, and has often been described as a concise guide to [[Hindu philosophy]] and simultaneously a practical, self-contained guide to life.
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[[Image:GitaUpadeshTirumala.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Statue representing the discourse of Krishna and Arjuna, located in [[Tirumala]]]]The discourse on the Bhagavad Gita begins before the start of the climactic battle at [[Kurukshetra war|Kurukshetra]]. It begins with the [[Pandava]] prince [[Arjuna]], as he becomes filled with doubt on the battlefield. Realising that his enemies are his own relatives, beloved friends and revered teachers, he turns to his charioteer and [[Guru|guide]], [[Krishna]], for advice.
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[[Image:GitaUpadeshTirumala.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Statue representing the discourse of Krishna and Arjuna, located in [[Tirumala]]]]
  
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In summary the main philosophical subject matter of the Bhagavad-gita is the explanation of five basic concepts or ''truths'':<ref> [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/introduction/en1 Introduction to B-Gita] "The subject of the Bhagavad-gita entails the comprehension of five basic truths" </ref>
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The discourse on the Bhagavad Gita begins before the start of the climactic battle at [[Kurukshetra war|Kurukshetra]]. The [[Pandava]] prince [[Arjuna]], rides out to view the battlefield to  and becomes filled with doubt when he sees that among his enemies are his own relatives, beloved friends and revered teachers, lined up in formation, eager for battle. Saying “I would not like to kill these, even though they kill me,” he turns to his charioteer and [[Guru|guide]], [[Krishna]], for advice. [[Krishna]] then instructs him that it is his duty as a prince, a warrior and a righteous man to fight against evil and restore peace. Responding to Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a [[kshatriya|warrior]] and [[Prince]] and elaborates on a number of different [[Yoga|Yogic]] and [[Vedantic]] philosophies, with examples and analogies. During the discourse, Krishna reveals his identity as the Supreme Being Himself (''[[Bhagavan]]''), blessing Arjuna with an awe-inspiring glimpse of His [[divinity|divine]] absolute form.
  
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* [[Ishvara]] (The Supreme Controller)
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[[Krishna]] counsels [[Arjuna]] on the greater idea of [[dharma]], or universal harmony and duty. He begins with the tenet that the [[soul]] is eternal and immortal. Any 'death' on the battlefield would involve only the shedding of the body, but the soul is permanent. Arjuna's hesitation stems from a lack of right understanding of the 'nature of things', the privileging of the unreal over the real. His fear and reticence become impediments to the proper balancing of the universal dharmic order. Essentially, Arjuna wishes to abandon the battle, to abstain from action; Krishna warns, however, that without action, the cosmos would fall out of order and truth would be obscured.
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* [[Jiva]] (Living beings/the soul)
 
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* [[Prakrti]] (Matter)
 
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* [[Karma]] (Action)
 
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* [[Time|Kala]] (Time)
 
  
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[[Krishna]] counsels [[Arjuna]] on the greater idea of [[dharma]], or universal harmony and duty. He begins with the tenet that the [[soul]] is eternal and immortal.<ref> [http://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/index.htm Ramanuja's translation] BG 2.12 "...you have always existed. It is not that 'all of us', I and you, shall cease to be 'in the future', i.e., beyond the present time; we shall always exist. Even as no doubt can be entertainted that I, the Supreme Self and Lord of all, am eternal, likewise, you (Arjuna and all others) who are embodied selves, also should be considered eternal." </ref> Any 'death' on the battlefield would involve only the shedding of the body, but the soul is permanent. Arjuna's hesitation stems from a lack of right understanding of the 'nature of things,' the privileging of the unreal over the real. His fear and reticence become impediments to the proper balancing of the universal dharmic order. Essentially, Arjuna wishes to abandon the battle, to abstain from action; Krishna warns, however, that without action, the cosmos would fall out of order and truth would be obscured.
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In order to clarify his point, Krishna expounds the various [[Yoga]] processes, and understanding of the true nature of the universe. Krishna describes the yogic paths of devotional service (''bhakti''), action (''karma'') , meditation (''dhyana''), and knowledge (''jnana''). Fundamentally, the Bhagavad Gita proposes that true enlightenment comes from growing beyond identification with the temporal [[ego]], the 'False Self', the ephemeral world, so that one identifies with the truth of the immortal self, the soul or [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]. Through detachment from the material sense of ego, the [[Yogi]], or follower of a particular path of Yoga, is able to transcend his/her illusory mortality and attachment to the material world and enter the realm of the Supreme.<ref name=Bhaktivedanta/>  Krishna does not propose that the physical world must be forgotten or neglected, but that life on earth must be lived in accordance with greater laws and truths.  
  
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In order to clarify his point, Krishna expounds the various [[Yoga]] processes, and understanding of the true nature of the universe. Krishna describes the yogic paths of [[bhakti yoga|devotional service]],<ref> [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/12/en1 Chapter 12: Devotional Service] </ref> [[karma yoga|action]],<ref> [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/3/en1 Chapter 3: Karma Yoga] </ref> [[Dhyana in Hinduism|meditation]]<ref> [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/6/en1 Chapter 6: Dhyana Yoga] </ref> and [[jnana|knowledge]].<ref> [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/2/en1 Chapter 2: Summary (containing jnana)] </ref> Fundamentally, the Bhagavad Gita proposes that true enlightenment comes from growing beyond identification with the temporal [[ego]], the 'False Self', the ephemeral world, so that one identifies with the truth of the immortal self, the soul or [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]. Through detachment from the material sense of ego, the [[Yogi]], or follower of a particular path of Yoga, is able to transcend his/her illusory mortality and attachment to the material world and enter the realm of the Supreme.<ref> [http://vedabase.net/bg/8/10/ B-Gita 8.10] "by the strength of yoga, with an undeviating mind, engages himself in remembering the Supreme Lord in full devotion, will certainly attain to the Supreme" </ref>
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To demonstrate his divine nature, Krishna grants Arjuna the boon of cosmic vision (albeit temporary) and allows the prince to see his 'Universal Form'.<ref> ''Bhagavad Gita'', Chapter 11: Universal Form.</ref> He reveals that he is fundamentally both the ultimate essence of ''Being'' in the universe, and also its material body, called the [[Vishvarupa]] ('World Form'). In the Bhagavad-Gita Krishna refers to the war about to take place as 'Dharma Yuddha', meaning a righteous war for the purpose of justice. In Chapter 4, Krishna states that he incarnates in each age ([[yuga]]) to establish righteousness in the world, "to reestablish the principles of religion, I Myself appear." ''Bhagavad Gita'' 4.8.
  
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It should be noted, however, that Krishna does not propose that the physical world must be forgotten or neglected. Indeed, it is quite the opposite: one's life on earth must be lived in accordance with greater laws and truths, one must embrace one's temporal duties whilst remaining mindful of a more timeless reality, acting for the sake of action without consideration for the '''karmaphal''' (karmic fruits, whether bitter or sweet). Such a life would naturally lead towards stability, happiness and, ultimately, enlightenment.
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===Dating of the Bhagavad Gita ===
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The Bhagavad Gita is contained in the Bhisma-Parva of the [[Mahabharata]]. The Mahabharata, along with the [[Ramayana]], was written during the “Epic Period,” an era of great intellectual activity and conflicting ideas which originated during the sixth century B.C.E. The  Mahabharata, which incorporates a variety of beliefs and teachings, history, mythology, politics, philosophy, theology, and law, records the conflict between two claimants to the throne, and is said to reflect the battle between good and evil.  
  
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To demonstrate his divine nature, Krishna grants Arjuna the boon of cosmic vision (albeit temporary) and allows the prince to see his 'Universal Form' (this occurs in the eleventh chapter).<ref> [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/11/en1 Chapter 11: Universal Form]</ref> He reveals that he is fundamentally both the ultimate essence of ''Being'' in the universe, and also its material body, called the [[Vishvarupa]] ('World Form').
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Due to differences in recensions, they may be numbered in the full text of the Mahabharata as chapters 6.25&ndash;42<ref>[http://veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/sastras-studies1.htm#5 Bhagavad-gita], ''VEDA - Bhaktivedanta Book Trust''. Retrieved January 14, 2023.</ref> or as chapters 6.23-40.<ref>The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI) electronic edition. Electronic text (C) Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, India, 1999.</ref> According to the recension of the Gita commented on by [[Adi Shankara|Shankaracharya]], the number of verses is 700, but there is evidence to show that some old manuscripts had 745 verses.<ref name=Gambhirananda>Swami Gambhirananda, ''Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā'' (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama Publication Department, 1998, ISBN 8175051949).</ref>
  
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In the Bhagavad-Gita Krishna refers to the war about to take place as 'Dharma Yuddha', meaning a righteous war for the purpose of justice. In Chapter 4, Krishna states that he incarnates in each age ([[yuga]]) to establish righteousness in the world.<ref> [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/4/8/en1 B-Gita 4.8] "to reestablish the principles of religion, I Myself appear" </ref>
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The date of composition of the text of the Bhagavad Gita is not known with certainty and has long been a topic of debate.
  
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===Dating of the text===
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<blockquote> As with almost every major religious text in India no firm date can be assigned to the {{IAST|G_t_}}. It seems certain, however, that it was written later than the 'classical' Upanishads with the possible exception of the {{IAST|Maitr_}} and that it is post-Buddhistic. One would probably not be going far wrong if one dated it at some time between the fifth and the second centuries B.C.E..E. <ref> R. C. Zaehner, ''The Bhagavad Gītā'' (Oxford University Press, 1969, ISBN 0195016661), 7.</ref>
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The date of composition of the text of the Bhagavad Gita is not known with certainty.  Some scholars give a broad range of possible dates, as in this analysis by R. C. Zaehner:
 
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<blockquote>As with almost every major religious text in India no firm date can be assigned to the {{IAST|Gītā}}. It seems certain, however, that it was written later than the 'classical' Upanishads with the possible exception of the {{IAST|Maitrī}} and that it is post-Buddhistic. One would probably not be going far wrong if one dated it at some time between the fifth and the second centuries B. C.<ref>Zaehner, p. 7.</ref>
 
 
</blockquote>
 
</blockquote>
  
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Based on the differences in the poetic styles and supposed external influences such as [[Patanjali]]'s ''Yoga Sutra'', some scholars have suggested that the Bhagavad Gita was added to the ''Mahabharata'' at a later date.<ref>See The Bhagavad Gita by C. Jinarajadasa, From the Proceedings of the Federation of European Sections of the Theosophical Society, Amsterdam 1904.</ref><ref>For a brief review of the literature supporting this view see: Radhakrihnan, pp. 14-15.</ref> Eknath Easwaran supports the theory of late interpolation and believes that the first chapter, which gives a brief summary of the characters and setting, was intended to serve as a bridge between the epic material and chapters two through eighteen of the Gita which focus on philosophical material.<ref>Easwaran, volume 1, p. 14.</ref> The interpolation theory is supported by Robert N. Minor, who writes that:
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Based on the differences in the poetic styles and supposed external influences such as [[Patanjali]]'s ''Yoga Sutra,'' some scholars have suggested that the Bhagavad Gita was added to the ''Mahabharata'' at a later period.<ref name=Radhakrishnan>Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, ''The Bhagavadgītā'' (Harper Collins, 1993, ISBN 8172230877).</ref> The interpolation theory is supported by Robert N. Minor, who writes that:
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<blockquote>"The ''Bhagavadgita'' was written about 150 B.C.E. by a devotee of another Indian deity, Krishna, whose popularity would spread throughout India. It was meant to be included in the Mahabharata by a Krishna ''bhakta'', in order to show that devotion to Krishna was the key to an understanding of the Vedic religion."<ref>Minor, p. 3.</ref></blockquote>
 
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===Dating of the Mahabharata war===
 
  
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<div class="smaller">
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<blockquote>The ''Bhagavadgita'' was written about 150 B.C.E. by a devotee of another Indian deity, Krishna, whose popularity would spread throughout India. It was meant to be included in the Mahabharata by a Krishna ''bhakta'', in order to show that devotion to Krishna was the key to an understanding of the Vedic religion.<ref>Robert N. Minor, ''Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavadgita'' (Albany, New York: State University of New York, 1986, ISBN 0887062970).</ref></blockquote>
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:'' For historicity of the Mahabharata war, see: [[Mahabharata]]''
 
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</div>  
 
  
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A traditional religious dating for the events of the Mahabharata War according to the chronology established in [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] times by [[Aryabhata]] on grounds of [[archaeoastronomical]] calculations places the Mahabharata (including the Bhagavad-Gita) in the late 4th millennium B.C.E. (3138 B.C.E.<ref> [http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati/colloquium/colloquium01.htm A collection of essays] (hindunet.org) </ref> or 3102 B.C.E.<ref>Keay, p. 3.</ref>).  Historian A. L. Basham comments on the difference between traditional dates and modern scholarly estimates:
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Others argue that the Bhagavad Gita was written independently and appropriated by the author of the ''Mahabharata''. The ''Mahabharata'' contains numerous internal references to the Bhagavad Gita, and there are stylistic resemblances and philosophical agreements indicating that the Bhagavad Gita has always been an integral part of the Mahabharata.
  
