Difference between revisions of "Positive psychology" - New World Encyclopedia

From New World Encyclopedia
 
(131 intermediate revisions by 3 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
 +
{{Images OK}}{{Submitted}}{{Approved}}{{Copyedited}}
 
{{Psychology}}
 
{{Psychology}}
−
'''Positive psychology''' is a recent branch of [[psychology]] whose purpose was summed up in 1998 by [[Martin Seligman]] and [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]]: "We believe that a psychology of positive human functioning will arise, which achieves a scientific understanding and effective interventions to build [[thriving]] in individuals, families, and communities."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Seligman
+
'''Positive psychology''' is a recent branch of [[psychology]] which emphasizes normal, successful development rather than the treatment of [[mental illness]]. The field is intended to complement, not to replace, traditional psychology. It does not seek to deny the importance of studying how things go wrong, but rather to emphasize the importance of using the [[scientific method]] to determine how things go right.  
−
  |first=Martin E.P.
 
−
  |authorlink=
 
−
  |coauthors=[[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly]]
 
−
  |title=Positive Psychology: An Introduction
 
−
  |journal=American Psychologist
 
−
  |volume=55
 
−
  |issue=1
 
−
  |pages=5–14
 
−
  |year=2000|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5|pmid=11392865}}</ref> Positive psychologists seek "to find and nurture genius and talent," and "to make normal life more fulfilling",<ref name="IPP1">{{cite book|last=Compton|first=William C,|title=An Introduction to Positive Psychology|publisher=[[Wadsworth Publishing]]|year=2005|pages=1–22|chapter=1|isbn=0-534-64453-8}}</ref> not simply to treat [[mental illness]].  
 
−
The field is intended to complement, not to replace traditional psychology. It does not seek to deny the importance of studying how things go wrong, but rather to emphasize the importance of using the [[scientific method]] to determine how things go right. [[List of positive psychologists|Researchers in the field]] analyze things like states of [[pleasure]] or [[flow (psychology)|flow]], values, strengths, virtues, talents, as well the ways that they can be promoted by social systems and institutions.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books/about/A_primer_in_positive_psychology.html?id=fUPBDc4HU0oC |title=A primer in positive psychology, Christopher Peterson |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2011-11-12}}</ref>
 
  
−
==Background==
+
Researchers in this field analyze states of [[happiness]], [[flow (psychology)|flow]], [[value]]s, strengths, [[virtue]]s, and [[talent]]s, as well as the ways in which they can be promoted by social systems and institutions. Their discoveries help people live life to its fullest potential.  
−
Several [[Humanistic psychology|humanistic]] psychologists—such as [[Abraham Maslow]], [[Carl Rogers]], and [[Erich Fromm]]—developed theories and practices that involve human happiness. Recently the theories of human flourishing developed by these humanistic psychologists have found empirical support from studies by positive psychologists. Positive psychology has also moved ahead in a number of new directions.
+
{{toc}}
 +
Positive psychologists are concerned with positive experiences, enduring psychological traits, positive relationships, and positive institutions. Their work is changing the way we live our lives on individual, societal, and global levels.
  
−
Positive psychology began as a new area of psychology in 1998 when [[Martin Seligman]], considered the father of the modern positive psychology movement,<ref>Goldberg, Carey. [http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2006/03/10/harvards_crowded_course_to_happiness/ "Harvard's crowded course to happiness."] ''The Boston Globe''. March 10, 2006.</ref> chose it as the theme for his term as president of the [[American Psychological Association]],<ref name="Time">{{cite web|url=http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/images/TimeMagazine/Time-Happiness.pdf |title=Time Magazine's cover story in the special issue on "The Science of Happiness," 2005 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> though the term originates with [[Abraham Maslow|Maslow]], in his 1954 book ''Motivation and Personality'',<ref>Note: the last chapter is entitled "Toward a Positive Psychology".</ref> and there have been indications that psychologists since the 1950s have been increasingly focused on promoting mental health rather than merely treating illness.<ref name=twsMay18g45r>{{cite news
+
==History==
−
|author= J. Secker
+
'''Positive psychology''' has been defined as "the scientific study of positive experiences and positive individual traits, and the institutions that facilitate their development."<ref name=clinical>Angela Lee Duckworth, Tracy A. Steen, and Martin E.P. Seligman, [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17716102/ "Positive Psychology in Clinical Practice,"] ''Annual Review of Clinical Psychology'' 1 (2005): 629–651. Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref> The term "Positive Psychology" originates with [[Abraham Maslow|Maslow]], in his 1954 book ''Motivation and Personality'', who noted:
−
|title= Current conceptualizations of mental health and mental health promotion
+
<blockquote>The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side. It has revealed to us much about man’s shortcomings, his illness, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological height. It is as if psychology has voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, than the darker, meaner half."<ref> Abraham H. Maslow, ''Motivation and Personality'' (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1987, ISBN 978-0060419875), 354. </ref>/blockquote>
−
|publisher= Health Education Research
+
The last chapter of Maslow's book is entitled "Toward a Positive Psychology."
−
|quote= ... Amongst psychologists ... the importance of promoting health rather than simply preventing ill-health date back to the 1950s (Jahoda, 1958). ... see page 58
 
−
|issue=vol. 13 no. 1
 
−
|year= 1998
 
−
|url= http://www.her.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/13/1/57.pdf
 
−
|accessdate= 2010-05-18
 
−
}}</ref><ref name=twsMay18dwwe>{{cite news
 
−
|author= Dianne Hales
 
−
|title= An Invitation to Health, Brief: Psychological Well-Being 2010-2011 Edition
 
−
|publisher= Wadsworth Cengage Learning
 
−
|quote= see page 26 for discussion on Positive Psychology regarding Martin Seligman's conception
 
−
|year= 2010
 
−
|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=oP91HVIMPRIC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=%22democracy%22+%22mentally+healthy+person%22+description#v=onepage&q&f=false
 
−
|accessdate= 2010-05-18
 
−
}}</ref> In the first sentence of his book, "Authentic Happiness," Seligman claimed that "for the last half century psychology has been consumed with a single topic only - mental illness",<ref>[[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin E.P.]] (2002). ''Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment''. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. xi. ISBN 0-7432-2297-0.</ref> expanding on Maslow’s comments.<ref>"The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side. It has revealed to us much about man’s shortcomings, his illness, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological height. It is as if psychology has voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, than the darker, meaner half." (Maslow, Motivation and Psychology, p. 354).</ref> He urged psychologists to continue the earlier missions of psychology of nurturing talent and improving normal life.<ref name="IPP1"/>
 
  
−
The first positive psychology summit took place in 1999. The First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place in 2002.<ref name="IPP1"/> More attention was given by the general public in 2006 when, using the same framework, a course at [[Harvard University]] became particularly popular.<ref name="Happier">Ben-Shahar, Ben (2007) "Happier -Learn the Secrets to Daily Joy and Lasting Fulfillment," First Edition, McGraw-Hill Co.</ref> In June 2009, the First World Congress on Positive Psychology took place.<ref>Reuters, Jun 18, 2009: [http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS130343+18-Jun-2009+PRN20090618 First World Congress on Positive Psychology Kicks Off Today With Talks by Two of the World's Most Renowned Psychologists]</ref>
+
Positive psychology finds its roots in the [[humanistic psychology]] of the twentieth century, which focused heavily on [[happiness]] and fulfillment. Several humanistic psychologists—such as Abraham Maslow, [[Carl Rogers]], and [[Erich Fromm]]—developed theories and practices that involve human happiness. The theories of human flourishing developed by these humanistic psychologists have now found empirical support from studies by positive psychologists. Positive psychology has also moved ahead in a number of new directions: Positive psychologists seek "to find and nurture genius and talent," and "to make normal life more fulfilling,"<ref name="IPP1">William C. Compton, ''An Introduction to Positive Psychology'' (Wadsworth Publishing, 2005, ISBN 0534644538), 1–22.</ref> rather than treating [[mental illness]].
  
−
===Historical roots===
+
Positive psychology was not formally accepted as a branch of [[psychology]] until 1998 when [[Martin Seligman]] chose it as the theme for his term as president of the [[American Psychological Association]].<ref name="Time">Claudia Wallis, [https://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1015832,00.html "The New Science of Happiness"], ''TIME'' (January 17, 2005). Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref> Seligman, considered the father of the modern Positive Psychology movement, began his career studying [[clinical depression|depression]]. His experiments at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] beginning in 1967 led him to develop the theory of "learned helplessness"—a psychological condition in which a human being or an animal has learned to act or behave helplessly in a particular situation, usually after experiencing some inability to avoid an adverse situation, even when it actually ''has'' the power to change its unpleasant or even harmful circumstance. Seligman argued that clinical depression and related mental illnesses result in part from a perceived absence of control over the outcome of a situation.<ref>Martin E.P. Seligman, ''Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death'' (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1975, ISBN 978-0716723288).</ref> He became interested in how to alleviate the depression, and then in those who resisted becoming depressed. Finally, Seligman realized that he and other [[psychologist]]s spent their time on victims, suffering and trauma, depression, anxiety, anger, generally making miserable people less miserable. In other words, psychology was primarily based on a model of [[disease]], and this had several costs:
−
Positive psychology finds its roots in the [[humanistic psychology]] of the 20th century, which focused heavily on happiness and fulfillment. Earlier influences on positive psychology came primarily from philosophical and religious sources, as scientific psychology did not take its modern form until the late 19th century. (See [[History of psychology]])
+
<blockquote>The first one was moral, that we became victimologists and pathologizers. Our view of human nature was that mental illness fell on you like a ton of bricks, and we forgot about notions like choice, responsibility, preference, will, character, and the like. The second cost was that by working only on mental illness we forgot about making the lives of relatively untroubled people happier, more productive, and more fulfilling. And we completely forgot about genius, which became a dirty word. The third cost was that because we were trying to undo pathology we didn't develop interventions to make people happier; we developed interventions to make people less miserable.<ref> Martin E.P. Seligman, [https://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/seligman04/seligman_index.html Eudaemonia, The Good Life: A Talk with Martin Seligman] ''Edge'' (March 23, 2004). Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref></blockquote>
  
−
[[Judaism]] promotes a [[Divine command theory]] of happiness: happiness and rewards follow from following the commands of the divine.<ref name="IPP1"/>
+
He decided to study the positive aspects of life—the understanding and building of positive emotion, of strength and virtue, and of positive institutions. Seligman and [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]] introduced the purpose of Positive psychology: "We believe that a psychology of positive human functioning will arise, which achieves a scientific understanding and effective interventions to build thriving in individuals, families, and communities."<ref>Martin E.P. Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2000-13324-001 "Positive Psychology: An Introduction"] ''American Psychologist'' 55(1) (2000): 5–14. Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref>  
  
−
The ancient Greeks had many schools of thought. [[Socrates]] advocated [[Self-knowledge (psychology)|self-knowledge]] as the path to happiness. [[Plato|Plato's]] [[allegory of the cave]] influenced western thinkers who believe that happiness is found by finding deeper meaning. Aristotle believed that happiness, or [[eudaimonia]] is constituted by rational activity in accordance with [[virtue]] over a complete life. The [[Epicureanism|Epicureans]] believed in reaching happiness through the enjoyment of simple pleasures. The [[Stoicism|Stoics]] believed they could remain happy by being objective and [[logos|reasonable]], and they describe many "spiritual exercises" that have been compared to the psychological exercises employed in CBT and Positive Psychology.<ref name="IPP1"/><ref name="Robertson_2010">{{Cite book| author=Robertson, D | title=The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy| year=2010| publisher=Karnac| location=London| isbn=978-1855757561|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XsOFyJaR5vEC&lpg}}</ref>
+
The first Positive psychology summit took place in 1999. The First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place in 2002.<ref name="IPP1"/> More attention was given by the general public in 2006 when a course at [[Harvard University]] on Positive Psychology taught by Tal Ben-Shahar became particularly popular.<ref>Jenny Lee, [https://community.thriveglobal.com/how-the-academic-field-of-positive-psychology-erupted-into-mainstream-culture/ "How the academic field of positive psychology erupted into mainstream culture"] ''Thrive Global'' (March 8, 2018). Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref> In June 2009, the First World Congress on Positive Psychology took place.
  