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">According to the most popular later tradition the {{IAST|Mahābhārata}} War took place in 3102 B.C.E., which in the light of all evidence, is quite impossible. More reasonable is another tradition, placing it in the 15th century B.C.E., but this is also several centuries too early in the light of our archaeological knowledge. Probably the war took place around the beginning of the 9th century B.C.E.; such a date seems to fit well with the scanty archaeological remains of the period, and there is some evidence in the {{IAST|Brāmaṇa}} literature itself to show that it cannot have been much earlier.<ref>Basham, p. 39.</ref></blockquote>
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The Mahabharata War took place considerably earlier. A traditional religious dating for the events of the Mahabharata War according to the chronology established in [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] times by [[Aryabhata]] on grounds of [[archaeoastronomical]] calculations places the Mahabharata (including the Bhagavad-Gita) in the late fourth millennium B.C.E. (3138 B.C.E. or 3102 B.C.E.<ref>John Keay, ''India: A History'' (Grove Press, 2000, ISBN 0802137970).</ref>). Historian A. L. Basham comments on the difference between traditional dates and modern scholarly estimates:
  
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Swami Vivekananda dismisses concerns about differences of opinion regarding the historical events as unimportant for study of the text of the Gita:
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<blockquote>According to the most popular later tradition the {{IAST|Mah_bh_rata}} War took place in 3102 B.C.E., which in the light of all evidence, is quite impossible. More reasonable is another tradition, placing it in the 15th century B.C.E., but this is also several centuries too early in the light of our archaeological knowledge. Probably the war took place around the beginning of the 9th century B.C.E..E.; such a date seems to fit well with the scanty archaeological remains of the period, and there is some evidence in the {{IAST|Br_ma_a}} literature itself to show that it cannot have been much earlier.<ref>Arthur Llewellyn Basham, ''The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism'' (Oxford University Press, 1991, ISBN 978-0195073492).</ref></blockquote>
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{{Quotation|One thing should be especially remembered here, that there is no connection between these historical researches and our real aim, which the knowledge that leads to the acquirement of Dharma. Even if the historicity of the whole thing is proved to be absolutely false today, it will not in the least be any loss to us.<ref>Vivekananda, pp. 5-6</ref>}}
 
  
 
==Content==
 
==Content==
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The Gita consists of 18 chapters.
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The Gita consists of 18 chapters:
 
:1. Arjuna bids Krishna to move the chariot between the hosts. As he sees his relatives on the side of the Kurus, he loses courage.
 
:1. Arjuna bids Krishna to move the chariot between the hosts. As he sees his relatives on the side of the Kurus, he loses courage.
 
:2. Krishna teaches that only the body may be killed, while the eternal self is immortal. He appeals to Arjuna's warrior ethos that should force him to kill even his relatives in equanimity.
 
:2. Krishna teaches that only the body may be killed, while the eternal self is immortal. He appeals to Arjuna's warrior ethos that should force him to kill even his relatives in equanimity.
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:3. Arjuna asks why he should act if the most important is knowledge, not action. Krishna stresses the importance of doing the necessary without attachment in the interest of worldly order.
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:3. Arjuna asks why he should act if the most important is knowledge, not action. Krishna stresses the importance of doing the necessary, without attachment, in the interest of worldly order.
 
:4. Krishna reveals that he has lived through many births, always teaching Yoga for the protection of the pious and the destruction of the impious.
 
:4. Krishna reveals that he has lived through many births, always teaching Yoga for the protection of the pious and the destruction of the impious.
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:5. Arjuna asks if it is better to forgo action or to act. Krishna answers that both ways may be beneficient, but that [[Karma Yoga]] is superior.
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:5. Arjuna asks if it is better to forgo action or to act. Krishna answers that both ways may be beneficial, but that [[Karma Yoga]] is superior.
 
:6. Krishna describes the correct posture for meditation and how to reach Brahman through proper action.
 
:6. Krishna describes the correct posture for meditation and how to reach Brahman through proper action.
 
:7. Krishna teaches [[Jnana Yoga]]
 
:7. Krishna teaches [[Jnana Yoga]]
Line 74: Line 57:
 
:9. Krishna teaches [[panentheism]], "all beings are in me."
 
:9. Krishna teaches [[panentheism]], "all beings are in me."
 
:10. Krishna enumerates names of gods, mythical beings and famous heroes and explains [[Vibhuti]].
 
:10. Krishna enumerates names of gods, mythical beings and famous heroes and explains [[Vibhuti]].
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:11. On Arjuna's request, he is given [[darshan]], a vision of Krishna in his true "universal form" (''viśvarūpa''), an [[epiphany]] of a being facing every way and emitting the radiance of a thousand suns, containing all deities and all beings.
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:11. At Arjuna's request, he receives [[darshan]], a vision of Krishna in his true "universal form" (''vi_var_pa''), an [[epiphany]] of a being facing every way and emitting the radiance of a thousand suns, containing all deities and all beings.
 
:12. Krishna describes the process of devotional service ([[Bhakti Yoga]]).
 
:12. Krishna describes the process of devotional service ([[Bhakti Yoga]]).
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:13. on the all-transcendant nature of God.
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:13. Discusses the all-transcendant nature of God.
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:14. on the three [[guna]]s of [[Samkhya]] philosophy
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:14. Discusses the three [[guna]]s of [[Samkhya]] philosophy
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:15 description of tree symbolic of the gunas, which has its roots in the heavens and its foilage on earth, representing. This tree should be felled with the "axe of detachment."
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:15.  A description of a tree symbolic of the gunas, which has its roots in the heavens and its foilage on earth, representing the situation of man. This tree should be felled with the "axe of detachment."
 
:16. Krishna distinguishes human traits of divine and of inferior nature.
 
:16. Krishna distinguishes human traits of divine and of inferior nature.
−
:17. on the triple division of religion in thought, deed and ingestion, corresponding to the three gunas.
+
:17. Discusses the triple division of religion in thought, deed and ingestion, corresponding to the three gunas.
−
:18. [[Dharma]] must always be upheld, one must perform one's duty in [[renunciation]]. Arjuna follows the recommendation of Krishna and joins the battle.
+
:18. Concludes that [[Dharma]] (right acton) must always be upheld; one must perform one's duty in [[renunciation]] of earthly sentiments and attachments. Arjuna follows the recommendation of Krishna and joins the battle.
 +
 
 +
==Philosophy==
 +
===Being===
 +
The fundamental teaching of the Gita is that “''of the unreal there is no being, and of the real there is no non-being.''” (''Bhagavad Gita'' II, 16.) The soul is indestructible (''avin_shi''), eternal (''nitya''), unborn (''aja''), undiminished (''avyava''), all-pervasive (''sarva-gata''), immovable (''achala''), ancient (''san_tana''), unmanifest (''avyakta''), unthinkable (''achintya''), and immutable (''avik_rya''). The soul is immortal and everlasting, it is neither born nor does it die; it does not perish along with the body. The infinite underlies the finite, and animates all finite existences; the soul is one with the infinite and is therefore not affected by birth and death, growth and decay, or finitude or change. 
 +
<blockquote>He who sees the Ultimate Reality seated equally in all beings and unperishing within the perishing, see truly. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 6.29.</blockquote>
 +
 
 +
===Metaphysics===
 +
The ''Bhagavadgita'' develops the concept of [[Brahman]] as absolute reality. The Supreme is at once the transcendental, the cosmic and the individual reality. The transcendental aspect of the Supreme Being is the pure Self, detached and unaffected by any action or experience; the dynamic aspect of the Supreme Being supports and governs all action in the cosmos; the same Supreme Being is present in the individual. The Supreme Being is responsible for the creation, preservation and destruction of the universe. The world is the scene of a struggle between good and evil, in which God is directly involved in helping man whenever he is threatened by the forces of evil.<ref name=RadhakrishnanMoore/>
  
 
==The Scripture of Yoga==
 
==The Scripture of Yoga==
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{{Hindu scriptures}}
+
The Gita is a comprehensive and many-sided Yoga-s_stra (treatise on [[yoga]]), covering various phases through which the self develops and eventually achieves oneness with the Divine. The different yogas are special applications of the inner discipline which leads to the liberation of the self and to a higher understanding of the unity and significance of humankind.<ref name=Radhakrishnan/> While each path differs, their fundamental goal is the same—to realize that [[Brahman]] (the ''Divine Essence'') is the ultimate truth upon which our material universe rests, that the body is temporal, and that the ''Supreme Soul'' ([[Paramatman]]) is infinite.
−
The Gita addresses the discord between the senses and the intuition of cosmic order. It speaks of the Yoga of [[equanimity]], a detached outlook. The term [[Yoga]] covers a wide range of meanings, but in the context of the Bhagavad Gita, describes a unified outlook, serenity of mind, skill in action and the ability to stay attuned to the glory of the Self (Atman) and the Supreme Being (Bhagavan). According to Krishna, the root of all suffering and discord is the agitation of the mind caused by selfish desire. The only way to douse the flame of desire is by simultaneously stilling the mind through self-discipline and engaging oneself in a higher form of activity.
 
  
−
However, abstinence from action is regarded as being just as detrimental as extreme indulgence. According to the Bhagavad Gita, the goal of life is to free the mind and intellect from their complexities and to focus them on the glory of the Self by dedicating one's actions to the divine. This goal can be achieved through the Yogas of meditation, action, devotion and knowledge. In the sixth chapter, Krishna describes the best Yogi as one who constantly meditates upon him<ref> [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/6/47/en1 Bhagavad-Gita 6.47] "And of all yogis, the one with great faith who always abides in Me, thinks of Me within himself, and renders transcendental loving service to Me — he is the most intimately united with Me in yoga and is the highest of all. That is My opinion."</ref> - which is understood to mean thinking of either [[Krishna]] personally, or the supreme [[Brahman]] - with different schools of Hindu thought giving varying points of view.
+
In the context of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', the term "Yoga" describes a unified outlook, serenity of mind, skill in action and the ability to stay attuned to the glory of the Self (''Atman'') and the Supreme Being (''Bhagavan''). According to Krishna, the root of all suffering and discord is the agitation of the mind caused by selfish desire. The only way to overcome desire is by simultaneously stilling the mind through self-discipline and engaging oneself in a higher form of activity.
  
−
Krishna summarizes the Yogas through eighteen chapters. There are many types of yoga mentioned, but three in particular have been emphasized by commentors:
+
According to the ''Bhagavad Gita'', the goal of life is to free the mind and intellect from their complexities and to focus them on the glory of the Self by dedicating one's actions to the divine. This goal can be achieved through the Yogas of meditation, action, devotion and knowledge. In the sixth chapter, Krishna describes the best Yogi as one who constantly meditates upon him.
  