−
[[Christianity]] continued to follow the Divine command theory of happiness. In the [[Middle Ages]], Christianity taught that true happiness would not be found until the [[afterlife]]. The [[seven deadly sins]] are about earthly self-indulgence and [[narcissism]]. On the other hand, the [[Four Cardinal Virtues]] and [[Three Theological Virtues]] were supposed to keep one from sin.<ref name="IPP1"/>
+
==Research==
 +
{{readout||right|250px|Positive psychology studies people's [[happiness]] rather than diagnosing [[mental illness]] and treating what makes them miserable}}
 +
Positive psychology naturally studies [[happiness]], attempting to discover what makes people happy or fulfilled rather than diagnosing and treating what makes them miserable. Nevertheless, the issue of [[suffering]] cannot be ignored. Positive psychologists just take a different approach to it.
  
−
During the [[Renaissance]] and [[Age of Enlightenment]], [[individualism]] came to be valued. Simultaneously, [[Creativity|creative]] individuals gained prestige, as they were now considered to be artists, not just craftsmen. [[Utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] philosophers such as [[John Stuart Mill]] believed that moral actions are those actions that maximize [[happiness]] for the most number of people, suggesting an [[Empiricism|empirical]] [[science]] of happiness should be used to determine which actions are moral (a [[science of morality]]). [[Thomas Jefferson]] and other proponents of [[democracy]] believed that "[[Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness]]" are inalienable rights, and that it justifies the overthrow of the government.<ref name="IPP1"/>
+
Seligman originally suggested that Positive psychology can be delineated into three overlapping areas of research:<ref name=Seligman2002>Martin E.P Seligman, ''Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment'' (Atria, 2004, ISBN 978-0743222983).</ref>
  
−
The [[Romanticism|Romantics]] valued individual emotional expression and sought their emotional "true selves," which were unhindered by social norms. At the same time, love and intimacy became the main motivations for people to get [[marriage|married]].<ref name="IPP1"/>
+
# Research into the '''Pleasant Life''', or the "life of enjoyment," examines how people optimally experience, [[Affective forecasting|forecast]], and savor the positive feelings and [[emotion]]s that are part of normal and healthy living (relationships, [[hobby|hobbies]], interests, entertainment, and so forth). Seligman has suggested that this is the most transient element of happiness and may be the least important, despite the attention it is given.<ref name="Time"/>
 +
# The study of the '''Good Life''', or the "life of engagement," investigates the beneficial effects of immersion, absorption, and ''[[flow (psychology)|flow]]'' that individuals feel when optimally engaged with their primary activities. These states are experienced when there is a positive match between a person's strength and the task they are doing, in other words when they feel confident that they can accomplish the tasks they face.
 +
# Inquiry into the '''Meaningful Life''', or "life of affiliation," questions how individuals derive a positive sense of well-being, belonging, meaning, and purpose from being part of and contributing back to something larger and more permanent than themselves (such as nature, social groups, organizations, movements, traditions, belief systems).
  
−
==Methods==
+
Seligman later suggested that "Meaningful Life" would be better considered as three different categories, resulting in five elements of well being with the [[acronym]] PERMA:<ref>Martin E.P. Seligman, ''Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being'' (New York, NY: Free Press, 2011, ISBN 978-1439190753).</ref>
−
"Happiness" encompasses many different emotional and mental phenomena (see below). One method of assessment is [[Ed Diener]]'s Satisfaction with Life Scale. This 5-question survey corresponds well with impressions from friends and family, and low incidences of depression.<ref name=NYSciHap/>
+
* '''P'''(ositive) emotion - tunable by writing down, every day at bed time, three things that went well, and why
 +
* '''E'''(ngagement) - tunable by preferentially using one's highest strengths to perform the tasks which one would perform anyway
 +
* '''R'''(elationships) - tunable, but not in a way that can be explained briefly; listen to timestamp 15:12 and following of the audio
 +
* '''M'''(eaning) - belonging to and serving something bigger than one's self
 +
* '''A'''(chievement) - determination is known to count for more than IQ.
  
−
[[File:John Singleton Copley 003.jpg|thumb|The "Remembering self" may not be the best source of information for pleasing the "Experiencing self"]]
+
Some other areas of research that have developed out of these ideas include [[Flow (psychology)|flow]], elevation, and learned optimism.  
−
Rather than long-term, big picture appraisals, some methods attempt to identify the amount of positive affect from one activity to the next. Some scientists use beepers to remind volunteers to write down the details of their current situation. Alternatively, volunteers complete detailed diary entries each morning about the day before.<ref name=NYSciHap/> An interesting discrepancy arises when researchers compare the results of these short-term "experience sampling" methods, with long-term appraisals. Namely, the latter may not be very accurate; people may not know what makes their life pleasant from one moment to the next. For instance, parents' appraisals mention their children as sources of pleasure, and yet 'experience sampling' indicates that they were not enjoying caring for their children compared to other activities.<ref name=NYSciHap/><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/daniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_experience_vs_memory.html |title=Daniel Kahneman: The riddle of experience vs. memory &#124; Video on |publisher=Ted.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
 
  
−
Psychologist [[Daniel Kahneman]] explains this discrepancy by differentiating between happiness according to the 'Experiencing Self' compared to the 'Remembering Self'. Kahneman explains that, when we are asked to reflect on experiences, [[List of memory biases|memory biases]] like the Peak-End effect (e.g. we mostly remember the dramatic parts of a vacation, and how it was at the end) play a large role. One of his more striking findings was in a study of colonoscopy patients. By ''adding'' 60 seconds to this invasive procedure, Kahneman actually got participants to report the colonoscopy as ''more'' pleasant. He accomplished this by making sure that, for the extra 60 seconds, the colonoscopy instrument was not moved, since movement is the source of the most discomfort. Thus, Kahneman was appealing to the Remembering Self's tendency to focus on the end of the experience. Such findings help explain human error in [[Affective forecasting]] - people's ability to predict their future emotional states.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>
+
===Happiness===
 +
[[File:Flock of Seagulls (eschipul).jpg|thumb|400px|Simple exercise, such as running, increases feelings of happiness.]]
 +
[[File:Slavyansky-Family portrait.jpg|thumb|300px|A portrait commemorating a family's day together]]
 +
Happiness has become a very popular discussion topic in popular culture, especially in the Western world. There are many studies being done to demystify the factors that play into happiness.  
  
−
[[Michael Argyle (psychologist)|Michael Argyle]] developed the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire<ref>[http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/oxford-happiness-questionnaire/214/Oxford Happiness Questionnaire] by Michael Argyle and Peter Hills, a survey of current level of happiness. See also discussion in Hills, P., & Argyle, M. (2002). The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of
+
Tal Ben-Shahar, who taught the popular Positive Psychology course at [[Harvard University]], has discovered a number of important factors that increase happiness.<ref>Tal Ben-Shahar, ''Happier: Learn the Secrets to Daily Joy and Lasting Fulfillment'' (McGraw-Hill, 2007, ISBN 978-0071492393).</ref> He has suggested:
−
psychological well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 33, 1073–1082.</ref> as a broad measure of psychological well-being. This has been criticized as an aggregate of [[self-esteem]], sense of purpose, social interest and [[kindness]], sense of [[humor]] and aesthetic appreciation.[http://www.inspiritive.com.au/nlp-psychologists.htm][http://nlpcorporate.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Accelerated-Learining-Theory-Practice-Download.pdf]<ref>The approach has been criticized as overlapping too much with related concepts, and for lacking a theoretical model of happiness. {{cite journal
+
* Real happiness requires both pleasure and meaning, providing both present and future gain
−
| first = Todd B.
+
* Happiness is not an end state, but rather a journey; it is gained from the experience of climbing the mountain not from reaching the summit
−
| last = Kashdan
+
* The mind-body connection is important: Regular exercise, adequate sleep, and healthy eating habits lead to both physical and mental health
−
| url = http://mason.gmu.edu/~tkashdan/publications/happy.PDF
+
* Simplify: trying to do everything leads to "time poverty," which decreases the ability to derive happiness from any activity
−
| title = The assessment of subjective well-being (issues raised by the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire)
+
* Pain and suffering are part of life: Expecting constant happiness is unreasonable and leads to disappointment; allowing oneself to feel the full range of emotions, including fear, sadness, and anxiety, increases happiness in the long run
−
| journal = Personality and Individual Differences
+
* [[Gratitude]] increases happiness.
−
| year = 2004
 
−
| pages = 1225–1232
 
−
| volume = 36
 
−
| doi = 10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00213-7
 
−
| issue = 5
 
−
}}</ref>
 
  
−
===Neuroscientific approach===
+
Seligman reviewed hundreds of studies on happiness, finding several factors to be more or less important in producing happiness:<ref name=Seligman2002/>
  
−
[[Neuroscience]] and brain imaging has shown increasing potential for helping science understand happiness and sadness. Though it may be impossible to achieve any comprehensive measure of happiness objectively, some physiological correlates to happiness can be measured. [[Stefan Klein]], in his book ''The Science of Happiness'', links the dynamics of [[Neurobiology|neurobiological]] systems (i.e., dopaminergic, opiate) to the concepts and findings of positive psychology and social psychology.<ref>{{cite book
+
;Less important
−
| first = Stefan
+
[[Money]] - Although very poor people may have a low level of happiness, beyond a certain level of [[wealth]] there are no increases in happiness. Money cannot buy happiness.
−
| last =  Klein
 
−
| authorlink = Stefan Klein
 
−
| title =  The Science of Happiness
 
−
| publisher =  Marlowe & Company
 
−
| year = 2006
 
−
| isbn = 1-56924-328-X
 
−
}}</ref>
 
  
−
Nobel prize winner [[Eric Kandel]] and researcher [http://www.iop.kcl.ac.uk/staff/profile/default.aspx?go=10396 Cynthia Fu] describe their findings that [[Major depressive disorder|depression]] can be diagnosed very accurately just by looking at fMRI brain scans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wnyc.org/shows/radiolab/episodes/2008/12/05 |title=Diagnosis - Radiolab |publisher=Wnyc.org |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
+
[[Illness]] - Good [[health]] does not lead to greater happiness; and only severe or multiple illnesses lower positive feelings, and often only temporarily.
−
The idea is that, by identifying [[neural correlate]]s for [[emotions]], scientists may be able to use methods like [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|brain scans]] to tell us more about all the different ways of being "happy."
 
  
−
===Evolutionary approach===
+
[[Climate]] - Good weather does not lead to greater happiness despite the finding that those who live in harsh climates believe those who live in sunnier climates are happier; in fact, we adapt to the local climate very quickly.
  