−
* Bhakti Yoga or ''Devotion'',
+
<blockquote>"And of all yogis, the one with great faith who always abides in Me, thinks of Me within himself, and renders transcendental loving service to Me — he is the most intimately united with Me in yoga and is the highest of all. That is My opinion." ''Bhagavad-Gita'' VI.47.</blockquote>
−
* Karma Yoga or ''Selfless Action''
 
−
* Jnana  Yoga or ''Self Transcending Knowledge''
 
  
−
While each path differs, their fundamental goal is the same - to realize [[Brahman]] (the ''Divine Essence'') as being the ultimate truth upon which our material universe rests, that the body is temporal, and that the ''Supreme Soul'' ([[Paramatman]]) is infinite. Yoga's aim ([[moksha]]) is to escape from the cycle of reincarnation through realization of the ultimate reality. There are three stages to self-realization enunciated from the Bhagavad Gita:
+
Different schools of Hindu thought give varying interpretations of whether "Me" refers to [[Krishna]] personally, or the supreme [[Brahman]].
  
−
1. [[Brahman]] - The impersonal universal energy
+
===Major Themes of Yoga===
 +
Commentators on the ''Bhagavad Gita'' emphasize three types of yoga: Bhakti (Devotion);
 +
Karma (Selfless Action);  Jnana  (Self Transcending Knowledge. The influential commentator Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the ''Gita's'' 18 chapters into three sections of six chapters each. According to his method of division, the first six chapters deal with Karma Yoga, which is the means to the final goal, and the last six deal with the goal itself, which he identifies as Knowledge (Jnana). The middle six deal with Bhakti.<ref name=Gambhirananda/> This system has been adopted by some later commentators and rejected by others; whether or not it is accurate, it serves to distinguish the three basic paths to enlightenment, which correspond to the three aspects of man’s psyche: intellect, emotion and will. The philosophy of Knowledge fulfills the intellect; the philosophy of Action accomplishes the will; and the philosophy of Devotion satisfies emotion. The goal of salvation can be attained by any of these three paths. Knowledge, Action and Devotion cannot be clearly divided from each other, but must ultimately be synthesized.  The literal meaning of the word “yoga” is “union,” referring to the union of the self with the Absolute. Yoga means equanimity, balance of mind (''samatva''), and a higher understanding of the significance of action which comes from detachment.<ref name=Sharma> Chandrahar Sharma, ''A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy'' (Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 2003, ISBN 8120803647).</ref>
  
−
2. [[Paramatma]] - The Supreme Soul sitting in the heart of every living entity.
+
<blockquote>Where seeing the self by the self, one is satisfied in oneself; where on experiences the absolute bliss, known only to higher reason, but ever beyond the senses, and standing where one swerves not from the truth; where no other gain is considered greater, and where one is not moved by the greatest pain- that state is Yoga. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 6.20, 23.</blockquote>
  
−
3. [[Bhagavan]] - God as a personality, with a transcendental form.
+
====Jnana Yoga====
 +
Jnana Yoga is the path of knowledge. The ideal of self-realization cannot be attained without knowledge, because it is only with true knowledge that the self can rise above physical desire and the attachment to sense-objects.  Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not. Through a steady advancement in realization of the distinction between Real and the Unreal, the Eternal and the Temporal, one develops into a ''Jnana Yogi''. This is essentially a path of knowledge and discrimination in regards to the difference between the immortal soul (''[[atman]]'') and the body.
  
−
===Major themes of yoga===
+
In the second chapter of the ''Bhagavad Gita'', Krishna’s counsel begins with a succinct exposition of Jnana Yoga. Krishna argues that with a true understanding of the nature of existence, there is no reason to lament for those who are about to be killed in battle, because never was there a time when they were not, nor will there be a time when they will cease to be. Krishna explains that the self (''atman'') of all these warriors is indestructible. Fire cannot burn it, water cannot wet it, and wind cannot dry it. It is this Self that passes from body to another body like a person taking worn out clothing and putting on new ones. Krishna’s counsel is intended to alleviate the anxiety that Arjuna feels upon seeing his friends and kinsmen about to enter into a battle between two great armies.  
−
The influential commentator Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita's eighteen chapters into three sections, each of six chapters. According to his method of division the first six chapters deal with Karma Yoga, which is the means to the final goal, and the last six deal with the goal itself, which he says is Knowledge (Jnana). The middle six deal with bhakti.<ref>Gambhirananda (1998), p. 16.</ref>  Swami Gambhiranda characterizes Madhusudana Sarasvati's system as a successive approach in which Karma yoga leads to Bhakti yoga, which in turn leads to Jnana yoga.<ref>Gambhiranda (1997), p. xx.</ref> This system has been adopted by some later commentators and rejected by others.
 
  
−
====Karma Yoga====
+
<blockquote>When a sensible man ceases to see different identities due to different material bodies and he sees how beings are expanded everywhere, he attains to the Brahman conception. ''Bhagavad Gita'' XII.31 A. C.</blockquote>
−
{{main|Karma Yoga}}
 
−
Karma Yoga is essentially ''Acting, or doing one's duties in life as per his/her [[dharma]], or duty, without concern of results'' - a sort of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It is action done without thought of gain. In a more modern interpretation, it can be viewed as duty bound deeds done without letting the nature of the result affecting ones actions. It is said that the results can be of 3 types - as aimed for, opposite of what is aimed for, or a mixture of these. If one can perform his duties (as prescribed in the [[Vedas]]) without any anticipation of the result of his actions, he is bound to succeed. It includes, but is not limited to, dedication of one's chosen profession and its perfection to God. It is also visible in community and social service, since they are inherently done without thought of personal gain.
 
  
−
Krishna advocates 'Nishkam Karma Yoga' (the Yoga of Selfless Action) as the ideal path to realize the Truth. Allocated work done without expectations, motives, or thinking about its outcomes tends to purify one's mind and gradually makes an individual fit to see the value of reason and the benefits of renouncing the work itself. These concepts are vividly described in the following verses:
+
<blockquote>Those who see with eyes of knowledge the difference between the body and the knower of the body, and can also understand the process of liberation from bondage in material nature, attain to the supreme goal. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 13.35.</blockquote>
  
−
:"''To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction''"<ref> ''verse 47, Chapter 2-Samkhya theory and Yoga practise, The Bhagavadgita - [[Radhakrishnan]]'' </ref>
+
<blockquote>When a man dwells in his mind on the object of sense, attachment to them is produced. From attachment springs desire and from desire comes anger.
 +
From anger arises bewilderment, from bewilderment loss of memory; and from loss of memory, the destruction of intelligence and from the destruction of intelligence he perishes. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 2.62, 63.</blockquote>
  
−
:"''Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth (Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga''"<ref> ''verse 48, Chapter 2-Samkhya theory and Yoga practise, The Bhagavadgita - [[Radhakrishnan]]'' </ref>
+
====Karma Yoga====
 +
Karma Yoga is essentially acting, or performing one's duties in life (''[[dharma]]''), without concern for the results. No embodied being can completely renounce actions; the universe depends on action. Correct action is founded on correct knowledge and understanding; therefore Jnana yoga is necessary for Karma yoga. Action should never be performed with attachment to the fruits of that action; renunciation of desire and attachment is not possible without knowledge. By performing actions without attachment to their fruits, the self is gradually purified.
  
−
:"''With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the Yogis perform action toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in Yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace...''" [http://vedabase.net/bg/5/11]
+
Not by abstention from work does a man attain freedom from action; nor by mere renunciation does he attain to his perfection.
 +
<blockquote>For no one can remain even a moment without doing work; every one is made to act helplessly by the impulses born of nature. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 4-5.</blockquote>
  
−
In order to achieve true liberation, it is important to control all mental desires and tendencies to enjoy sense pleasures. The following verses illustrate this:<ref> ''Verses 62,63, chapter 2- Samkhya theory and Yoga practise', The Bhagavadgita - [[Radhakrishnan]]' </ref>
+
<blockquote>To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 2.47.</blockquote>
  
−
:"''When a man dwells in his mind on the object of sense, attachment to them is produced. From attachment springs desire and from desire comes anger.''"
+
<blockquote>Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth (Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 2.48.</blockquote> 
  
−
:"''From anger arises bewilderment, from bewilderment loss of memory; and from loss of memory, the destruction of intelligence and from the destruction of intelligence he perishes''"
+
<blockquote>With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the Yogis perform action toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in Yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 5.11.</blockquote>
  
 
====Bhakti Yoga====
 
====Bhakti Yoga====
−
{{main|Bhakti Yoga}}
+
In the introduction to Chapter seven, ''bhakti'' is summed up as a mode of worship which consists of unceasing and loving remembrance of God. Bhakti, or disinterested service to God, is a form of Karma, and therefore can best be carried out on the foundation of correct knowledge and understanding (jnana). <ref name=Sharma/>  
−
In the introduction to Chapter seven, ''bhakti'' is summed up as a mode of worship which consists of unceasing and loving remembrance of God. As M. R. Sampatkumaran explains in his overview of Ramanuja's commentary on the Gita,
+
<blockquote>Even if a very ill-conducted man worships me, not worshipping anyone else, he must certainly be deemed to be good, for he has well resolved. He soon becomes devout of heart and obtains lasting tranquility. O Arjuna, know firmly that my devotee is never ruined. He who does My work, who yields himself up to Me, who is devoted to Me, void of attachment, and without hatred to anyone, O Arjuna, comes to me. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 9.30, 31, 34.</blockquote>
−
 
 
−
{{Quotation|The point is that mere knowledge of the scriptures cannot lead to final release. Devotion, meditation, and worship are essential.<ref>For quotation and summarizing bhakti as "a mode of worship which consists of unceasing and loving remembrance of God" see: Sampatkumaran, p. xxiii.</ref>}}
 
−
 
 
−
Put simply, Bhakti Yoga is ''Service in Love and Devotion to God'' (Krishna in the context of the Bhagavad Gita).
 
−
 
 
−
"I consider the Yogi-devotee - who lovingly contemplates on Me with supreme faith, and whose mind is ever absorbed in Me - to be the best of all the Yogis".<ref>http://vedabase.net/bg/6/47</ref>
 
−
"After attaining Me, the great souls do not incur rebirth in this miserable transitory world, because they have attained the highest perfection."<ref>http://vedabase.net/bg/8/15</ref>
 
−
"... those who, renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship Me... For those whose thoughts have entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in Me hereafter."<ref>http://vedabase.net/bg/12/6</ref>
 
−
"And he who serves Me with the yoga of unswerving devotion, transcending these qualities [binary opposites, like good and evil, pain and pleasure] is ready for liberation in Brahman."<ref>http://vedabase.net/bg/14/26</ref>
 
−
"Fix your mind on Me, be devoted to Me, offer service to Me, bow down to Me, and you shall certainly reach Me. I promise you because you are My very dear friend."<ref>http://vedabase.net/bg/18/65</ref>
 
−
"Setting aside all meritorious deeds (Dharma), just [[surrender (religion)|surrender]] completely to My will (with firm faith and loving contemplation). I shall liberate you from all sins. Do not fear."<ref>http://vedabase.net/bg/18/66</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
====Jnana Yoga====
 
−
{{main|Jnana Yoga}}
 
−
Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not. Through a steady advancement in realization of the distinction between Real and the Unreal, the Eternal and the Temporal, one develops into a ''Jnana Yogi''. This is essentially a path of knowledge and discrimination in regards to the difference between the immortal soul ([[atman]]) and the body.
 
−
 
 
−
In the second chapter, Krishna’s counsel begins with a succinct exposition of Jnana Yoga. Krishna argues that there is no reason to lament for those who are about to be killed in battle, because never was there a time when they were not, nor will there be a time when they will cease to be. Krishna explains that the self (atman) of all these warriors is indestructible. Fire cannot burn it, water cannot wet it, and wind cannot dry it. It is this Self that passes from body to another body like a person taking worn out clothing and putting on new ones. Krishna’s counsel is intended to alleviate  the anxiety that Arjuna  feels seeing a battle between two great armies about to commence. However, Arjuna is not an intellectual. He is a warrior, a man of action, for whom the path of action, Karma Yoga, is more appropriate.
 
−
 
 
−
:"''When a sensible man ceases to see different identities due to different material bodies and he sees how beings are expanded everywhere, he attains to the Brahman conception.''"<ref> [http://vedabase.net/bg/13/31/en1 Bhagavad Gita 13.31] </ref>
 
−
 
 
−
:"''Those who see with eyes of knowledge the difference between the body and the knower of the body, and can also understand the process of liberation from bondage in material nature, attain to the supreme goal.''"<ref> [http://vedabase.net/bg/13/35/en1 Bhagavad Gita 13.35] </ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===The Eighteen Yogas===
 
−
In many Sanskrit editions of the Gita, the Sanskrit text includes a traditional chapter title naming each chapter as a particular form of yoga.  These chapter titles do not appear in the Sanskrit text of the Mahabharata.<ref>For example, the first line of the Bhagavad Gita is {{IAST|dhṛtarāşţra uvāca}}, which occurs immediately after the last line of the preceding chapter in the full Sanskrit text of the Mahabharata: | 6.23.1  {{IAST|dhṛtarāşţra uvāca}} | 6.23.1a {{IAST|dharmakşetre kurukṣetre samavetā yuyutsavaḥ}} || Source: Electronic text (C) Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, India, 1999.  Electronic edition downloaded from: [http://bombay.indology.info/mahabharata/statement.html].</ref>  Since there are eighteen chapters, there are therefore eighteen yogas mentioned, as explained in this quotation from Swami Chidbhavananda:
 
−
 
 
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<blockquote>All the eighteen chapters in the Gita are designated, each as a type of yoga. The function of the yoga is to train the body and the mind....  The first chapter in the Gita is designated as system of yoga. It is called Arjuna Vishada Yogam - Yoga of Arjuna's Dejection.<ref>Chidbhavananda, p. 33.</ref></blockquote>
 
−
 
 
−
In Sanskrit editons, these eighteen chapter titles all use the word yoga, but in English translations the word yoga may not appear.  For example, the Sanskrit title of Chapter 1 as given in Swami Sivananda's bilingual edition is ''{{IAST|arjunaviṣādayogaḥ}}'' which he translates as "The Yoga of the Despondency of Arjuna".<ref>Sivananda, p. 3.</ref>  Swami Tapasyananda's bilingual edition gives the same Sanskrit title, but translates it as "Arjuna's Spiritual Conversion Through Sorrow".<ref>Tapasyananda, p. 13</ref> The English-only translation by Radhakrishnan gives no Sanskrit, but the chapter title is translated as "The Hesitation and Despondency of Arjuna".<ref>Radhakrishnan, p. 79.</ref>  Other English translations, such as that by Zaehner, omit these chapter titles entirely.<ref>Zaehner, ''passim''.</ref>  
 
  
−
Swami Sivananda's commentary says that the eighteen chapters have a progressive order to their teachings, by which Krishna "pushed Arjuna up the ladder of Yoga from one rung to another."<ref>Sivananda, p. xvii.</ref> As Winthrop Sargeant explains,
+
<blockquote>I consider the Yogi-devotee - who lovingly contemplates on Me with supreme faith, and whose mind is ever absorbed in Me - to be the best of all the Yogis. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 6.47. </blockquote>
  
−
<blockquote>In the model presented by the ''Bhagavad Gītā'', every aspect of life is in fact a way of salvation.<ref>Sargeant, p. xix.</ref></blockquote>
+
<blockquote>After attaining Me, the great souls do not incur rebirth in this miserable transitory world, because they have attained the highest perfection. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 8.15.</blockquote>
  
−
====Dhyana Yoga====
+
<blockquote>.. those who, renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship Me... For those whose thoughts have entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in Me hereafter. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 12.6-7. </blockquote>
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{{main|Dhyana in Hinduism}}
 
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Dhyana Yoga is the stilling of the mind and body through meditating techniques, geared at realizing one's true nature. A very similar (if not identical) practice was later described by [[Patanjali]] in his [[Yoga Sutras]].
 
  
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" To practice yoga, one should go to a secluded place and should lay kusa grass on the ground and then cover it with a deerskin and a soft cloth. The seat should be neither too high nor too low and should be situated in a sacred place. The yogi should then sit on it very firmly and practice yoga to purify the heart by controlling his mind, senses and activities and fixing the mind on one point. One should hold one's body, neck and head erect in a straight line and stare steadily at the tip of the nose. Thus, with an unagitated, subdued mind, devoid of fear, completely free from sex life, one should meditate upon Me within the heart and make Me the ultimate goal of life. Thus practicing constant control of the body, mind and activities, the mystic transcendentalist, his mind regulated, attains to the kingdom of God [or the abode of Krishna] by cessation of material existence."<ref>http://vedabase.net/bg/6/en1</ref>
+
<blockquote>Fix your mind on Me, be devoted to Me, offer service to Me, bow down to Me, and you shall certainly reach Me. I promise you because you are My very dear friend. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 18.65.</blockquote>
  
−
Note: Alternative versions of the above verse state that the top of the nose (between the eyebrows) should be meditated upon, rather than the tip.<ref>http://www.crystalclarity.com/yogananda/chap16.html</ref>
+
<blockquote>Setting aside all meritorious deeds (Dharma), just [[surrender (religion)|surrender]] completely to My will (with firm faith and loving contemplation). I shall liberate you from all sins. Do not fear. ''Bhagavad Gita'' 18.66.</blockquote>
  
 
==Influence of the Bhagavad Gita==
 
==Influence of the Bhagavad Gita==
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[[Image:Gita 11-32.JPG|thumb|right|250px|‘‘The Blessed [[Vishnu|Lord]] said: Time I am, destroyer of the worlds, and I have come to engage all people. With the exception of [[Pandavas|you]], all the soldiers here on both sides will be slain.’’ 11:32]]
+
For its religious depth, quintessential Upanishadic and Yogic philosophy and beauty of verse, the Bhagavad Gita is one of the most compelling and important texts of the Hindu tradition. It is considered by many as one of the world's greatest religious and spiritual scriptures.  
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In many ways seemingly a heterogeneous text, the Gita reconciles many facets and schools of Hindu philosophy, including those of Brahmanical (i.e., orthodox Vedic) origin and the parallel ascetic and Yogic traditions. It comprises primarily Vedic (as in the four Vedas, as opposed to the Upanishads/Vedanta), Upanishadic, Sankhya and Yogic philosophies. For its religious depth, quintessential Upanishadic and Yogic philosophy and beauty of verse, the Bhagavad Gita is one of the most compelling and important texts of the Hindu tradition. It is considered by many as one of the world's greatest religious and spiritual scriptures.
 
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It had always been a creative text for Hindu priests and [[Yogi]]s. Although it is not strictly part of the 'canon' of Vedic writings, almost all Hindu traditions draw upon the Gita as authoritative. Some claim that it may have been inserted into the Mahabharata at a later date, but this is only natural as it sounds more like an Upanishad (which are commentaries that followed the Vedas) in thought than a ''[[Purana]]'' (histories), of which tradition the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' is a part.
 
  
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For the Vedantic schools of Hindu philosophy, it belongs to one of the three foundational texts (Sanskrit: Prasthana Trayi, literally three points of departure)( the other two being the [[Upanishad]]s and [[Brahma Sutra]]s).  
+
In many ways seemingly a heterogeneous text, the Gita reconciles many facets and schools of Hindu philosophy, including those of Brahmanical (orthodox Vedic) origin and the parallel ascetic and Yogic traditions. It comprises primarily Vedic (as in the four Vedas, as opposed to the Upanishads/Vedanta), Upanishadic, Sankhya and Yogic philosophies.  
  
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Among the great sages and philosophers who have drawn inspiration from the Bhagavad Gita is Sri [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]], who initiated public singing of the "[[Hare Krishna]]" mantra.  
+
It had always been a creative text for Hindu priests and [[Yogi]]s. Although it is not strictly part of the 'canon' of Vedic writings, almost all Hindu traditions draw upon the Gita as authoritative. For the Vedantic schools of Hindu philosophy, it is one of the three foundational texts (Sanskrit: Prasthana Trayi; three points of departure), the other two being the [[Upanishad]]s and [[Brahma Sutra]]s.  
  
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===Influence beyond India===
+
===Influence Beyond India===
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+
[[Robert Oppenheimer|J. Robert Oppenheimer]], American physicist and director of the [[Manhattan Project]], learned [[Sanskrit]] in 1933 and read the Bhagavad Gita in the original, citing it later as one of the most influential books to shape his philosophy of life. Upon witnessing the world's [[Trinity test|first nuclear test]] in 1945, he quoted, "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds," based on verse 32 from Chapter 11 of the Bhagavad Gita.<ref>Markandey Katju, [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/blogs/satyam-bruyat/bhagavad-gita-and-the-first-atomic-explosion/ Bhagavad Gita and the first atomic explosion] ''The Times of India'', June 10, 2014. Retrieved January 14, 2023.</ref>
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[[Robert Oppenheimer|J. Robert Oppenheimer]], American physicist and director of the [[Manhattan Project]], learned [[Sanskrit]] in 1933 and read the Bhagavad Gita in the original, citing it later as one of the most influential books to shape his philosophy of life. Upon witnessing the world's [[Trinity test|first nuclear test]] in 1945, he quoted "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds" based on verse 32 from Chapter 11 of the Bhagavad Gita.<ref>James A. Hijiya, "The ''Gita'' of Robert Oppenheimer" ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'', 144, no. 2 (June 2000). [http://www.aps-pub.com/proceedings/1442/Hijiya.pdf]</ref>
 
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A 2006 report suggests that the Gita is replacing the influence of the "[[The Art of War]]" (ascendant in the 1980s and '90s) in the Western business community. [http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_44/b4007091.htm]
 
  
 
==Commentaries==
 
==Commentaries==
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Traditionally the commentators belong to spiritual traditions or schools ([[sampradaya]]) and Guru lineages ([[parampara]]), which claim to preserve teaching stemming either directly from Krishna himself or from other sources, each claiming to be most faithful to the original message.
  
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Traditionally the commentators belong to spiritual traditions or schools ([[sampradaya]]) and Guru lineages ([[parampara]]), which claim to preserve teaching stemming either directly from Krishna himself or from other sources, each claiming to be most faithful to the original message.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
+
Different translators and commentators have widely differing views on what multi-layered [[Sanskrit]] words and passages signify, and their presentation in English depending on the sampradaya they are affiliated to. Especially in Western [[philology]], interpretations of particular passages often do not agree with traditional views.
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Different translators and commentators have widely differing views on what multi-layered [[Sanskrit]] words and passages signify, and their presentation in English depending on the sampradaya they are affiliated to. Especially in Western [[philology]], interpretations of particular passages often do not agree with traditional views.
 