−
The evolutionary perspective offers an alternative approach to understand what happiness or quality of life is about. Briefly, it focuses on the questions: What features are included in the brain that allow humans to distinguish between positive and negative states of mind, and how do these features improve humans' ability to survive and reproduce? It claims that answering these questions points towards an understanding of what happiness is about and how to best exploit the capacities of the brain with which humans are endowed. This perspective is presented formally and in detail by the evolutionary biologist [[Bjørn Grinde]] in his book ''[[Darwinian Happiness]]''.<ref>{{cite journal
+
[[Education]] and [[intelligence]] - Greater intelligence or higher levels of education do not lead to greater happiness. Seligman noted: "As a professor, I don't like this, but the cerebral virtues—curiosity, love of learning—are less strongly tied to happiness than interpersonal virtues like kindness, gratitude and capacity for love."<ref name="Time"/>
−
| last = Grinde
 
−
| first = Bjørn
 
−
| year = 2002
 
−
| title = Happiness in the perspective of evolutionary psychology
 
−
| journal = Journal of Happiness Studies
 
−
| volume = 3
 
−
| pages = 331–354
 
−
| doi = 10.1023/A:1021894227295
 
−
| issue = 4}}</ref>
 
  
−
==General findings by topic==
+
;More important
−
Happiness has become a very popular discussion topic in popular culture, especially in the Western world. There are  many studies being done to demystify the factors that play into happiness. Although "happiness" can be used to refer to many things, the following describes research that is generally related.
+
[[Marriage]] - Surveys carried out by the National Opinion Research Center found that a higher proportion of married people were "very happy" than single people. Seligman's own study found that the majority of very happy people were involved in a romantic relationship.
  
−
===Age===
+
[[Sociability]] - Very happy people lead a "rich and fulfilling social life" while those who spend a lot of time alone had a lower level of happiness.
−
The [[Midlife crisis]] may mark the first reliable drop in happiness during the average human's life. Evidence suggests that, with the exception of the years 40 - 50, most people generally get happier as they get older. Researchers specify that people in both their 20s and 70s tend to be happier than during midlife, although the measures of happiness change at different rates (e.g. feelings of stress and anger tend to decline after age 20, worrying drops after age 50, enjoyment had been very slowly declining but finally starts to rise after 50, etc.).<ref name=NYSciHap/><ref name=GuardianHappiness>{{cite web|last=Bakalar |first=Nicholas |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/health/research/01happy.html?_r=1 |title=The Guardian, Happiness May Come With Age, Study Says. "...by almost any measure, people get happier as they get older, and researchers are not sure why"|publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2010-05-31 |accessdate=2011-11-12}}</ref><ref name=GuardAge>{{cite web|author=Alok Jha, science correspondent |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2008/jan/29/health.medicalresearch |title=Happiness is being young or old, but middle age is misery |publisher=Guardian |date= |accessdate=2011-11-12}}</ref>
 
−
These findings are based on decades of data, and controls for cohort groups; the data avoids the risk that the drops in happiness during midlife are due to populations' unique midlife experiences, like a war. The studies have also controlled for income, job status and parenting (as opposed to [[childfreedom]]) to try to isolate the effects of age. Researchers found support for the notion that there are changes inside of the individual with age that affect happiness.
 
  
−
This could be for any number of things. Psychological factors could include a greater awareness of one's self and preferences; an ability to control desires and hold more realistic expectations; getting closer to death may motivate people to pursue more goals; improved social skills, like forgiveness, may take years to develop; or happier people may live longer and are slightly overrepresented in the elderly population. Chemical changes that come with age may also be playing a role.<ref name=GuardianHappiness>{{cite web|last=Bakalar |first=Nicholas |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/01/health/research/01happy.html?_r=1 |title=The Guardian, Happiness May Come With Age, Study Says |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2010-05-31 |accessdate=2011-11-12}}</ref><ref name=GuardianHappiness/><ref name=GuardAge/><ref name=EcoAgeHap>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/17722567 |title=Age and happiness: The U-bend of life|publisher=The Economist |date=2010-12-16 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
+
[[Religion]] - Religious people are happier and more satisfied with life; those involved in fundamentalist faiths with strong "hope for the future" feel good about themselves and the world.
  
−
Other studies have found that older individuals report more health problems, but fewer problems overall. Young adults reported more anger, anxiety, depression, financial problems, troubled relationships and career stress. Researchers also suggest that depression in the elderly is often due largely to passivity and inaction - they recommend that people continue to do the things that bring happiness, even in old age.<ref>{{cite news
+
The most important factor that Seligman found in determining genuine and long-lasting happiness is [[character]] - [[virtue]]s that are developed rather than our natural [[talent]]s. He suggested that "authentic happiness" comes from developing ones strengths. This is not to say that [[genetics]], childhood experiences, or current circumstances have no impact on one's level of happiness. Although there are ranges of happiness that are genetically determined, it is possible to live in the upper reaches of one's natural range of happiness.<ref name=Seligman2002/>
−
| first = Shankar
 
−
| last = Vedantam
 
−
| url =http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/13/AR2008071301641.html?hpid=sec-health
 
−
| title = Older Americans May Be Happier Than Younger Ones
 
−
| publisher = The Washington Post
 
−
| date = 2008-07-14
 
−
}}</ref>
 
  
−
===Buying happiness===
+
===Suffering===
−
[[File:Niavaranpalacemirror.jpg|thumb|right|Money, once one reaches middle class, may be best spent ensuring one's job and social ties are enjoyable]]
+
[[File:Dalai Lama and Seattle Mayor Norm Rice, 1993.jpg|thumb|400px|Positive psychology suggests that the [[Buddhist]] saying that "Life is Suffering" can be understood as a call to cultivate [[virtue]]s and a flourishing life]]
−
In his book [[Stumbling on Happiness]], psychologist [[Daniel Gilbert (psychologist)|Daniel Gilbert]] describes research suggesting that money makes a significant difference to the poor (where basic needs are not yet met), but has a greatly diminished effect once one reaches middle class (i.e. the [[Easterlin paradox]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/12/08/1015962107 |title=The happiness–income paradox revisited—PNAS |publisher=Pnas.org |date=2010-12-13 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> Professor of Economics [[Richard Easterlin]] notes that job satisfaction does not depend on salary. In other words, having extra money for luxuries does not increase happiness as much as enjoying one's job or social network. Gilbert is thus adamant that people should go to great lengths in order to figure out which jobs they would enjoy and to find a way to do one of those jobs for a living (that is, provided one is also attentive to social ties).
+
[[Psychology]] acknowledges that [[suffering]] can be managed and reduced but not eliminated, and the branch of Positive psychology does not refute that: "Psychology’s concern with remedying human problems is understandable and should certainly not be abandoned. Human suffering demands scientifically informed solutions. Suffering and well being, however, are both part of the human condition, and psychologists should be concerned with both."<ref name=PennUniPPC>Positive Psychology Centre, [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/learn-more/frequently-asked-questions Frequently Asked Questions] University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref>  
  
−
Studies have routinely showed that nations are happier when people's needs are met.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/2010/07/14/world-happiest-countries-lifestyle-realestate-gallup-table.html |title=Forbes article "Table: The World's Happiest Countries" |publisher=Forbes.com |date=2010-07-14 |accessdate=2011-11-12}}</ref>
+
Suffering can be an indicator of behavior that a person might want to change, as well as ideas that require the person's careful attention and consideration. Positive psychology proposes that suffering can best be understood in the context of the flourishing life: The role of suffering is not to endure it for its own sake, but for the sake of cultivating the flourishing life.<ref>M. Elizabeth Lewis Hall, Richard Langer, and Jason Mcmartin, [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/009164711003800204 "The Role of Suffering in Human Flourishing: Contributions from Positive Psychology, theology, and philosophy,"] ''Journal of Psychology Theology'' 38(2) (2010): 111-121. Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref> Positive psychology, inspired by empirical evidence, focuses on productive approaches to pain and suffering, as well the importance of cultivating strengths and virtues to keep suffering to a minimum.<ref name=PennUniPPC/>
−
Some studies suggest, however, that people are happier after spending money on experiences, rather than physical things.<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=121908647NPR.org ]{{dead link|date=November 2011}}</ref>
 
  
−
===Education and intelligence===
+
Seligman has discussed the issue of suffering in relation to Positive psychology, stating that the goal of psychology is not only to make people less unhappy, but also to make people more happy and this is what Positive psychology contributes. He claims this is "not a luxury," but rather that "most of Positive Psychology is for all of us, troubled or untroubled, privileged or in privation, suffering or carefree. The pleasures of a good conversation, the strength of gratitude, the benefits of kindness or wisdom or spirituality or humility, the search for meaning and the antidote to "fidgeting until we die" are the birthrights of us all."<ref>Martin E.P. Seligman, [https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/newsletters/authentichappiness/suffering "Does Suffering Trump Happiness?"] Authentic Happiness, University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref>
−
English poet [[Thomas Gray]] said "''Where ignorance is bliss, Tis folly to be wise.''"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Ignorance+is+bliss |title=Ignorance is bliss &#124; Define Ignorance is bliss at Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> Research suggests that neither a good education nor a high IQ reliably increase happiness.<ref name=NYSciHap>{{cite news|last=Wallis |first=Claudia |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1015902-1,00.html |title=Science of Happiness: New Research on Mood, Satisfaction |publisher=TIME |date=2005-01-09 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
 
−
[[Anders Ericsson]] argues that an IQ above 120 has a decreasing influence on success. Presumably, IQs above 120 do not go much further to cause other happiness indicators like success (with the exception of careers like [[Theoretical physics]], where high IQs are more predictive of success). Above that IQ level, other factors start to matter more, like social skills or a good mentor.<ref>http://www.coachingmanagement.nl/The%20Making%20of%20an%20Expert.pdf</ref> One of the main benefits of intelligence and education may simply be that it allows one to reach the middle-class level of need satisfaction (as mentioned above, being richer than this seems to do little for happiness).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/17722557 |title=Comparing countries: The rich, the poor and Bulgaria |publisher=The Economist |date=2010-12-16 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
 
  
−
Martin Seligman has said that "As a professor, I don't like this, but the cerebral virtues—curiosity, love of learning—are less strongly tied to happiness than interpersonal virtues like kindness, gratitude and capacity for love."<ref name=NYSciHap/>
+
===Strengths and Virtues===
−
 
+
The development of the ''Character Strengths and Virtue'' (CSV) handbook by Seligman and his colleague, Christopher Peterson, represents the first attempt on the part of the research community to identify and classify the positive psychological traits of human beings.<ref name="CSV">Christopher Peterson and Martin E.P. Seligman, ''Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification'' (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0195167016).</ref> Much like the ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provides a theoretical framework to assist in understanding strengths and [[virtue]]s and for developing practical applications for Positive psychology. This manual identifies six classes of virtue ("core virtues"), made up of twenty-four measurable character strengths.<ref name="CSV"/> Peterson and Seligman reviewed a wide range of cultures and suggested that these six virtues are considered good by the vast majority of cultures and throughout history, and that these traits lead to increased [[happiness]] when practiced.  
−
===Parenting===
+
The organization of these virtues and strengths is as follows:
−
While parenting is sometimes held as the necessary path of adulthood, studies are actually mixed as to whether parents are more likely to report being happier than non-parents. When quantitatively measured by self-report, researchers have found that parents prefer doing almost anything else to looking after their children. On the other hand, parents in self-reports are happier than non-parents. This may be due to already happy people tending to have more children than already non-happy people or that more long-term having children gives more meaning to life.<ref>{{cite news
 
−
| url = http://www.economist.com/world/na/PrinterFriendly.cfm?story_id=10924082
 
−
| title = The joys of parenthood
 
−
| publisher = The Economist
 
−
| date = 2008-03-27
 
−
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
 
−
| first = Arthur C.
 