  
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The oldest and most influential medieval commentary was that of the founder of the [[Vedanta]] school<ref>For Shankara's commentary falling within the Vedanta school of tradition, see: Flood (1996), p. 124.</ref> of extreme 'non-dualism," [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] (788-820 A. D.),<ref>Dating for Shankara as 788-820 C.E. is from: Sargeant, p. xix.</ref> also known as Shankaracharya (Sanskrit: {{IAST|Śaṅkarācārya}}).<ref>Zaehner, p. 3.</ref> Shankara's commentary was based on a recension of the Gita containing 700 verses, and that recension has been widely adopted by others.<ref>Gambhirananda (1997), p. xviii.</ref> There is not universal agreement that he was the actual author of the commentary on the Bhagavad Gita that is attributed to him.<ref>Flood (1996), p. 240.</ref> A key commentary for the "modified non-dualist" school of Vedanta<ref>For classification of Ramanuja's commentary as within the Vedanta school see: Flood (1996), p. 124.</ref> was written by [[Ramanuja]] (Sanskrit: {{IAST|Rāmānuja}}), who lived in the eleventh century C.E.<ref>Zaehner, p. 3.</ref><ref>Gambhirananda (1997), p. xix.</ref> Ramanuja's commentary chiefly seeks to show that the discipline of devotion to God (Bhakti yoga) is the way of salvation.<ref>Sampatkumaran, p. xx.</ref> The commentary by [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]], whose dates are given either as (b. 1199 - d. 1276)<ref>Dating of 1199-1276 for Madhva is from: Gambhirananda (1997), p. xix.</ref> or as (b. 1238 - d. 1317),<ref>Sargeant, p. xix.</ref> also known as Madhvacharya (Sanskrit: {{IAST|Madhvācārya}}), exemplifies thinking of the "dualist" school.<ref>Zaehner, p. 3.</ref> Madhva's school of dualism asserts that there is, in a quotation provided by Winthrop Sargeant, "an eternal and complete distinction between the Supreme, the many souls, and matter and its divisions."<ref>Sargeant, p. xix.</ref> Madhva is also considered to be one of the great commentators reflecting the viewpoint of the Vedanta school.<ref>For classification of Madhva's commentary as within the Vedanta school see: Flood (1996), p. 124.</ref>
+
The oldest and most influential medieval commentary was that of the founder of the [[Vedanta]] school<ref name=Flood>Gavin Flood, ''An Introduction to Hinduism'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0521438780).</ref> of extreme 'non-dualism," [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] (788-820 C.E.),<ref name=Sargeant>Winthrop Sargeant, ''The Bhagavad Gītā'' (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994, ISBN 0873958306).</ref> also known as Shankaracharya (Sanskrit: {{IAST|Śaṅkarācārya}}).<ref name=Zaehner3>Zaehner, 3.</ref> Shankara's commentary was based on a recension of the Gita containing 700 verses, and that recension has been widely adopted by others.<ref name=Gambhirananda1997>Swami Gambhirananda, ''Bhagavadgītā: With the commentary of Śaṅkarācārya'' (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama Publication Department, 1997, ISBN 8175050411).</ref> It is not universally agreed that he was the actual author of the commentary on the Bhagavad Gita attributed to him.<ref name=Flood/> A key commentary for the "modified non-dualist" school of Vedanta was written by [[Ramanuja]] (Sanskrit: {{IAST|Rāmānuja}}), who lived in the eleventh century C.E.<ref name=Zaehner3/><ref name=Gambhirananda1997/> Ramanuja's commentary chiefly seeks to show that the discipline of devotion to God (Bhakti yoga) is the way of salvation.<ref> M. R. Sampatkumaran, ''The Gītābhāṣya of Rāmānuja'' (Bombay: Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute, 1985).</ref> The commentary by [[Madhvacharya|Madhva]], whose dates are given either as (b. 1199 - d. 1276)ref name=Gambhirananda1997/> or as (b. 1238 - d. 1317),<ref name=Sargeant/> also known as Madhvacharya (Sanskrit: {{IAST|Madhvācārya}}), exemplifies thinking of the "dualist" school.<ref name=Zaehner3/> Madhva's school of dualism asserts that there is, in a quotation provided by Winthrop Sargeant, "an eternal and complete distinction between the Supreme, the many souls, and matter and its divisions."<ref name=Sargeant/> Madhva is also considered to be one of the great commentators reflecting the viewpoint of the Vedanta school.<ref name=Flood/>
  
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In the [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] tradition,<ref>For classification of Abhinavagupta's commentary on the Gita as within the Shaiva tradition see: Flood (1996), p. 124.</ref> the renowned philosopher [[Abhinavagupta]] (10-11th century CE) has written a commentary on a slightly variant recension called Gitartha-Samgraha.  
+
In the [[Shaivism|Shaiva]] tradition,<ref name=Flood/> the renowned philosopher [[Abhinavagupta]] (tenth-eleventh century C.E.) has written a commentary on a slightly variant recension called Gitartha-Samgraha.  
  
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Other classical commentators include Anandagiri, Shridhara Swami, [[Nimbarka]], [[Vallabha]] and [[Dnyaneshwar]].{{Fact|date=April 2007}}
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Other classical commentators include Anandagiri, Shridhara Swami, [[Nimbarka]], [[Vallabha]] and [[Dnyaneshwar]].
  
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In modern times notable commentaries were written by [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who used the text to help inspire the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref>For B. G. Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi as notable commentators see: Gambhiranda (1997), p. xix.</ref><ref>For notability of the commentaries by B. G. Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi and their use to inspire the independence movement see: Sargeant, p. xix.</ref> Tilak wrote his commentary while in jail during the period 1910-1911, while he was serving a six-year sentence imposed by the British colonial government in India for sedition.<ref>Stevenson, Robert W., "Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga," in: Minor, p. 44.</ref> While noting that the Gita teaches several possible paths to liberation, his commentary places most emphasis on Karma yoga.<ref>Stevenson, Robert W., "Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga," in: Minor, p. 49.</ref> No book was more central to Gandhi's life and thought than the Bhagavadgita, which he referred to as his "spiritual dictionary".<ref>Jordens, J. T. F., "Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita," in: Minor, p. 88.</ref> During his stay in Yeravda jail in 1929,<ref>For composition during stay in Yeravda jail in 1929, see: Jordens, J. T. F., "Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita," in: Minor, p. 88.</ref> Gandhi wrote a commentary on the ''Bhagavad Gita'' in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]].  The Gujarati manuscript was translated into [[English language|English]] by Mahadev Desai, who provided an additional introduction and commentary.  It was published with a Foreword by Gandhi in 1946.<ref>Desai, Mahadev. ''The Gospel of Selfless Action, or, The Gita According To Gandhi''. (Navajivan Publishing House: Ahmedabad: First Edition 1946).  Other editions: 1948, 1951, 1956.</ref><ref>A shorter edition, omitting the bulk of Desai's additional commentary, has been published as: ''Anasaktiyoga: The Gospel of Selfless Action''. Jim Rankin, editor.  The author is listed as M.K. Gandhi; Mahadev Desai, translator.  (Dry Bones Press, San Francisco, 1998) ISBN 1-883938-47-3.</ref> Mahatma Gandhi expressed his love for the Gita in these words:
+
In modern times notable commentaries were written by [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]] and [[Mahatma Gandhi]], who used the text to help inspire the [[Indian independence movement]].<ref name=Gambhirananda1997/><ref name=Sargeant/> Tilak wrote his commentary while in jail during the period 1910-1911, while he was serving a six-year sentence imposed by the British colonial government in India for sedition. While noting that the Gita teaches several possible paths to liberation, his commentary places most emphasis on Karma yoga.<ref>Robert W. Stevenson, "Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga," in Minor, 44-60.</ref>
  
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<blockquote class="toccolours" style="float:none; padding: 10px 15px 10px 15px; display:table;">I find a solace in the ''{{IAST|Bhagavagītā}}'' that I miss even in the [[Sermon on the Mount]]. When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the ''{{IAST|Bhagavagītā}}''. I find a verse here and a verse there and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies - and my life has been full of external tragedies - and if they have left no visible, no indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of ''{{IAST|Bhagavagītā}}''.<ref>Quotation from M. K. Gandhi. ''Young India''. (1925), pp. 1078-1079, is cited from Radhakrishnan, ''front matter''.</ref></blockquote>
+
No book was more central to Gandhi's life and thought than the Bhagavadgita, which he referred to as his "spiritual dictionary."<ref>J.T.F. Jordens, "Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita," in Minor, 88.</ref> During his stay in Yeravda jail in 1929, Gandhi wrote a commentary on the ''Bhagavad Gita'' in [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]. The Gujarati manuscript was translated into [[English language|English]] by Mahadev Desai, who provided an additional introduction and commentary. It was published with a Foreword by Gandhi in 1946.<ref>Mahadev Desai, ''The Gospel of Selfless Action or The Gita According to Gandhi'' (Dry Bones Press, 2000 (original 1946), ISBN 978-1883938710).</ref> Mahatma Gandhi expressed his love for the Gita in these words:
  
−
Other notable modern commentators include Sri Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and Swami Vivekananda, who took a syncretistic approach to the text.<ref>For Sri Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and Swami Vivekananda as notable commentators see: Sargeant, p. xix.</ref><ref>For Sri Aurobindo as notable commentators, see: Gambhiranda (1997), p. xix.</ref>
+
<blockquote>I find a solace in the ''{{IAST|Bhagavagītā}}'' that I miss even in the [[Sermon on the Mount]]. When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the ''{{IAST|Bhagavagītā}}''. I find a verse here and a verse there and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies - and my life has been full of external tragedies - and if they have left no visible, no indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of ''{{IAST|Bhagavagītā}}''.<ref name=Radhakrishnan/></blockquote>
  
−
[[Swami Vivekananda]], the follower of Sri [[Ramakrishna]], was known for his commentaries on the four Yogas - Bhakti, Jnana, Karma and Raja Yoga. He drew from his knowledge of the Gita to expound on these Yogas. [[Swami Sivananda]] advises the aspiring Yogi to read verses from the Bhagavad Gita every day. [[Paramahamsa Yogananda]], writer of the famous ''[[Autobiography of a Yogi]]'', viewed the Bhagavad Gita as one of the world's most divine scriptures. [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]], the founder of the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]], wrote a commentary on the Gita from the perspective of [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]].
+
Other notable modern commentators include [[Sri Aurobindo]], [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], and [[Swami Vivekananda]], who took a syncretistic approach to the text.
  
 
==Translations==
 
==Translations==
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[[Image:Bhagavad-Gitas.JPG|thumb|left|275px| Three translations: [[Bhagavad Gita As It Is]], a [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] translation by [[Gita Press]], and another [[English language|English]] one published by [[Barnes & Noble]].]]
 
 
Numerous readings and adaptations of the Bhagavad Gita have been published in many languages.  
 
Numerous readings and adaptations of the Bhagavad Gita have been published in many languages.  
  
−
In 1785 [[Charles Wilkins]] published an English translation of the Bhagavad Gita, which was the first time a Sanskrit book had been translated directly into a European language.<ref>Winternitz, Volume 1, p. 11.</ref> In 1808 passages from the Gita were part of the first direct translation of Sanskrit into German, appearing in a book through which [[Friedrich Schlegel]] became known as the founder of Indian philology in Germany.<ref>What had previously been known of Indian literature in Germany had been translated from the English. Winternitz, Volume 1, p. 15.</ref> The Gita has been translated into many other languages.
+
In 1785 [[Charles Wilkins]] published an English translation of the Bhagavad Gita, the first time a Sanskrit book had been translated directly into a European language.<ref>Maurice Winternitz, ''History of Indian Literature'' (New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1972).</ref> In 1808 passages from the Gita were part of the first direct translation of Sanskrit into German (all previous translations of Indian literature having been translated from the English), appearing in a book through which [[Friedrich Schlegel]] became known as the founder of Indian philology in Germany. The Gita has been translated into many other languages.
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==See also==
 
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{{Wikiquote}}
 
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* [[Mahabharata]]
 
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* [[Puranas]]
 
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* [[Uddhava|Uddhava Gita]]
 
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* [[Ashtavakra Gita]]
 
  
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== Notes ==
+
==Notes==
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<div class="references-small">
 