−
| last = Brooks
 
−
| title = Gross National Happiness: Why Happiness Matters for America – and How We Can Get More of It
 
−
| publisher = Basic Books
 
−
| year = 2008
 
−
| isbn = 978-0465002788
 
−
| author = link = Arthur C. Brooks
 
−
}}</ref> One study found having up to three children increased happiness among married couples, but not among other groups with children.<ref name="Angeles" >{{cite doi|10.1007/s10902-009-9168-z}}</ref> Proponents of [[Childfreedom]] maintain that this is because one can enjoy a happy, productive life without ever being a parent.
 
−
 
 
−
===Weather===
 
−
There is some evidence that suggests sunnier climates do not predict happiness. In one study both Californians and Midwesterners expected the former's happiness ratings to be higher due to a sunnier environment. In fact, the Californian and Midwestern happiness ratings did not show a significant difference.<ref name=NYSciHap/> Other researchers say the minimum [[Health effects of sun exposure|daily dose of sunlight]] is as little as 30 minutes.<ref>{{cite web|last=Aaronson |first=Lauren |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200512/happiness-is-beach-sometimes |title=Happiness Is a Beach, Sometimes |publisher=Psychology Today |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
That is not to say that the weather is never a factor for happiness. Some psychologists suggest changing norms of sunlight in particular can cause [[Seasonal affective disorder]].
 
−
 
 
−
===Religion===
 
−
{{main|Religion and happiness}}
 
−
{{See also|Reverence (emotion)}}
 
−
Various studies have examined the relationship between [[Religion and happiness]].
 
−
 
 
−
===Changes in happiness levels===
 
−
[[File:Daniel KAHNEMAN.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Daniel Kahneman]]]]
 
−
The human ability of emotional ''Hedonic Adaptation'' explains why beauty, fame and money do not generally have lasting effects on happiness (this effect has also been called the [[Hedonic treadmill]]). The tendency to adapt is clearly illustrated by studies showing that lottery winners are not any happier in the years after they've won.<ref name=NYSciHap/> Other studies have shown that after equally few years, [[Paraplegia|paraplegics]] are almost as happy as control groups that are not paralyzed (p.&nbsp;48<ref name="Seligman2002"/>). Daniel Kahneman explains that "they are not paraplegic full time...It has to do with allocation of attention." Contrary to our [[impact bias]]es, lotteries and paraplegia do not change experiences in the ways we think, or even to as great a degree as we would believe. After adaptation, the paraplegics almost returned to their baseline happiness. Adaptation is much slower for other distracting life changes such as the death of a spouse or losing one's job. These events can show measurable changes in happiness levels for several years.<ref name=NYSciHap/> Thus, adaptation ''does'' mitigate the emotional effects of many life events, but not entirely.
 
−
 
 
−
[[File:LyubomirskyHappiness.jpg|thumb|right|Some research suggests that large portions of happiness are within a human's control]]
 
−
Research indicates that genetics play a very significant role in determining one's baseline happiness levels, according to David Lykken.<ref name=NYSciHap/> In her book [[The How of Happiness]], [[Sonja Lyubomirsky]] similarly argues that people's happiness varies around a genetic set point. Importantly, an individual's base-line happiness is not ''entirely'' determined by their genetics, and not even by the early life influences on those genetics. Whether or not a person manages to elevate their base-line to the heights of their genetic possibilities depends partly on factors including actions and habits. Some happiness-boosting habits seem to include gratitude, appreciation, and even altruistic behaviour.<ref name=NYSciHap/> Other habits and techniques of increasing happiness have emerged from research and are discussed on this page.
 
−
 
 
−
Besides training new habits and antidepressants, getting better exercise and a healthier [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]] have proven to have strong effects on mood. In fact, [[exercise]] is sometimes called the "miracle" or "wonder" drug - alluding to the wide variety of proven benefits that it provides.<ref>[http://www.aakp.org/aakp-library/Physical-Activity-and-Exercise/ http://www.aakp.org/aakp-library/Physical-Activity-and-Exercise/] American Association of Kidney Patients, "Physical Activity and Exercise: The Wonder Drug".</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=USA |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2868602/ |title=National Center for Biotechnology Information, "The miracle drug" |publisher=Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |date=2011-10-03 |accessdate=2011-11-12}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Gender===
 
−
Gender effects on wellbeing are paradoxical in that while men report feeling less happy than women {{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}, women are more susceptible to depression {{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}. Possible explanations include that women may experience more variance (more extremes) in emotion, although women are ''generally'' happier.<ref name="EcoAgeHap" />
 
−
 
 
−
===Marriage===
 
−
[[Martin Seligman]] writes that "Unlike money, which has at most a small effect, marriage is robustly related to happiness.... In my opinion, the [[Correlation does not imply causation|jury is still out on what causes]] the proven fact that married people are happier than unmarried people." (pp.&nbsp;55–56<ref name="Seligman2002"/>) There is also little data on alternatives like [[Polyamory]]. On the other hand, at least one large study in Germany found no difference in happiness between married and unmarried people.<ref>[http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200303/marriage-is-not-the-key-happiness "Marriage Is Not the Key to Happiness"], by Anne Becker, ''Psychology Today'', March 18, 2003.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Personality===
 
−
An emotionally stable (the opposite of [[Neuroticism|Neurotic]]) [[personality psychology|personality]] correlates well with happiness. Not only does emotional stability make one less prone to negative emotions, it also predicts higher social intelligence - which helps to manage relationships with others (an important part of being happy, discussed below).<ref name="EcoAgeHap"/>
 
−
 
 
−
Cultivating an [[Extroversion|extroverted]] [[temperament]] may correlate with happiness for the same reason: it builds relationships and support groups. Some people may be lucky, then, that many [[Personality psychology|personality theories]] leave room for the idea that individuals have some control over their long term behaviours and cognitions. Genetic studies indicate that it is genes for personality (specifically [[extraversion]], [[neuroticism]] and [[conscientiousness]]) and a general factor linking all 5 traits that account for the heritability of [[subjective well-being]].<ref>A. Weiss, T. C. Bates and M. Luciano. (2008). Happiness is a personal(ity) thing: the genetics of personality and well-being in a representative sample. ''Psychological Science'', '''19''', [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02068.x 205-10]</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Social ties===
 
−
In the article “ Finding Happiness after Harvard” George Vaillant concludes a study on what aspects of life are important for “ successful living.” Back in the 1940s Arlie Bock, who was in charge of the Harvard Health Services, started a study by selecting 268 Harvard students from graduating classes of 1942, 43', and 44'. He wanted to find out what aspects of life create “successful living.” In 1967 psychiatrist, George Vaillant helped continue the study; he did follow up interviews with many of the students to see how their lives were going. In 2000, Vaillant again interviewed these students on the progress of their lives. The characteristics  Vaillant was observing were health, close relationships, and how one dealt with their troubles. George Vaillant found that a key aspect to successful living is healthy and strong relationships.<ref>Shenk, J. ( 2009, June). Finding happiness After Harvard. Wilson Quarterly, 33, 73-74.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
A widely publicized study from 2008 in the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' reported that happiness in [[social network]]s may spread from person to person.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Dynamic Spread of Happiness in a Large Social Network|author=[[James H. Fowler]] and Nicholas A. Christakis|url=http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/dynamic_spread_of_happiness.pdf |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=337 |issue=768  |date=3 January 2009|doi=10.1136/bmj.a2338|format=PDF|pages=a2338 |pmid=19056788 |pmc=2600606}}</ref> Researchers followed nearly 5000 individuals for 20 years in the long-standing [[Framingham Heart Study]] and found clusters of happiness and unhappiness that spread up to 3 degrees of separation on average. Happiness tended to spread through close relationships like friends, siblings, spouses, and next-door neighbors, and the researchers reported that happiness spread more consistently than unhappiness through the network. Moreover, the structure of the social network appeared to have an impact on happiness, as people who were very central (with many friends, and friends of friends) were significantly more likely to be happy than those on the periphery of the network. Overall, the results suggest that happiness can spread through a population like a virus.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/health/05happy-web.html|title=Strangers May Cheer You Up, Study Says  |publisher=New York Times|date=December 5, 2008 | first=Pam | last=Belluck |accessdate=2010-04-10}}</ref><ref>Rob Stein,[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/04/AR2008120403537.html "Happiness Can Spread Among People Like a Contagion, Study Indicates,"] ''[[The Washington Post]]'', December 5, 2008, Page A08</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Culture===
 
−
<!-- Does this massive topic have its own page we could link to??—>
 
−
One website, [[Subjective Well-Being]] Across Cultures, takes an inside look on the differences of happiness on an international level. Eunkook M. Suh, a professor at University of California, and Shigehiro Oishi, a professor at University of Minnesota (now at University of Virginia), discuss key components to different cultures' views on what creates well-being and happiness. An example of how much well-being can vary is illustrated by a study of over 6,000 students in 43 nations to identify their "mean of Subjective Well-Being" on a scale of 1-7.The rate varied wildly, with China coming in at 3.3, and Brazilians at 6.2. Other studies suggested that two of the main factors for this variation are wealth of the country, and whether the country is individualistic or collectivist. They authors go into more detail about how these matter.<ref name="free-books-online.org">Eunkook, S. (2002). Subjective Well-Being Across Cultures. Retrieved March 19, 20011, http://free-books-online.org/psychology/cross-cultural-psychology/subjective-well-being-across-cultures/</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
===Political views===
 
−
Conservatives are happier than liberals. One potential explanation is greater acceptance of income inequalities in society.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02124.x}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
==Theory==
 
−
===Broad theories===
 
−
Some researchers<ref name="Seligman2002">{{cite book|last=Seligman|first=Martin E.P.|title=Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment.|publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=New York|year=2002|page=275|isbn=0-7432-2297-0}}</ref> in this field posit that positive psychology can be delineated into three overlapping areas of research:
 
−
 
 
−
# Research into the '''Pleasant Life''', or the "life of enjoyment," examines how people optimally experience, [[Affective forecasting|forecast]], and savor the positive feelings and emotions that are part of normal and healthy living (e.g. relationships, hobbies, interests, entertainment, etc.). Martin Seligman says that this most transient element of happiness may be the least important, despite the attention it is given.<ref name=NYSciHap/>
 
−
# The study of the '''Good Life''', or the "life of engagement," investigates the beneficial effects of immersion, absorption, and ''[[flow (psychology)|flow]]'' that individuals feel when optimally engaged with their primary activities. These states are experienced when there is a positive match between a person's strength and the task they are doing, i.e. when they feel confident that they can accomplish the tasks they face. (See related concepts, [[Self-efficacy]] and [[play (activity)|play]])
 
−
# Inquiry into the '''Meaningful Life''', or "life of affiliation," questions how individuals derive a positive sense of well-being, belonging, meaning, and purpose from being part of and contributing back to something larger and more permanent than themselves (e.g. nature, social groups, organizations, movements, traditions, belief systems).
 
−
These categories appear to be neither widely disputed nor adopted by researchers across the 12 years that this academic area has been in existence. Martin Seligman originally proposed these 3 categories, but has since suggested that the last category, "meaningful life," be considered as 3 different categories. The resulting acronym is PERMA (Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and purpose, and Accomplishments).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_2.html |title=THE WORLD QUESTION CENTER 2011—Page 2 |publisher=Edge.org |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
[[File:Slavyansky-Family portrait.jpg|thumb|A portrait commemorating a family's day together]]
 
−
Professor [[Philip Zimbardo]] suggests we might also analyze happiness from a "Time Perspective." Zimbardo suggests sorting people's focus in life by valence (positive or negative) but also by their time perspective (past, present, or future orientation). Doing so may reveal some conflicts between individuals to be conflicts, not over whether an activity is enjoyed, but whether one prefers to risk delaying gratification further. Zimbardo also believes that research reveals an optimal balance of perspectives for a happy life; he says our focus on reliving positive aspects of our past should be high, followed by time spent believing in a positive future, and finally spending a moderate (but not excessive) amount of time enjoying the present.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_prescribes_a_healthy_take_on_time.html |title=Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time &#124; Video on |publisher=Ted.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Daniel Goldstein, a research scientist at [[Yahoo]], explores different ways to that people can delay gratification for the sake of their future selves. He is fond of [[commitment devices]], but warns that they can be defeated by justifications. Using commitment devices also makes it hard to practice and strengthen self discipline. Goldstein highly recommends "behavioral time machines" - techniques that present a glimpse of the future in an emotionally relevant way. For instance, one time machine has users change their savings using a slider, and the image of their future home changes at the same time (e.g. it displays a much smaller, cheaper home if the user indicates low present-day savings). To explain why time machines seem to work, Goldstein quotes the philosopher [[Derek Parfit]], and says that people often neglect their future selves because of "some failure of imagination, or some false belief."<ref>[http://www.dangoldstein.com/papers/Hershfield_Goldstein_et_al_Increasing_Saving_Behavior_Age_Progressed_Renderings_Future_Self.pdf Increasing Saving Behavior Through Age-Progressed Renderings of the Future Self. 2011. Article in the Journal of Marketing Research. Hal E Hershfield, Daniel G Goldstein, William F Sharpe, et al. Vol 48. 23 - 37.]</ref><ref>[http://www.ted.com/talks/daniel_goldstein_the_battle_between_your_present_and_future_self.html Daniel Goldstein: The battle between your present and future self. Daniel Goldstein (2011). Ted Talk - online lecture.]</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The [[broaden-and-build]] theory of positive emotions suggests that positive emotions (e.g. [[happiness]], [[Interest (emotion)|interest]], [[Anticipation (emotion)|anticipation]])<ref name="IPP2">{{cite book|last=Compton|first=William C,|title=An Introduction to Positive Psychology|publisher=[[Wadsworth Publishing]]|year=2005|pages=23–40|chapter=2|isbn=0-534-64453-8}}</ref> broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, this broadened behavioral repertoire builds skills and resources. For example, curiosity about a landscape becomes valuable navigational knowledge; pleasant interactions with a stranger become a supportive friendship; aimless physical play becomes exercise and physical excellence.
 
−
 
 
−
This is in contrast to negative emotions, which prompt narrow survival-oriented behaviors. For example, the negative emotion of [[anxiety]] leads to the specific [[fight-or-flight response]] for immediate survival.<ref name="IPP2"/>
 
−
 
 
−
Below, research is sorted according to which of Seligman's categories it may be most (but not strictly) related (i.e. the "pleasant," "good," or "meaningful" life). Since these are still [[fuzzy concept|fuzzy classifications]], research mentioned in one section may be quite relevant in another.
 
−
 
 
−
===The pleasant life===
 
−
[[File:Flock of Seagulls (eschipul).jpg|thumb|Simple exercise, such as running, is cited as key to feeling happy.<ref name=Fox>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,197466,00.html Best Benefit of Exercise? Happiness], Robin Loyd, [[Fox News]], May 30, 2006.</ref>]]
 
−
 
 
−
[[Abraham Maslow]] proposed a [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|hierarchy of needs]] in which more primitive desires must be met (basic physiological, sense of safety) before social needs can be met (e.g. intimacy), and certainly before one can effectively pursue more conceptual needs (e.g. morality).
 
−
 
 
−
There is evidence suggesting that negative emotions can be damaging. In an article titled "The undoing effect of positive emotions," [[Barbara Fredrickson]] et al. hypothesize that positive emotions undo the cardiovascular effects of negative emotions. When people experience [[Stress (medicine)|stress]], they show increased [[heart rate]], higher [[blood sugar]], [[immune suppression]], and other adaptations optimized for immediate action. If individuals do not regulate these changes once the stress is past, they can lead to illness, [[coronary heart disease]], and heightened mortality. Both lab research and survey research indicate that positive emotions help people who were previously under stress relax back to their physiological baseline.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unc.edu/peplab/publications/undo_2000.pdf |title=Fredrickson, B. L., Mancuso, R. A., Branigan, C., & Tugade, M. M. (2000). "The undoing effect of positive emotions," '&#39;Motivation and Emotion'&#39;. 24, 237-258 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> Other research shows that improved mood is one of the various benefits of physical exercise.<ref name="Fox"/>
 
−
 
 
−
===The good life===
 
−
Ideas of well-being as a good life trace their origins to [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] ideas of [[eudaimonia]]. A range of concepts have  grown out of this model including [[self-efficacy]], personal effectiveness, flow, [[mindfulness]] etc.
 
−
 
 
−
[[Self-efficacy]] is one's belief in one's ability to accomplish a task by one's own efforts. Low self-efficacy is associated with [[Depression (mood)|depression]]; high self-efficacy can help one overcome abuse, overcome eating disorders, and maintain a healthy lifestyle. High self-efficacy also improves the [[immune system]], aids in stress management, and decreases pain.<ref>Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change. Psychological Review 84, 2, 191-215.</ref> A related but somewhat differing concept is [[Personal effectiveness]] which is primarily concerned with the methodologies of planning and implementation of accomplishment.
 
−
 
 
−
====Flow====
 
−
[[Flow (psychology)|Flow]], or a state of absorption in one's work, is characterized by intense concentration, loss of self-awareness, a feeling of being perfectly challenged (neither bored nor overwhelmed), and a sense that "time is flying." Flow is an intrinsically rewarding experience, and it can also help one achieve a goal (e.g. winning a game) or improve skills (e.g. becoming a better chess player).<ref>Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990), Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, New York: Harper and Row.</ref> Anyone can experience flow in many different regards, such as play, creativity, and work. To experience flow, one needs to have the correct ratio of challenge for their particular skill set. Therefore, if one is very skilled in a certain regard, they need a lot of challenge or if they are unskilled they need a small amount of challenge. If one is too challenged it results in a state of anxiety and if one is not challenged enough the result is boredom.<ref>{{cite book|last=Csikszentmihalyi|first=M|title=Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Expereince|year=1990|publisher=Harper & Row|location=New York}}</ref> Being challenged means flow is, of course, temporarily exciting and stressful, but this [[Eustress]] is not harmful because it is not [[chronic stress]].
 
−
 
 
−
Csikszentmihalyi identifies nine elements of flow:
 
−
1. There are clear goals every step of the way, 2. There is immediate feedback to one's action, 3. There is a balance between challenges and skills, 4. Action and awareness are merged, 5. Distractions are excluded from consciousness, 6. There is no worry of failure, 7. Self-consciousness disappears, 8. The sense of time becomes distorted, 9. The activity becomes "autotelic" (an end in itself, done for its own sake)<ref name="In zone">{{cite web |title="In the zone": enjoyment, creativity, and the nine elements of "flow" |publisher=MeaningandHappiness.com|url=http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/zone-enjoyment-creativity-elements-flow/26/|accessdate=2010-11-11}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
====Mindfulness====
 
−
[[Mindfulness (psychology)|Mindfulness]], may be defined as the intentionally-focused awareness of one's immediate experience. The experience is one of a moment-by-moment attention to thoughts, emotions, physical sensations, and surroundings. To practice mindfulness is to become grounded in the present moment; one's role is simply as observer of the arising and passing away of experience. One does not judge the experiences and thoughts, nor do they try to 'figure things out' and draw conclusions, or change anything - the challenge during mindfulness is to simply observe.<ref>Goldstein, J. (2003) Insight Meditation: The Practice of Freedom, Shambala, 2003</ref><ref>Gunaratana, H. (1992), Mindfulness in Plain English, Wisdom Publications, 1992. "It should be noted that mindfulness is not an evolving term. It has a very distinct meaning that has remained the same since it was introduced over 2500 years ago. The practice is  challenging and requires determination and dedication, particularly when one is starting out. As time passes, the practice becomes more natural."</ref> Benefits of mindfulness practice include reduction of stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic pain.<ref>Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211-237.</ref> See also [[Reverence (emotion)]].
 
−
 
 
−
Advocates of focusing on present experiences also mention research by Psychologist [[Daniel Gilbert (psychologist)|Daniel Gilbert]], who suggests that daydreaming, instead of focusing on the present, may impede happiness.<ref>{{cite web
 
−
| title=A Wandering Mind Is an Unhappy Mind
 
−
| first = Daniel T.
 
−
| last = Gilbert
 
−
| publisher = [[Science (magazine)|Science]]
 
−
| date = 2010-11-12|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;330/6006/932?maxtoshow=&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=Killingsworth&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT|accessdate=2010-11-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
 
−
| title=When the Mind Wanders, Happiness Also Strays
 
−
| first = John
 
−
| last = Tierney
 
−
| publisher = The New York Times
 
−
| date = 2010-11-15|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/16/science/16tier.html?_r=1&hp|accessdate=2010-11-16}}</ref> Other psychologists (see Zimbardo's "Time Perspectives" above) say that it is still important to spend time recalling past positive experiences, and building positive expectations for the future. A person's focus also matter because other research indicates that thinking too much about happiness can be counter-productive. It may be better to reflect on one's values (e.g. "Do I still have hope?") rather than asking "Am I happy?" - since asking the latter just 4 times a day starts to decrease happiness.<ref name="cbc.ca">http://www.cbc.ca/ideas/episodes/2011/06/20/say-no-to-happiness/ CBC Ideas, "Say no to happiness," about 10 minutes in, Todd Kashdan</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Todd Kashdan, researcher and author of "Designing Positive Psychology," explains that none of this early science's findings should be overgeneralized or adopted too uncritically. Mindfulness to Kashdan is very resource intensive processing, and he warns that it is not simply better at all times. There are many cases where a task is best performed with very little conscious thought (e.g. a paramedic performing practiced, emergency maneuvers).<ref name="cbc.ca"/>
 
−
 
 
−
===The meaningful life===
 
−
After several years of researching [[disgust]], [[University of Virginia]] professor [[Jonathan Haidt]] and others studied its opposite, and the term "[[Elevation (psychology)|elevation]]" was coined. Elevation is a moral emotion and is pleasant. It involves a desire to act morally and do "good"; as an emotion it has a basis in biology, and can sometimes be characterized by a feeling of expansion in the chest or a tingling feeling on the skin.
 