 
<references/>
 
<references/>
−
</div>
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
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+
* Basham, Arthur Llewellyn. ''The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism''. Oxford University Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0195073492
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Chidbhavananda |first=Swami |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Bhagavad Gita |year=1997 |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam |location= |isbn= }}
+
* Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, A. C. ''Bhagavad-Gita As It Is''. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 2001. ISBN 978-9171494375
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Easwaran |first=Eknath |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Bhagavad Gita for Daily Living |year=1975 |publisher=The Blue Mountain Center of Meditation|location=Berkeley, California |isbn=0-915132-17-6 }}
+
*Chidbhavananda, Swami. ''The Bhagavad Gita.'' Advaita Ashrama, 2008, ISBN 978-8180851476
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*{{cite book | last = Gambhirananda | first = Swami | year = 1998 | title = Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā| publisher = Advaita Ashrama Publication Department| location = Calcutta | isbn=81-7505-194-9}} Provides full Sanskrit text of the Gita with complete English translation of the commentary by Madhusudana Sarasvati.  
+
*Desai, Mahadev. ''The Gospel of Selfless Action or The Gita According to Gandhi''. Dry Bones Press, 2000 (original 1946). ISBN 978-1883938710
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*{{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn= 0-521-43878-0}}
+
*Easwaran, Eknath. ''The Bhagavad Gita for Daily Living.'' Berkeley, California: The Blue Mountain Center of Meditation, 1975. ISBN 0915132176 
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*{{cite book | last = Gambhirananda | first = Swami | year = 1997 | title = Bhagavadgītā: With the commentary of Śaṅkarācārya| publisher = Advaita Ashrama Publication Department| location = Calcutta | isbn=81-7505-041-1}} Fourth Reprint edition. Provides full Sanskrit text of the Gita with complete English translation of the commentary by Shankara.  
+
*Flood, Gavin. ''An Introduction to Hinduism.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0521438780 
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Keay |first=John |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=India: A History |year=2000 |publisher=Grove Press |location= |isbn=0-8021-3797-0 }}
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*Gambhirananda, Swami. ''Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā.'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama Publication Department, 1998. ISBN 8175051949 
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Minor |first=Robert N. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavadgita |year=1986 |publisher=State University of New York |location=Albany, New York |isbn=0-88706-297-0 }}
+
*Gambhirananda, Swami. ''Bhagavadgītā: With the commentary of Śaṅkarācārya.'' Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama Publication Department, 1997. ISBN 8175050411 
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Radhakrishnan |first=S. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Bhagavadgītā |year=1993 |publisher=Harper Collins |location= |isbn=81-7223-087-7 }} Reprint edition.
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*Keay, John. ''India: A History.'' Grove Press, 2000. ISBN 0802137970
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Sampatkumaran |first=M. R. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Gītābhāṣya of Rāmānuja|year=1985 |publisher=Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute|location=Bombay |isbn= }} Provides full Sanskrit text of the Gita with complete English translation of the commentary by Ramanuja.
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*Minor, Robert N. ''Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavadgita.'' Albany, New York: State University of New York, 1986. ISBN 0887062970
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Sargeant |first=Winthrop |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Bhagavad Gītā |year=1994 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |isbn=0-87395-830-6 }}
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*Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli. ''The Bhagavadgītā.'' Harper Collins, 1993. ISBN 8172230877
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Sivananda |first=Swami |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Bhagavad Gita |year=1995 |publisher=The Divine Life Society |location= |isbn=81-7052-000-2 }}
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* Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, and Charles A. Moore (eds.). ''A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973. ISBN 0691019584
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Tapasyananda |first=Swami |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā |year= |publisher=Sri Ramakrishna Math |location= |isbn=81-7120-449-X }}
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*Sampatkumaran, M. R. ''The Gītābhāṣya of Rāmānuja''. Bombay: Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute, 1985.
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Vivekananda |first=Swami |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Thoughts on the Gita |year=1998 |publisher=Advaita Ashrama Publication Department |location=Delhi |isbn=81-7505-033-0 }} Eighteenth printing.
+
*Sargeant, Winthrop. ''The Bhagavad Gītā.'' Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994. ISBN 0873958306 
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Winternitz |first=Maurice |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=History of Indian Literature |year=1972 |publisher=Oriental Books Reprint Corporation |location=New Delhi |isbn= }} Second revised reprint edition. Two volumes. First published 1927 by the University of Calcutta.
+
* Sharma, Chandrahar . ''A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy''. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 2003. ISBN 8120803647
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*{{cite book |series= |last=Zaehner |first=R. C. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Bhagavad Gītā |year=1969 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location= |isbn=0-19-501666-1 }}
+
*Winternitz, Maurice. ''History of Indian Literature.'' New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1972.  Second revised reprint edition. Two volumes. First published 1927 by the University of Calcutta.  
 +
*Zaehner, R. C. ''The Bhagavad Gītā.'' Oxford University Press, 1969. ISBN 0195016661
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
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{{wikisource|The Bhagavad Gita}}
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{{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Hinduism/Religious_Texts/Bhagavad_Gita|Bhagavad Gita}}
 
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* [http://www.gita-society.com/ International Gita Society]
 
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===Translations===
 
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* [http://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/index.htm Gita Supersite] with [[Sanskrit]] text, four English translations and both classical and contemporary commentaries
 
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* [http://www.geeta-kavita.com/ Gita Kavya Madhuri]: samples of metered translation into [[Hindi]] verse by Rajiv Krishna Saxena
 
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* [http://wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6 Translation in easy Hindi by Pankaj]
 
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====Entire work====
 
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* [http://sss.vn.ua/bh_g_eng.htm 1784 translation] by [[Tapasyananda|Swami Tapasyananda]]
 
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* [http://www.theosociety.org/pasadena/gita/bg-eg-hp.htm 1890 translation] by [[William Quan Judge]]
 
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* [http://www.yogamovement.com/texts/gita.html 1900 translation] by [[Sir Edwin Arnold]] [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Bhagavad_Gita_%28Arnold_translation%29 Wikisource link]
 
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* [http://members.aol.com/jajnsn/ 1934 translation] by [[Mahadev Desai]] of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s 1929 [[Gujurati]] translation and commentary
 
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* [http://bhagavadgitaasitis.com/en 1971 translation] by [[A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]] entitled ''[[Bhagavad Gita As It Is]]'' with [[Sanskrit]] text and English commentary.
 
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* [http://www.chinmayauk.org/Resources/Downloads.htm 1992 translation and commentary] by [[Swami Chinmayananda]]
 
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* [http://eawc.evansville.edu/anthology/gita.htm 1988 translation] by [[Ramananda Prasad]]
 
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* [http://www.allfaith.com/Religions/Hinduism/gita.html 1993 translation] by Jagannatha Prakasa (John of AllFaith)
 
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* [http://www.bharatadesam.com/spiritual/bhagavad_gita/bhagavad_gita_sankara_bhashya.php 2000 translation] by [[Swami Gambhirananda]] with commentary from the 8th century by [[Adi Shankaracharya]]
 
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* [http://www.san.beck.org/Gita.html 2001 translation] by Sanderson Beck
 
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* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/gi_bhagavad_gita_intro.asp 2004 metered translation] by Swami Nirmalananda Giri
 
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* [http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/intro.html Translation] by Jagannath Das with [http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/ audio]
 
  
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====Selections====
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* [https://www.gita-society.com/ International Gita Society].  
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* 1985 translation by [[Eknath Easwaran]]: [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=25 ch. 2 beg.], [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=63 mid],  [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=5 end],  [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=37 ch. 9], and [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=46 ch. 18]
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*[https://www.miraura.org/lit/sa/eog/eog-sel.html Essays on the Gita] by Sri Aurobindo.
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*[http://www.wildriverreview.com/3-poetry_bhagavadgita.php 2007 translation] by John Timpane of Canto 11
 
  
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===Commentaries===
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;Translations
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*[http://www.granthamandira.org/search.php?search_keywords=Bhagavad Six commentaries]: by [[Adi Sankara]], [[Ramanuja]], Sridhara Swami, [[Madhusudana Sarasvati]], [[Visvanatha Chakravarti]] and Baladeva Vidyabhusana
 
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*[http://www.prabhupadavani.org/Gita/web/text/001.html Bhagavad Gita introduction] lecture by [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]]
 
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*[http://www.atmajyoti.org/hi_gita_commentary_1.asp Commentary on the Gita by Swami Nirmalananda Giri]
 
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*[http://www.yogananda-srf.org/py-life/index.html Commentary] by [[Paramahansa Yogananda]]
 
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*[http://www.miraura.org/lit/sa/eog/eog-sel.html Essays on Gita] by [[Sri Aurobindo]]
 
  
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===Audio===
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* [https://scriptures.ru/bh_g_eng.htm 1784 translation] by Swami Tapasyananda.
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* [http://www.vaisnava.cz/clanek_en.php3?no=24 Recitation] of verses in [[Sanskrit]] ([[MP3]] format)
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* [https://www.theosociety.org/pasadena/gita/bg-eg-hp.htm 1980 translation] by William Quan Judge.
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* [http://www.krishna.com/main.php?id=277 Bhagavad Gita (As It Is) Complete] produced by [[The International Society for Krishna Consciousness]]
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* [http://www.bharatadesam.com/spiritual/bhagavad_gita/bhagavad_gita_sankara_bhashya.php 2000 translation] by Swami Gambhirananda with commentary from the 8th century by Adi Shankaracharya.
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* [http://www.shreemaa.org/drupal/taxonomy_menu/3/9 Bhagavad Gita online classes] by [[Swami Satyananda Saraswati]]
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* [https://www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/intro.html Translation] by Jagannath Das.
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* [http://www.gitamrta.org/bg.htm Bhagavad Gita in 6 Languages]
 
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* [http://www.arshabodha.org/ab/wcms/en/home/teachings Bhagavad Gita lectures] in English ([[MP3]] format)
 
  
  

Latest revision as of 03:32, 1 October 2023

A nineteenth-century illustrated Sanskrit manuscript from the Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita (Sanskrit भगवद् गीता Bhagavad Gītā, "Song of God" or “The Lord’s Song”) is a Sanskrit text from the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata epic. For its religious depth, quintessential Upanishadic and Yogic philosophy and beauty of verse, the Bhagavad Gita is one of the most compelling and important texts of the Hindu tradition. It is considered by many to be one of the world's greatest religious and spiritual scriptures.

The Bhagavadgita is written in the form of a conversation between Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra just prior to the start of a climactic Kurukshetra war. Responding to Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and Prince and elaborates on a number of different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies. During the discourse, Krishna reveals his identity as the Supreme Being Himself (Bhagavan), blessing Arjuna with an awe-inspiring glimpse of His divine absolute form. In many ways seemingly a heterogeneous text, the Gita reconciles many facets and schools of Hindu philosophy, including those of Brahmanical (orthodox Vedic) origin and the parallel ascetic and Yogic traditions. It comprises primarily Vedic (as in the four Vedas, as opposed to the Upanishads/Vedanta), Upanishadic, Sankhya and Yogic philosophies.

Name

Krishna, as the speaker of the Bhagavad Gita, is referred to within as Bhagavan (the divine one), and the verses themselves, using the range and style of Sanskrit meter (chandas) with similes and metaphors, are written in a poetic form that is traditionally chanted; hence the title, which translates to "the Song of the Divine One." It is commonly referred to as The Gita.

The Bhagavad Gita is also called Gītopaniṣad as well as Yogupaniṣad, implying its status as a 'Upanishad'.[1] The book is identified as the essence of the Upanishads[2] Since it is drawn from the Mahabharata, it is a Smṛti text, however referring to it as an Upanishad is intended to give it status comparable to that of śruti, or revealed knowledge.

Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita is revered as sacred by the majority of Hindu traditions.[3] It is not looked upon as a śruti, or a revealed scripture, but is regarded as a smŗti, or tradition. It is the most popular religious poem of Sanskrit literature, and perhaps the most influential work in Indian thought.[4]

The main inspiration of the Bhagavad Gita is from the Upanishads. It is universal in scope, integrating elements of the Vedic cult of sacrifice, Upanishadic teaching of Absolute Brahman, the Bhāgavata theism, the Samkhya dualism, and Yoga meditation. It is the philosophical base of popular Hinduism, and has often been described as a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and simultaneously a practical, self-contained guide to life.

Statue representing the discourse of Krishna and Arjuna, located in Tirumala

The discourse on the Bhagavad Gita begins before the start of the climactic battle at Kurukshetra. The Pandava prince Arjuna, rides out to view the battlefield to and becomes filled with doubt when he sees that among his enemies are his own relatives, beloved friends and revered teachers, lined up in formation, eager for battle. Saying “I would not like to kill these, even though they kill me,” he turns to his charioteer and guide, Krishna, for advice. Krishna then instructs him that it is his duty as a prince, a warrior and a righteous man to fight against evil and restore peace. Responding to Arjuna's confusion and moral dilemma, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and Prince and elaborates on a number of different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies. During the discourse, Krishna reveals his identity as the Supreme Being Himself (Bhagavan), blessing Arjuna with an awe-inspiring glimpse of His divine absolute form.

Krishna counsels Arjuna on the greater idea of dharma, or universal harmony and duty. He begins with the tenet that the soul is eternal and immortal. Any 'death' on the battlefield would involve only the shedding of the body, but the soul is permanent. Arjuna's hesitation stems from a lack of right understanding of the 'nature of things', the privileging of the unreal over the real. His fear and reticence become impediments to the proper balancing of the universal dharmic order. Essentially, Arjuna wishes to abandon the battle, to abstain from action; Krishna warns, however, that without action, the cosmos would fall out of order and truth would be obscured.

In order to clarify his point, Krishna expounds the various Yoga processes, and understanding of the true nature of the universe. Krishna describes the yogic paths of devotional service (bhakti), action (karma) , meditation (dhyana), and knowledge (jnana). Fundamentally, the Bhagavad Gita proposes that true enlightenment comes from growing beyond identification with the temporal ego, the 'False Self', the ephemeral world, so that one identifies with the truth of the immortal self, the soul or Atman. Through detachment from the material sense of ego, the Yogi, or follower of a particular path of Yoga, is able to transcend his/her illusory mortality and attachment to the material world and enter the realm of the Supreme.[2] Krishna does not propose that the physical world must be forgotten or neglected, but that life on earth must be lived in accordance with greater laws and truths.

To demonstrate his divine nature, Krishna grants Arjuna the boon of cosmic vision (albeit temporary) and allows the prince to see his 'Universal Form'.[5] He reveals that he is fundamentally both the ultimate essence of Being in the universe, and also its material body, called the Vishvarupa ('World Form'). In the Bhagavad-Gita Krishna refers to the war about to take place as 'Dharma Yuddha', meaning a righteous war for the purpose of justice. In Chapter 4, Krishna states that he incarnates in each age (yuga) to establish righteousness in the world, "to reestablish the principles of religion, I Myself appear." Bhagavad Gita 4.8.

Dating of the Bhagavad Gita

The Bhagavad Gita is contained in the Bhisma-Parva of the Mahabharata. The Mahabharata, along with the Ramayana, was written during the “Epic Period,” an era of great intellectual activity and conflicting ideas which originated during the sixth century B.C.E. The Mahabharata, which incorporates a variety of beliefs and teachings, history, mythology, politics, philosophy, theology, and law, records the conflict between two claimants to the throne, and is said to reflect the battle between good and evil.

Due to differences in recensions, they may be numbered in the full text of the Mahabharata as chapters 6.25–42[6] or as chapters 6.23-40.[7] According to the recension of the Gita commented on by Shankaracharya, the number of verses is 700, but there is evidence to show that some old manuscripts had 745 verses.[8]

The date of composition of the text of the Bhagavad Gita is not known with certainty and has long been a topic of debate.

As with almost every major religious text in India no firm date can be assigned to the G_t_. It seems certain, however, that it was written later than the 'classical' Upanishads with the possible exception of the Maitr_ and that it is post-Buddhistic. One would probably not be going far wrong if one dated it at some time between the fifth and the second centuries B.C.E. [9]

Based on the differences in the poetic styles and supposed external influences such as Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, some scholars have suggested that the Bhagavad Gita was added to the Mahabharata at a later period.[10] The interpolation theory is supported by Robert N. Minor, who writes that:

The Bhagavadgita was written about 150 B.C.E. by a devotee of another Indian deity, Krishna, whose popularity would spread throughout India. It was meant to be included in the Mahabharata by a Krishna bhakta, in order to show that devotion to Krishna was the key to an understanding of the Vedic religion.[11]

Others argue that the Bhagavad Gita was written independently and appropriated by the author of the Mahabharata. The Mahabharata contains numerous internal references to the Bhagavad Gita, and there are stylistic resemblances and philosophical agreements indicating that the Bhagavad Gita has always been an integral part of the Mahabharata.

The Mahabharata War took place considerably earlier. A traditional religious dating for the events of the Mahabharata War according to the chronology established in Gupta times by Aryabhata on grounds of archaeoastronomical calculations places the Mahabharata (including the Bhagavad-Gita) in the late fourth millennium B.C.E. (3138 B.C.E. or 3102 B.C.E.[12]). Historian A. L. Basham comments on the difference between traditional dates and modern scholarly estimates:

According to the most popular later tradition the Mah_bh_rata War took place in 3102 B.C.E., which in the light of all evidence, is quite impossible. More reasonable is another tradition, placing it in the 15th century B.C.E., but this is also several centuries too early in the light of our archaeological knowledge. Probably the war took place around the beginning of the 9th century B.C.E.; such a date seems to fit well with the scanty archaeological remains of the period, and there is some evidence in the Br_ma_a literature itself to show that it cannot have been much earlier.[13]

Content

The Gita consists of 18 chapters:

1. Arjuna bids Krishna to move the chariot between the hosts. As he sees his relatives on the side of the Kurus, he loses courage.
2. Krishna teaches that only the body may be killed, while the eternal self is immortal. He appeals to Arjuna's warrior ethos that should force him to kill even his relatives in equanimity.
3. Arjuna asks why he should act if the most important is knowledge, not action. Krishna stresses the importance of doing the necessary, without attachment, in the interest of worldly order.
4. Krishna reveals that he has lived through many births, always teaching Yoga for the protection of the pious and the destruction of the impious.
5. Arjuna asks if it is better to forgo action or to act. Krishna answers that both ways may be beneficial, but that Karma Yoga is superior.
6. Krishna describes the correct posture for meditation and how to reach Brahman through proper action.
7. Krishna teaches Jnana Yoga
8. Krishna describes Brahman
9. Krishna teaches panentheism, "all beings are in me."
10. Krishna enumerates names of gods, mythical beings and famous heroes and explains Vibhuti.
11. At Arjuna's request, he receives darshan, a vision of Krishna in his true "universal form" (vi_var_pa), an epiphany of a being facing every way and emitting the radiance of a thousand suns, containing all deities and all beings.
12. Krishna describes the process of devotional service (Bhakti Yoga).
13. Discusses the all-transcendant nature of God.
14. Discusses the three gunas of Samkhya philosophy
15. A description of a tree symbolic of the gunas, which has its roots in the heavens and its foilage on earth, representing the situation of man. This tree should be felled with the "axe of detachment."
16. Krishna distinguishes human traits of divine and of inferior nature.
17. Discusses the triple division of religion in thought, deed and ingestion, corresponding to the three gunas.
18. Concludes that Dharma (right acton) must always be upheld; one must perform one's duty in renunciation of earthly sentiments and attachments. Arjuna follows the recommendation of Krishna and joins the battle.

Philosophy

Being

The fundamental teaching of the Gita is that “of the unreal there is no being, and of the real there is no non-being.” (Bhagavad Gita II, 16.) The soul is indestructible (avin_shi), eternal (nitya), unborn (aja), undiminished (avyava), all-pervasive (sarva-gata), immovable (achala), ancient (san_tana), unmanifest (avyakta), unthinkable (achintya), and immutable (avik_rya). The soul is immortal and everlasting, it is neither born nor does it die; it does not perish along with the body. The infinite underlies the finite, and animates all finite existences; the soul is one with the infinite and is therefore not affected by birth and death, growth and decay, or finitude or change.

He who sees the Ultimate Reality seated equally in all beings and unperishing within the perishing, see truly. Bhagavad Gita 6.29.

Metaphysics

The Bhagavadgita develops the concept of Brahman as absolute reality. The Supreme is at once the transcendental, the cosmic and the individual reality. The transcendental aspect of the Supreme Being is the pure Self, detached and unaffected by any action or experience; the dynamic aspect of the Supreme Being supports and governs all action in the cosmos; the same Supreme Being is present in the individual. The Supreme Being is responsible for the creation, preservation and destruction of the universe. The world is the scene of a struggle between good and evil, in which God is directly involved in helping man whenever he is threatened by the forces of evil.[4]

The Scripture of Yoga

The Gita is a comprehensive and many-sided Yoga-s_stra (treatise on yoga), covering various phases through which the self develops and eventually achieves oneness with the Divine. The different yogas are special applications of the inner discipline which leads to the liberation of the self and to a higher understanding of the unity and significance of humankind.[10] While each path differs, their fundamental goal is the same—to realize that Brahman (the Divine Essence) is the ultimate truth upon which our material universe rests, that the body is temporal, and that the Supreme Soul (Paramatman) is infinite.

In the context of the Bhagavad Gita, the term "Yoga" describes a unified outlook, serenity of mind, skill in action and the ability to stay attuned to the glory of the Self (Atman) and the Supreme Being (Bhagavan). According to Krishna, the root of all suffering and discord is the agitation of the mind caused by selfish desire. The only way to overcome desire is by simultaneously stilling the mind through self-discipline and engaging oneself in a higher form of activity.

According to the Bhagavad Gita, the goal of life is to free the mind and intellect from their complexities and to focus them on the glory of the Self by dedicating one's actions to the divine. This goal can be achieved through the Yogas of meditation, action, devotion and knowledge. In the sixth chapter, Krishna describes the best Yogi as one who constantly meditates upon him.

"And of all yogis, the one with great faith who always abides in Me, thinks of Me within himself, and renders transcendental loving service to Me — he is the most intimately united with Me in yoga and is the highest of all. That is My opinion." Bhagavad-Gita VI.47.

Different schools of Hindu thought give varying interpretations of whether "Me" refers to Krishna personally, or the supreme Brahman.

Major Themes of Yoga

Commentators on the Bhagavad Gita emphasize three types of yoga: Bhakti (Devotion); Karma (Selfless Action); Jnana (Self Transcending Knowledge. The influential commentator Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita's 18 chapters into three sections of six chapters each. According to his method of division, the first six chapters deal with Karma Yoga, which is the means to the final goal, and the last six deal with the goal itself, which he identifies as Knowledge (Jnana). The middle six deal with Bhakti.[8] This system has been adopted by some later commentators and rejected by others; whether or not it is accurate, it serves to distinguish the three basic paths to enlightenment, which correspond to the three aspects of man’s psyche: intellect, emotion and will. The philosophy of Knowledge fulfills the intellect; the philosophy of Action accomplishes the will; and the philosophy of Devotion satisfies emotion. The goal of salvation can be attained by any of these three paths. Knowledge, Action and Devotion cannot be clearly divided from each other, but must ultimately be synthesized. The literal meaning of the word “yoga” is “union,” referring to the union of the self with the Absolute. Yoga means equanimity, balance of mind (samatva), and a higher understanding of the significance of action which comes from detachment.[14]

Where seeing the self by the self, one is satisfied in oneself; where on experiences the absolute bliss, known only to higher reason, but ever beyond the senses, and standing where one swerves not from the truth; where no other gain is considered greater, and where one is not moved by the greatest pain- that state is Yoga. Bhagavad Gita 6.20, 23.

Jnana Yoga

Jnana Yoga is the path of knowledge. The ideal of self-realization cannot be attained without knowledge, because it is only with true knowledge that the self can rise above physical desire and the attachment to sense-objects. Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not. Through a steady advancement in realization of the distinction between Real and the Unreal, the Eternal and the Temporal, one develops into a Jnana Yogi. This is essentially a path of knowledge and discrimination in regards to the difference between the immortal soul (atman) and the body.

In the second chapter of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna’s counsel begins with a succinct exposition of Jnana Yoga. Krishna argues that with a true understanding of the nature of existence, there is no reason to lament for those who are about to be killed in battle, because never was there a time when they were not, nor will there be a time when they will cease to be. Krishna explains that the self (atman) of all these warriors is indestructible. Fire cannot burn it, water cannot wet it, and wind cannot dry it. It is this Self that passes from body to another body like a person taking worn out clothing and putting on new ones. Krishna’s counsel is intended to alleviate the anxiety that Arjuna feels upon seeing his friends and kinsmen about to enter into a battle between two great armies.

When a sensible man ceases to see different identities due to different material bodies and he sees how beings are expanded everywhere, he attains to the Brahman conception. Bhagavad Gita XII.31 A. C.