−
 
 
−
====Optimism and helplessness====
 
−
[[File:Fluorescent Lamp.jpg|thumb|left|There is reason to focus on one's immediate [[locus of control]], and to recognize that this behaviour - from everyone - would solve massive world issues]] [[Learned optimism]] is the idea that a talent for joy, like any other, can be cultivated. It is contrasted with [[learned helplessness]], which is when one believes that they have no control over what occurs, rather it is something external that dictates their ability to accomplish a task, succeed, etc. Learning optimism is done by consciously challenging [[Intrapersonal communication|self talk]] if it describes a negative event as a personal failure that permanently affects all areas of the person's life. Reports of happiness have also been correlated with the general ability to "rationalize or explain" social and economic inequalities.<ref>{{cite web
 
−
| title=Conservatives Happier Than Liberals
 
−
| first = Jeanna
 
−
| last = Bryner |work=LiveScience.com|url=http://www.livescience.com/health/080507-liberal-conservative.html|accessdate=2008-06-18}}</ref>
 
−
[[Hope]] is a learned style of goal-directed thinking in which the person utilizes both ''pathways thinking'' (the perceived capacity to find routes to desired goals) and ''agency thinking'' (the requisite motivations to use those routes).<ref>Snyder, C. R. (Ed.). (2000). Handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and applications. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Author and journalist [[J.B. MacKinnon]] provides a cognitive tool for avoiding helplessness (e.g. paralysis in the face of earth's many problems) in the form of what he calls "Vertical Agitation." The concept comes from research on denial by sociologist [[Stanley Cohen (sociologist)|Stanley Cohen]]. Cohen explains that, in the face of massive problems, people tend towards learned helplessness rather than confronting the [[Cognitive dissonance|dissonant]] facts of the matter. Vertical Agitation, according to MacKinnon, means focusing on only one portion of the problem at a time, and holding oneself accountable for the solving of that problem - all the way to the highest level of government, business and society (e.g. advocating strongly for one thing: [[Compact fluorescent lamp|eco-friendly lightbulbs]]). This allows each individual in society to make the vital "trivial" (read: small) changes, without being intimidated by the work that needs to be done as a whole. Mackinnon adds that this will also keep individuals from getting too 'holier than thou' (harassing friends and family about ''every'' possible improvement).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utne.com/environment/Eco-Uncertainty-JB-MacKinnon-Explore.aspx |title=In an Age of Eco-Uncertainty: Vertical Agitation, Eco-Douchebags, Cohen' s Rule, and Lifestyle as Social Change |publisher=Utne.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
====Good work====
 
−
As mentioned above, having more money does not reliably cause more happiness. Psychologist [[Howard Gardner]] has done more extensive research on what it takes to do good work at one's job. He says young generations (particularly in the United States) have been taught to focus on selfish pursuit of money for its own sake. Gardner's alternatives loosely follow the pleasant/good/meaningful life classifications; he believes young people should be trained to pursue excellence in their field, as well as engagement (see flow, above) in accordance with their moral belief systems.<ref>Howard Gardner, TVOpodcast ''Excellence in education'',http://www.tvo.org/TVOsites/WebObjects/TvoMicrosite.woa?bi?1260050400000</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
====Strengths and virtues====
 
−
[[File:Dalai Lama and Seattle Mayor Norm Rice, 1993.jpg|thumb|right|The Buddhist saying that "Life is Suffering," according to Jordan Peterson, refers to the fact that nature can be harsh and indifferent, which highlights the importance of cultivating virtues]]
 
−
Research and clinical psychologist [[Jordan Peterson]] argues that it is natural (but of course not ''good'') for human beings to suffer a great deal. He says this is because living beings are limited and restrained in many important ways. For this reason, Peterson adopts a Buddhist saying that "Life is suffering." He does not think this view is pessimistic, and asserts that accepting the universe's harsh indifference towards living things can free one from the expectation that they should always be happy. This realization can ultimately help one overcome suffering, which is no longer unexpected. This also means that individuals should be all the more delighted when they flourish, when others flourish, or when they build a society where flourishing is anywhere near the norm at all. To Peterson, virtues are important because they give people the tools to escape suffering (e.g. the strength to admit [[cognitive dissonance|dissonant]] truths to themselves). Peterson thus believes that suffering is sometimes caused by a false philosophy (one that denies how natural suffering is), and sometimes by a lack of strong virtues - on our part or on the part of people that affect us.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tvo.org/TVO/WebObjects/TVO.woa?videoid%3F713852509001 |title=TVO.ORG &#124; Video &#124; TVO - Jordan Peterson on The Necessity of Virtue |publisher=TVO |date=2011-01-14 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The development of the [[Character Strengths and Virtues (book)|Character Strengths and Virtues]] (CSV) handbook represents the first attempt on the part of the research community to identify and classify the positive psychological traits of human beings. Much like the ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provides a theoretical framework to assist in understanding strengths and virtues and for developing practical applications for positive psychology. This manual identifies six classes of [[virtue]] (i.e., "core virtues"), made up of twenty-four measurable character strengths.<ref name="CSV">{{cite book
 
−
  |last=Peterson
 
−
  |first=Christopher
 
−
  |authorlink=
 
−
  |coauthors=[[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin E.P.]]
 
−
  |title=Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification
 
−
  |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]
 
−
  |year=2004
 
−
  |location=Oxford
 
−
  |isbn=0-19-516701-5}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
The introduction of [[Character Strengths and Virtues (book)|CSV]] suggests that these six virtues are considered good by the vast majority of cultures and throughout history and that these traits lead to increased happiness when practiced. Notwithstanding numerous cautions and caveats, this suggestion of universality hints that in addition to trying to broaden the scope of psychological research to include mental wellness, the leaders of the positive psychology movement are challenging [[moral relativism]] and suggesting that we are "evolutionarily predisposed" toward certain virtues, that virtue has a biological basis.<ref>[[Christopher Peterson (psychologist)|Peterson, Christopher]] & [[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin E.P.]] (2004). ''Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 51. ISBN 0-19-516701-5.</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
[[File:Jim-Carrey-2008.jpg|thumb|[[Comedian]]s are considered masters of [[humor]].]]The organization of these virtues and strengths is as follows:
 
 
# '''Wisdom and Knowledge:''' [[creativity]], [[curiosity]], [[Toleration|open-mindedness]], [[love of learning]], [[wisdom|perspective]], [[innovation]]
 
# '''Wisdom and Knowledge:''' [[creativity]], [[curiosity]], [[Toleration|open-mindedness]], [[love of learning]], [[wisdom|perspective]], [[innovation]]
 
# '''Courage:''' [[bravery]], [[persistence (psychology)|persistence]], [[integrity]], [[vitality]]
 
# '''Courage:''' [[bravery]], [[persistence (psychology)|persistence]], [[integrity]], [[vitality]]
Line 281: Line 89:
 
# '''Justice:''' [[active citizenship|citizenship]], fairness, [[leadership]]
 
# '''Justice:''' [[active citizenship|citizenship]], fairness, [[leadership]]
 
# '''Temperance:''' [[forgiveness]] and [[mercy]], [[humility]], [[prudence]], [[self-control|self control]]
 
# '''Temperance:''' [[forgiveness]] and [[mercy]], [[humility]], [[prudence]], [[self-control|self control]]
−
# '''Transcendence:''' [[appreciation of beauty]] and [[excellence]], [[gratitude]], [[hope]], [[humor]], [[spirituality]]
+
# '''Transcendence:''' appreciation of [[beauty]] and [[excellence]], [[gratitude]], [[hope]], [[humor]], [[spirituality]]
  
−
The organization of these virtues into 6 groups is contested. It has been suggested that the 24 strengths identified are more accurately grouped into just 3 or 4 categories: Intellectual Strengths, Interpersonal Strengths, and Temperance Strengths<ref>Jessica Shryack a,*, Michael F. Steger b, Robert F. Krueger c, Christopher S. Kallie d (2010). The structure of virtue: An empirical investigation of the dimensionality of the virtues in action inventory of strengths.</ref> or alternatively Interpersonal Strengths, Fortitude, Vitality, and Cautiousness<ref>Brdr, I. & Kashdan, T.B. (2010). Character strengths and well-being in Croatia: An empirical investigation of structure and correlates. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 151-154.</ref>
+
The organization of the virtues into these six groups has been contested, with suggestions that they would be better grouped into just three or four categories: Intellectual Strengths, Interpersonal Strengths, and Temperance Strengths<ref>Jessica Shryack, Michael F. Steger, Robert F. Krueger, and Christopher S. Kallie, "The structure of virtue: An empirical investigation of the dimensionality of the virtues in action inventory of strengths," ''Personality and Individual Differences'' 48(6) (2010): 714–719. </ref> or alternatively Interpersonal Strengths, Fortitude, Vitality, and Cautiousness.<ref>Ingrid Brdr and Todd B. Kashdan, "Character strengths and well-being in Croatia: An empirical investigation of structure and correlates," ''Journal of Research in Personality'' 44 (2010): 151-154. </ref>
−
These general traits, and even their classifications, have emerged independently elsewhere in literature on values. Some examples have been described by Paul Thagard, including Jeff Shrager's workshops that attempt to discover the habits of highly creative people.<ref>Thagard, P. (2005). How to be a successful scientist. In M. E. Gorman, R. D. Tweney, D. C. Gooding & A. P.
 
−
Kincannon (Eds.), Scientific and technological thinking (pp. 159- 171). Mawah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
 
−
Associates.</ref>
 
  
−
==Application==
+
===Optimism and Helplessness===
−
<!-- Please divide into sub-sections! -->
+
[[Learned optimism]] is the idea that a talent for joy, like any other, can be cultivated. Seligman developed this concept through his study of [[learned helplessness]], the idea that a certain re-occurring negative event is out of the person's control. He noticed that while some subjects blamed themselves for negative outcomes, others blamed the experiment for setting them up to fail.
  
−
Practical applications of positive psychology include helping individuals and organizations identify their strengths and use them to increase and sustain their respective levels of well-being. Therapists, counselors, coaches, and various psychological professionals, as well as HR departments, business strategists, and others are using these new methods and techniques to broaden and build upon the strengths of individuals who are not necessarily suffering from mental illness or disorder. <!-- The phrase "broaden and build" is a reference to the prominent positive psychology theory of Barbara Fredrickson, so this phrase should be kept intact rather than reversed. -->
+
Seligman shifted his focus to attempting to discover what it is that keeps some people from ever becoming helpless. The answer was [[optimism]].  
 +
Using his knowledge about [[conditioning]] people to be helpless, Seligman shifted his focus to conditioning people to be optimists. In his book, ''Learned Optimism'', Seligman invited pessimists to learn to be optimists by thinking about their reactions to adversity in a new way. The resulting optimism—one that grew from pessimism—is a learned optimism.<ref name=optimism>Martin E.P. Seligman, ''Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life'' (Vintage, 2006, ISBN 978-1400078394)</ref>
  
−
Researcher Dianne Hales described a person as ''emotionally healthy'' as someone who exhibited flexibility and adaptability to different circumstances, had a sense of meaning and affirmation in life as well as an "understanding that the self is not the center of the universe," had compassion and the ability to be unselfish, along with increased depth and satisfaction in intimate relationships, and who had a sense of control over the mind and body.<ref name=twsMay18>{{cite news
+
According to Seligman, anyone can learn optimism. The difference between optimists and pessimists is in how they view failures and successes. The optimist's outlook on failure can be summarized as "What happened was an unlucky situation (not personal), and really just a setback (not permanent) for this one, of many, goals (not pervasive)."<ref name=optimism/> In other words, the pessimist views bad things as permanent and pervasive and good things as temporary and narrowly focused, whereas the optimist views bad things as temporary and narrowly focused and good things as permanent and pervasive.<ref name=Turner>Douglas B. Turner, [https://positivepsychologynews.com/news/doug-turner/2007011536 Learning Optimism] ''Positive Psychology News'' (January 15, 2007). Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref>
−
|author= Dianne Hales
 
−
|title= An Invitation to Health, Brief: Psychological Well-Being 2010-2011 Edition
 
−
|publisher= Wadsworth Cengage Learning
 
−
|quote= see page 26
 
−
|year= 2010
 
−
|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=oP91HVIMPRIC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=%22democracy%22+%22mentally+healthy+person%22+description#v=onepage&q&f=false
 
−
|accessdate= 2010-05-18
 
−
}}</ref>
 
  
−
Proponents of replacing [[Gross domestic product]] with [[Gross national happiness]] as the predominant measure of a nation's success often cite positive psychology research.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/chip_conley_measuring_what_makes_life_worthwhile.html |title=Chip Conley: Measuring what makes life worthwhile &#124; Video on |publisher=Ted.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
+
Pessimists can learn optimism by consciously doing what an optimist may do intuitively. Seligman’s process of learning optimism involves training a new way of responding to adversity—adopting the optimist’s explanatory style. Thus, the pessimist learns to describe good things as permanent and pervasive, and bad things as temporary and restricted to a limited event. The process begins with Adversity—the event that happens; Belief—how that adversity is interpreted; Consequences—the feelings and actions that result from the beliefs; and then Disputation—providing counter-evidence to the negative beliefs in general, the causes of the event, or the implications; and finally Energization—celebration of the positive feelings and sense of accomplishment that come from successful disputation of negative beliefs. Disputation and Energization (celebration) are the keys to Seligman's method of learning optimism.  
  
−
===Life coaching===
+
Both optimists and pessimists can benefit from exposure to the process of learned optimism, improving their responses to both large and small adversities. Seligman's research suggests that optimism has many benefits. Optimistic people catch fewer infectious diseases, they have better general health habits, their immune systems seems to work better, and optimistic people tend to live longer.<ref name=optimism/>
−
===In education===
 
−
<!-- I don't object to the addition of this study, but it is not appropriately concise, and should accordingly be drastically cut down. —>
 
−
Positive psychology is beneficial to schools and students as it encourages individuals to strive to do the best they can whereas scolding has the opposite effect. Clifton and Rath<ref name="Clifton, D 2005, pp. 47-51">Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47-51</ref> discuss the research conducted by Dr. Elizabeth Hurlock in 1925, who designed a study where fourth, fifth and sixth graders were either praised, criticized or ignored based on their work on math problems. The study found that students who had been praised improved by 71%, those who were criticized improved only by 19%, and those who had been given no feedback improved only by 5%. This early study illustrates that praise is the most effective method of fostering improvement.
 
  
−
According to Clifton and Rath<ref name="Clifton, D 2005, pp. 47-51"/> ninety nine out of one hundred people would prefer to be around positive people. People believe that they work more productively when they are around positive people. Positive emotions are contagious so having a teacher or student who is positive can help the other students to be positive and work to the best of their abilities. If there is one negative person, it can ruin the entire positive vibe in an environment. Clifton and Rath<ref name="Clifton, D 2005, pp. 47-51"/> believe that ‘positive emotions are an essential daily requirement for survival’.
+
===Elevation===
 +
After several years of researching [[disgust]], a complex [[emotion]] that protects the body and the soul from degradation, [[Jonathan Haidt]] studied its opposite, which he called "elevation."<ref name=Haidt>Jonathan Haidt, "Elevation and the positive psychology of morality" In C.L.M. Keyes and Jonathan Haidt (eds.), ''Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived'' (Washington DC: American Psychological Association, 2002, ISBN 978-1557989307).</ref> Elevation is a positive [[moral]] emotion. It involves a desire to act morally and do "good." It can be characterized by physical feelings in the chest, especially warm, pleasant, or "tingling" feelings; and by feelings of being wanting to help others, to become a better person, and to affiliate with others.<ref name=Haidt/>
  
−
In 2008 a whole-of-school implementation of Positive Psychology was undertaken by Geelong Grammar School (Victoria, Australia) in conjunction with the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania. This involved initial training of teaching staff in the principles and skills of positive psychology. Ongoing support was provided by The Positive Psychology Center staff remaining in-residence for the entire year (Seligman et al. 2008).<ref>Seligman, M, Ernst, R, Gillham J, Reivich, K & Links M 2009, ‘Positive education: positive psychology and classroom interventions’, Oxford Review of Education, vol. 35, no. 3, pp 293-311, retrieved 28 April 2010, Academic Search Complete database.</ref>
+
Haidt pointed out that the power of positive moral emotions to uplift and transform people has long been known, but not studied by psychologists. Positive psychology, with the goal of bringing about a balanced reappraisal of human nature and human potential, can balance out what is known about the emotions that make people compassionate towards each another.
  
−
Staats, Hupp and Hagley (2008) have used positive psychology to explore academic honesty, by identifying positive traits that were displayed by heroes and then determining if the presence of these traits in students could be used to predict their future intent to cheat. Their research has resulted in ‘an effective working model of heroism in the context of the academic environment’ (Staats, Hupp & Hagley, 2008).<ref>Staats, S, Hupp J, Hagley M 2008, ‘Honesty and heroes: a positive psychology view of heroism and academic honesty’, Journal of Psychology, vol. 142, no. 4, pp 357-72, retrieved 28 April 2010, Expanded Academic ASAP database</ref>
+
===Flow===
 +
A concept proposed by psychologist [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]], [[flow (psychology)|flow]] is an intrinsically rewarding experience, which can also help one achieve a goal (such as winning a game) or improve skills (for example, becoming a better [[chess]] player). It is a state of absorption in one's work, characterized by intense concentration, loss of self-awareness, a feeling of being perfectly challenged (neither bored nor overwhelmed), and a sense that "time is flying." It is "the state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience itself is so enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it."<ref name=Csikszentmihalyi>Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, ''Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience'' (HarperCollins Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0061339202).</ref>  
  
−
=== Clinical psychology ===
+
Flow can be encountered in many different situations, including [[play]], [[creativity]], [[hobby|hobbies]], [[sport]]s, and [[work]]. To experience flow, one needs to have the correct ratio of challenge for their particular skill set. Therefore, those who are very skilled in a certain regard need greater challenge while those who are unskilled need a smaller amount of challenge. If one is too challenged a state of anxiety results and if one is not challenged enough the result is boredom.<ref name=Csikszentmihalyi/> Being challenged means flow is, of course, temporarily exciting and stressful, but this [[Eustress]] is not harmful because it is not [[chronic stress]].
−
A strengths-based approach aims to change clinical psychology to have an equally weighted focus on both positive and negative functioning when attempting to understand and treat distress.<ref>Duckworth, A.L., Steen, T.A., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2005). Positive psychology in clinical practice. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 629-651.</ref> The rationale is based on several empirical findings. Positive characteristics interact with negative life events to predict disorder (so studying only negative life events would produce misleading results).<ref>Cohen, L. H., J. McGowan, S. Fooskas, and S. Rose. 1984. "Positive Life Events
 
−
and Social Support and the Relationship Between Life Stress and Psychological
 
−
Disorder." American Journal of Community Psychology 12 (5): 567-87.</ref> Interventions that focus on strengths and positive emotions can be as effective in treating disorder as other more commonly used approaches such as [[cognitive behavioral therapy]].<ref>Seligman, M. E P, Steen, T., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.159.8716&rep=rep1&type=pdf Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions.] American Psychologist, 60(5), 410-421.</ref> The terms positive clinical psychology and other terms are a bit odd as this field has always had scientists and clinicians that address quality of life outcomes. While positive psychology can inform clinical psychology, it is not helpful to stretch beyond this point. This is about changing priorities to address the breadth and depth of the human experience in clinical settings.
 
  
−
===In the workplace===
+
Csikszentmihalyi identified nine components of flow:<ref> Steve Wright, [http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/zone-enjoyment-creativity-elements-flow/26/ "In the zone": enjoyment, creativity, and the nine elements of "flow"] ''Meaning and Happiness'' (September 5, 2008). Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref>
−
{{main|Positive psychology in the workplace}}
+
# There are clear goals every step of the way (expectations and rules are discernible and goals are attainable and align appropriately with one's skill set and abilities)
−
Positive psychology has also been implemented in business management practice, but Wong & Davey (2007)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/sl_proceedings/2007/wong-davey.pdf |title=Wong & Davey (2007) |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> acknowledges that although managers can introduce this concept to a workplace, they don't always have the ability to apply it to employees in a positive way. Furthermore, positive psychology must be applied to an organisation with transparency if it is to be welcomed and committed to by employees.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=JR51T4KHf3AC&pg=PA327&lpg=PA327&dq=in+business+management+%22Positive+psychology+%22+-science#v=onepage&q=in%20business%20management%20%22Positive%20psychology%20%22%20-science&f=false |title=Harrington S, Linley A & Page N. 2010 |publisher=Books.google.com.au |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07|isbn=9780195335446|year=2010}}</ref>  Managers must also understand that the sheer implementation of positive psychology will not combat any commitment challenges they may face. However, it may help employees to be more optimistic to new concepts or management practices.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pambritton.com/what-is-happiness-psychology-and-why-should-smart-entrepreneurs-care/|title=What Is Happiness Psychology and Why Should Smart Entrepreneurs Care?|last=Britton|first=Pam|accessdate=11 October 2011}}</ref>
+
# There is immediate feedback to one's action (successes and failures in the course of the activity are apparent, so that behavior can be adjusted as needed)
 +
# There is a balance between challenges and skills (the activity is neither too easy nor too difficult but is matched to one's skill level)
 +
# Action and awareness are merged
 +
# Distractions are excluded from consciousness
 +
# There is no worry of failure
 +
# Self-consciousness disappears
 +
# The sense of time becomes distorted (time may appear to pass very quickly when one is fully engaged, or slow down at the moment of executing some action for which one has developed a high degree of skill)
 +
# The activity becomes "autotelic" (an end in itself, done for its own sake)
  
−
In their article [http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/bul-1316803.pdf The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?], S. Lyubomirsky et al. say: "The cross-sectional evidence reveals that happy workers enjoy multiple advantages over their less happy peers. Individuals high in [[subjective well-being]] are more likely to secure job interviews, to be evaluated more positively by supervisors once they obtain a job, to show superior performance and productivity, and to handle managerial jobs better. They are also less likely to show counter-productive workplace behavior and job burnout."
+
For Csikszentmihalyi, "the secret to a happy life is to learn to get flow from as many of the things we have to do as possible."<ref name=Csikszentmihalyi/>
  
−
Positive psychology, when applied correctly can provide employees with a greater opportunity to use skills and vary work duties. However, It is important to remember that changing work conditions and roles can lead to stress amongst employees if they are not properly supported by management in their venture. This particularly holds true for employees who must meet the expectations of organisations with unrealistic goals and targets.<ref>Snyder, C & Lopez, J. 2002, Handbook of Positive Psychology, Oxford University Press [http://www.deakin.eblib.com.au.ezproxy-f.deakin.edu.au/patron/FullRecord.aspx?p=271581&userid=WEAuOX57P1tMHeNgDQM4dA%3d%3d&tstamp=1273278299&id=9E207671A9591844A5DE424F74A348322954B1F4]</ref>
+
===Good work===
 +
As mentioned above, having more [[money]] does not reliably cause more [[happiness]]. Still, time spent at work constitutes a large proportion of time in our lives. The issue for Positive psychology is how to make work meaningful, and thus lead to positive outcomes both for the individuals doing the work and for society as a whole.
  
−
So how does an organization implement change? Lewis et al. (2007) have developed [[Appreciative inquiry]] (AI) which is an integrated, organizational-level methodology for approaching [[organizational development]]. Appreciative inquiry is based on an understanding of how organizational resourcefulness is generated through accessing many human psychological processes, such as positive emotional states, imagination, social cohesion and the social construction of reality.<ref>Lewis, S, Passmore, J & Cantore, S 2008, ‘Positive psychology and managing change’, Psychologist, vol. 21, no. 11, pp. 934, retrieved 28 April 2010, Academic Search Complete</ref>
+
A group of psychologists including [[Howard Gardner]] have created the "GoodWork Project," defining 'Good work' as "work that is at once excellent in quality, responsive to the needs of the broader community, and personally meaningful."<ref>[https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5c5b569c01232cccdc227b9c/t/5eb41c53492b100668dbc2d6/1588862045852/GoodWork-Toolkit+%285.7%29.pdf The GoodWork Toolkit] ''The GoodWork Project'' (2010). Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref> Their research identifies individuals and institutions that exemplify good work and investigates how best to increase the incidence of good work in our society.
  