Those who see with eyes of knowledge the difference between the body and the knower of the body, and can also understand the process of liberation from bondage in material nature, attain to the supreme goal. Bhagavad Gita 13.35.

When a man dwells in his mind on the object of sense, attachment to them is produced. From attachment springs desire and from desire comes anger. From anger arises bewilderment, from bewilderment loss of memory; and from loss of memory, the destruction of intelligence and from the destruction of intelligence he perishes. Bhagavad Gita 2.62, 63.

Karma Yoga

Karma Yoga is essentially acting, or performing one's duties in life (dharma), without concern for the results. No embodied being can completely renounce actions; the universe depends on action. Correct action is founded on correct knowledge and understanding; therefore Jnana yoga is necessary for Karma yoga. Action should never be performed with attachment to the fruits of that action; renunciation of desire and attachment is not possible without knowledge. By performing actions without attachment to their fruits, the self is gradually purified.

Not by abstention from work does a man attain freedom from action; nor by mere renunciation does he attain to his perfection.

For no one can remain even a moment without doing work; every one is made to act helplessly by the impulses born of nature. Bhagavad Gita 4-5.

To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction. Bhagavad Gita 2.47.

Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth (Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga. Bhagavad Gita 2.48.

With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the Yogis perform action toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in Yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace. Bhagavad Gita 5.11.

Bhakti Yoga

In the introduction to Chapter seven, bhakti is summed up as a mode of worship which consists of unceasing and loving remembrance of God. Bhakti, or disinterested service to God, is a form of Karma, and therefore can best be carried out on the foundation of correct knowledge and understanding (jnana). [14]

Even if a very ill-conducted man worships me, not worshipping anyone else, he must certainly be deemed to be good, for he has well resolved. He soon becomes devout of heart and obtains lasting tranquility. O Arjuna, know firmly that my devotee is never ruined. He who does My work, who yields himself up to Me, who is devoted to Me, void of attachment, and without hatred to anyone, O Arjuna, comes to me. Bhagavad Gita 9.30, 31, 34.

I consider the Yogi-devotee - who lovingly contemplates on Me with supreme faith, and whose mind is ever absorbed in Me - to be the best of all the Yogis. Bhagavad Gita 6.47.

After attaining Me, the great souls do not incur rebirth in this miserable transitory world, because they have attained the highest perfection. Bhagavad Gita 8.15.

.. those who, renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship Me... For those whose thoughts have entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in Me hereafter. Bhagavad Gita 12.6-7.

Fix your mind on Me, be devoted to Me, offer service to Me, bow down to Me, and you shall certainly reach Me. I promise you because you are My very dear friend. Bhagavad Gita 18.65.

Setting aside all meritorious deeds (Dharma), just surrender completely to My will (with firm faith and loving contemplation). I shall liberate you from all sins. Do not fear. Bhagavad Gita 18.66.

Influence of the Bhagavad Gita

For its religious depth, quintessential Upanishadic and Yogic philosophy and beauty of verse, the Bhagavad Gita is one of the most compelling and important texts of the Hindu tradition. It is considered by many as one of the world's greatest religious and spiritual scriptures.

In many ways seemingly a heterogeneous text, the Gita reconciles many facets and schools of Hindu philosophy, including those of Brahmanical (orthodox Vedic) origin and the parallel ascetic and Yogic traditions. It comprises primarily Vedic (as in the four Vedas, as opposed to the Upanishads/Vedanta), Upanishadic, Sankhya and Yogic philosophies.

It had always been a creative text for Hindu priests and Yogis. Although it is not strictly part of the 'canon' of Vedic writings, almost all Hindu traditions draw upon the Gita as authoritative. For the Vedantic schools of Hindu philosophy, it is one of the three foundational texts (Sanskrit: Prasthana Trayi; three points of departure), the other two being the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras.

Influence Beyond India

J. Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist and director of the Manhattan Project, learned Sanskrit in 1933 and read the Bhagavad Gita in the original, citing it later as one of the most influential books to shape his philosophy of life. Upon witnessing the world's first nuclear test in 1945, he quoted, "Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds," based on verse 32 from Chapter 11 of the Bhagavad Gita.[15]

Commentaries

Traditionally the commentators belong to spiritual traditions or schools (sampradaya) and Guru lineages (parampara), which claim to preserve teaching stemming either directly from Krishna himself or from other sources, each claiming to be most faithful to the original message.

Different translators and commentators have widely differing views on what multi-layered Sanskrit words and passages signify, and their presentation in English depending on the sampradaya they are affiliated to. Especially in Western philology, interpretations of particular passages often do not agree with traditional views.

The oldest and most influential medieval commentary was that of the founder of the Vedanta school[16] of extreme 'non-dualism," Shankara (788-820 C.E.),[17] also known as Shankaracharya (Sanskrit: Śaṅkarācārya).[18] Shankara's commentary was based on a recension of the Gita containing 700 verses, and that recension has been widely adopted by others.[19] It is not universally agreed that he was the actual author of the commentary on the Bhagavad Gita attributed to him.[16] A key commentary for the "modified non-dualist" school of Vedanta was written by Ramanuja (Sanskrit: Rāmānuja), who lived in the eleventh century C.E.[18][19] Ramanuja's commentary chiefly seeks to show that the discipline of devotion to God (Bhakti yoga) is the way of salvation.[20] The commentary by Madhva, whose dates are given either as (b. 1199 - d. 1276)ref name=Gambhirananda1997/> or as (b. 1238 - d. 1317),[17] also known as Madhvacharya (Sanskrit: Madhvācārya), exemplifies thinking of the "dualist" school.[18] Madhva's school of dualism asserts that there is, in a quotation provided by Winthrop Sargeant, "an eternal and complete distinction between the Supreme, the many souls, and matter and its divisions."[17] Madhva is also considered to be one of the great commentators reflecting the viewpoint of the Vedanta school.[16]

In the Shaiva tradition,[16] the renowned philosopher Abhinavagupta (tenth-eleventh century C.E.) has written a commentary on a slightly variant recension called Gitartha-Samgraha.

Other classical commentators include Anandagiri, Shridhara Swami, Nimbarka, Vallabha and Dnyaneshwar.

In modern times notable commentaries were written by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi, who used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.[19][17] Tilak wrote his commentary while in jail during the period 1910-1911, while he was serving a six-year sentence imposed by the British colonial government in India for sedition. While noting that the Gita teaches several possible paths to liberation, his commentary places most emphasis on Karma yoga.[21]

No book was more central to Gandhi's life and thought than the Bhagavadgita, which he referred to as his "spiritual dictionary."[22] During his stay in Yeravda jail in 1929, Gandhi wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Gujarati. The Gujarati manuscript was translated into English by Mahadev Desai, who provided an additional introduction and commentary. It was published with a Foreword by Gandhi in 1946.[23] Mahatma Gandhi expressed his love for the Gita in these words:

I find a solace in the Bhagavagītā that I miss even in the Sermon on the Mount. When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the Bhagavagītā. I find a verse here and a verse there and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies - and my life has been full of external tragedies - and if they have left no visible, no indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of Bhagavagītā.[10]

Other notable modern commentators include Sri Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and Swami Vivekananda, who took a syncretistic approach to the text.

Translations

Numerous readings and adaptations of the Bhagavad Gita have been published in many languages.

In 1785 Charles Wilkins published an English translation of the Bhagavad Gita, the first time a Sanskrit book had been translated directly into a European language.[24] In 1808 passages from the Gita were part of the first direct translation of Sanskrit into German (all previous translations of Indian literature having been translated from the English), appearing in a book through which Friedrich Schlegel became known as the founder of Indian philology in Germany. The Gita has been translated into many other languages.

Notes

  1. ↑ The "tag" found at the end of each chapter in some editions identifies the book as Gītopaniṣad.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Bhagavad-Gita As It Is (Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 2001), ISBN 978-9171494375).
  3. ↑ Philosophy in Ancient India. Retrieved January 14, 2023.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore (eds.), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973, ISBN 0691019584).
  5. ↑ Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 11: Universal Form.
  6. ↑ Bhagavad-gita, VEDA - Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Retrieved January 14, 2023.
  7. ↑ The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (BORI) electronic edition. Electronic text (C) Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune, India, 1999.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Swami Gambhirananda, Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama Publication Department, 1998, ISBN 8175051949).
  9. ↑ R. C. Zaehner, The Bhagavad Gītā (Oxford University Press, 1969, ISBN 0195016661), 7.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, The Bhagavadgītā (Harper Collins, 1993, ISBN 8172230877).
  11. ↑ Robert N. Minor, Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavadgita (Albany, New York: State University of New York, 1986, ISBN 0887062970).
  12. ↑ John Keay, India: A History (Grove Press, 2000, ISBN 0802137970).
  13. ↑ Arthur Llewellyn Basham, The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism (Oxford University Press, 1991, ISBN 978-0195073492).
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Chandrahar Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy (Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 2003, ISBN 8120803647).
  15. ↑ Markandey Katju, Bhagavad Gita and the first atomic explosion The Times of India, June 10, 2014. Retrieved January 14, 2023.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Gavin Flood, An Introduction to Hinduism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0521438780).
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Winthrop Sargeant, The Bhagavad Gītā (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994, ISBN 0873958306).
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Zaehner, 3.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Swami Gambhirananda, Bhagavadgītā: With the commentary of Śaṅkarācārya (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama Publication Department, 1997, ISBN 8175050411).
  20. ↑ M. R. Sampatkumaran, The Gītābhāṣya of Rāmānuja (Bombay: Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute, 1985).
  21. ↑ Robert W. Stevenson, "Tilak and the Bhagavadgita's Doctrine of Karmayoga," in Minor, 44-60.
  22. ↑ J.T.F. Jordens, "Gandhi and the Bhagavadgita," in Minor, 88.
  23. ↑ Mahadev Desai, The Gospel of Selfless Action or The Gita According to Gandhi (Dry Bones Press, 2000 (original 1946), ISBN 978-1883938710).
  24. ↑ Maurice Winternitz, History of Indian Literature (New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1972).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Basham, Arthur Llewellyn. The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism. Oxford University Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0195073492
  • Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, A. C. Bhagavad-Gita As It Is. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 2001. ISBN 978-9171494375
  • Chidbhavananda, Swami. The Bhagavad Gita. Advaita Ashrama, 2008, ISBN 978-8180851476
  • Desai, Mahadev. The Gospel of Selfless Action or The Gita According to Gandhi. Dry Bones Press, 2000 (original 1946). ISBN 978-1883938710
  • Easwaran, Eknath. The Bhagavad Gita for Daily Living. Berkeley, California: The Blue Mountain Center of Meditation, 1975. ISBN 0915132176
  • Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0521438780
  • Gambhirananda, Swami. Madhusudana Sarasvati Bhagavad Gita: With the annotation Gūḍhārtha Dīpikā. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama Publication Department, 1998. ISBN 8175051949
  • Gambhirananda, Swami. Bhagavadgītā: With the commentary of Śaṅkarācārya. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama Publication Department, 1997. ISBN 8175050411
  • Keay, John. India: A History. Grove Press, 2000. ISBN 0802137970
  • Minor, Robert N. Modern Indian Interpreters of the Bhagavadgita. Albany, New York: State University of New York, 1986. ISBN 0887062970
  • Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli. The Bhagavadgītā. Harper Collins, 1993. ISBN 8172230877
  • Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, and Charles A. Moore (eds.). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973. ISBN 0691019584
  • Sampatkumaran, M. R. The Gītābhāṣya of Rāmānuja. Bombay: Ananthacharya Indological Research Institute, 1985.
  • Sargeant, Winthrop. The Bhagavad Gītā. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994. ISBN 0873958306
  • Sharma, Chandrahar . A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 2003. ISBN 8120803647
  • Winternitz, Maurice. History of Indian Literature. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1972. Second revised reprint edition. Two volumes. First published 1927 by the University of Calcutta.
  • Zaehner, R. C. The Bhagavad Gītā. Oxford University Press, 1969. ISBN 0195016661

External links

All links retrieved October 1, 2023.

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