−
=== In offender rehabilitation ===
+
Gardner has suggested that good work has three ingredients, the "3 E's":<ref>Howard Gardner (ed.), [https://pz.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/GoodWork-Theory_and_Practice-with_covers.pdf ''Good Work: Theory and Practice''] (GoodWork Project, 2010). Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref>
−
Traditionally, working with offenders has focused on their deficits (with respect to socialization, schooling etc.) and other "criminogenic" risk-factors. Rehabilitation more often than not takes the form of forced treatment or training for the good of the community. The experience with this approach has not been very rewarding. Positive psychology has made some inroads recently with the advent of the "Good Lives Model," developed by Tony Ward, Shadd Maruna and others with respect to rehabilitation: "Individuals take part ... because they think that such activities might either improve the quality of their life (an intrinsic goal) or at least look good to judges, parole boards and family members (an extrinsic goal)."<ref>Tony Ward/Shadd Maruna, Rehabilitation. London, New York: Routledge 2007, p. 120)</ref>
+
# technical '''E'''xcellence (the worker knows his work and keeps up with the latest knowledge and techniques)
 +
# being '''E'''ngaged (it feels good, it feels right, it is personally engaging, yields experiences of [[flow (psychology)|flow]])
 +
# working '''E'''thically in a way that is responsible (good work is good in a moral sense, it serves the wider good).
  
−
===Other future research===
+
==Applications==
−
Positive psychology research and practice is also currently being conducted and developed in various countries throughout the world. In Canada, for example, Charles Hackney of Briercrest College applies positive psychology to the topic of personal growth through martial arts training, and Paul Wong, president of the International Network on Personal Meaning,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meaning.ca/ |title=International Network on Personal Meaning and Meaning of Life |publisher=Meaning.ca |date=1999-03-15 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> is developing an existential approach to positive psychology. <!-- Mention MAPP program in England, school based on positive psychology in Australia, etc.—>
+
Practical applications of Positive psychology include helping individuals and organizations identify their strengths and use them to increase and sustain their respective levels of well-being. Therapists, counselors, coaches, and various psychological professionals, as well as HR departments, business strategists, and others are using these new methods and techniques to broaden and build upon the strengths of individuals. Following are a few specific examples of such applications
  
−
An ‘intense affect’ can certainly be considered with cognitive and behavioral change, which is more slight and complex and is becoming a legitimate area of study, specifically with the links in cognition and motivational responses.
+
===Education===
−
For researchers to make further progress there is a need for past theories and methods to be overcome and to encourage the more contemporary research, says Isen (2009).<ref>Isen, A.M, 2009, "Positive Affect as a Source of Human Strength," In C. R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (eds.), Handbook of positive psychology, pp 179-195, New York: Oxford University Press, retrieved fromhttp://www.ebscohost.com/, April, 2010.</ref>
+
Positive psychology has been applied to [[education]] by Seligman and his colleagues, who defined "Positive Education" as education for both the traditional skills of achievement and the skills of well-being.<ref name=education>Martin E.P. Seligman, Randal M. Ernst, Jane Gillham, Karen Reivich, and Mark Linkins, [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/positiveeducationarticle2009.pdf "Positive education:positive psychology and classroom interventions,"] ''Oxford Review of Education'' 35(3) (2009): 293-311. Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref> In 2008 a whole-of-school implementation of Positive Psychology was undertaken by Geelong Grammar School (Victoria, Australia) in conjunction with the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania. This involved initial training of teaching staff in the principles and skills of Positive psychology. Ongoing support was provided by The Positive Psychology Center staff remaining in-residence for the entire year. This, and other implementations of positive education, suggests that it is possible to educate not just for prosperity based on financial [[wealth]] but prosperity that includes well-being and [[happiness]].
−
Chang (2008) believes emotional intelligence is not definitive to positive affect and researchers have a number of paths that allow the enhancement of emotional intelligence; however more study is required to track the gradient of positive affect in psychology.<ref>Chang, Kelly B. T, 2008, ‘Can We Improve Emotional Intelligence’, Emotional Intelligence; Perspectives on Educational and Positive Psychology, Peter Lang Publishing Inc., New York, pg 25-45</ref>
 
  
−
===Academic programs===
+
Csikszentmihalyi has suggested that [[flow (psychology)|flow]] is a strong predictor of student progress in education.<ref>Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi, Kevin Rathunde, and Samuel Whalen, ''Talented Teenagers: The Roots of Success and Failure'' (Cambridge University Press, 1997).</ref> He and his colleagues found that successful teachers focused on cultivation of passionate interest as a primary educational goal. They also noted that flow is not static and so teachers must adapt to the shifting needs of their students. Once a skill has been mastered more complexity must be added or the student will become bored–there must always be a close fit between challenges and skills.
−
The University of Pennsylvania's Positive Psychology Center has developed a masters degree program in positive psychology (MAPP) which is described which they designate "the world's first degree program in positive psychology".<ref name="upenn1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu/mappdirectors.htm |title=Positive Psychology |publisher=Ppc.sas.upenn.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> This relatively new degree program is under the direction of The Center for Applied Psychology's "senior scholar," James Pawelski, Ph.D. In addition to his work as administrator of the program, Pawelski also teaches courses on "positive intervention" in the program.<ref name="upenn1"/> In a lecture presented at the John C. Dalton Institute of College Student values, Pawelski describes the degree as consisting of monthly intensives coupled with online course work<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_M_Z6VagCk |title=James Pawelski Part I 2009 |publisher=YouTube |date=2010-01-25 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> which can be "pursued without interupting your career."  The degree "explores the history, theory, and basic research methods of positive psychology," "focuses on such issues as the empirical study of positive emotions, strengths-based character, and healthy institutions," and mentors the student in using "these aspects of positive psychology in" their "particular professional setting."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sas.upenn.edu/lps/graduate/mapp/ |title=Master of Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP) Program &#124; Penn LPS |publisher=Sas.upenn.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
 
  
−
Another academic program that focuses on training students in Positive Psychology and features both an M.A. and Ph.D. tracts, is offered at the Claremont Graduate University's School of Behavioral and Organizational Sciences and is affiliated with the school's Quality of Life Research Center. This program "aim[s] to provide excellent graduate education and to facilitate the production of practical knowledge" and emphasizes "sampling methods as well as more traditional experimental and quasi-experimental designs, surveys, and interviews, our faculty and students focus their research on life-long processes and outcomes of behavior as they affect the quality of life".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cgu.edu/pages/4571.asp |title=Positive Psychology at Claremont Graduate University |publisher=Cgu.edu |date=2006-11-30 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>
+
===Clinical Psychology===
 +
Positive psychologists have proposed a complementary relationship between traditional [[clinical psychology]], which attempts to understand and treat psychological distress, and Positive psychology, which is concerned with well-being and optimal functioning. Seligman and others suggest that a strengths-based approach will support people with psychological problems not just in alleviating their [[suffering]], worry, and sadness, but enable them to experience joy, satisfaction, and lives filled with meaning and purpose—states that do not automatically occur when suffering is removed. In addition, they have argued that "the fostering of positive emotion and the building of character may help—both directly and indirectly—to alleviate suffering and to undo its root causes."<ref name=clinical/>  
  
−
==Criticism==
+
The rationale is based on several empirical findings. Seligman and his colleagues reported interventions focusing on strengths and positive emotions that increased happiness over the long term and decreased depressive symptoms.<ref>Martin E. P. Seligman, Tracy A. Steen, Nansook Park, and Christopher Peterson, [https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.159.8716&rep=rep1&type=pdf "Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions,"] ''American Psychologist'' 60(5) (2005): 410-421. Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref> Others have reported similar results, and taken together they suggest that the incorporation of Positive psychology techniques into clinical work, particularly for treating clients who are depressed, relatively older, or highly motivated to improve, may prove valuable.<ref>Nancy L. Sin and Sonja  Lyubomirsky, "Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: A practice-friendly meta-analysis,"''Journal of Clinical Psychology'' 65(5) (2009): 467–487.</ref>
  
−
Sample (2003) notes that it is argued by Steven Wolin, a clinical psychiatrist at [[George Washington University]] in Washington DC, that the study of positive psychology is a reiteration of older ways of thinking in positive psychology.
+
===In the Workplace===
 +
In the twenty-first century, the highly competitive [[business]] world requires that workers not just do their jobs, but do good work. To achieve this, it is necessary to go beyond fixing problems in the workplace, such as work violence, stress, burnout, and job insecurity, into the promotion of excellence and flourishing among workers.<ref> Orin C. Davis, [https://positivepsychologynews.com/news/orin-davis/2012030621367 Why the Workplace Needs Positive Psychology] ''Positive Psychology News'' (March 6, 2012). Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref>
  
−
The uptake of positive psychology by the popular press, primarily promoting among other claims the health benefits of positive psychology. Snyder and Lopez (cited in Held 2004, p.&nbsp;17) warn of possible damage to the field of positive psychology through the scientific community becoming caught up in the media’s claims of positive psychology. Warning researchers of the field, Snyder and Lopez suggest that they remain within the parameters of scientific professionalism and utilize any research or studies appropriately.<ref name="Held 2004, pp. 9-41">Barbara S. Held, [http://www.bowdoin.edu/faculty/b/bheld/pdf/JHP-held-2004.pdf The Negative Side of Positive Psychology], ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'' 44(1) (2004):9-46. Retrieved January 6, 2012.</ref>
+
Positive psychology in the workplace means creating an environment that is enjoyable and productive. Fun should not be looked at as something that cannot be achieved during work but rather as a [[motivation]] factor for the staff.  
  
−
Some negative attributes of positive psychology as described by Held (2004) include the movement’s lack of consistency towards the aspect of negativity. She raised issues with the simplistic approach taken by some psychologists in the application of positive psychology. A ‘one size fits all’ approach is not seen by Held to be beneficial to the advancement of the field of positive psychology, and she suggested a need for individual differences to be incorporated into its application.<ref name="Held 2004, pp. 9-41"/>
+
There are several examples of applying Positive psychology to the workplace. One such application is the Job Characteristics Model (JCM), a theory of work design based upon five characteristics-skill variety, task identity, task significance, task autonomy, and task feedback-which are used to identify the general content and structure of jobs.<ref name=Turner2>Nick Turner, Julian Barling, and Anthea Zacharatos, "Positive psychology at work." In Shane J. Lopez and C.R. Snyder (eds.), ''The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology'' (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0199862160). </ref> This model argues that employees with a personal need for growth and development, as well as knowledge and skill, will display more positive work outcomes, including job satisfaction, lower absenteeism, and better work turnover. Stronger experiences of these five traits have been shown to lead to greater job satisfaction and better performance.<ref name=Turner2/>
  
−
Held (2004) argued that while positive psychology makes contributions to the field of [[psychology]], that it is not without its faults. Her 2004 article in the Journal of [[Humanistic Psychology]], vol.44, no.1. offered insight into topics including the negative side effects of positive psychology, the negativity that can be found within the positive psychology movement and the current division inside the field of psychology caused by the differing opinions held by psychologists on positive psychology.<ref name="Held 2004, pp. 9-41"/>
+
==Academic programs==
 +
The [[University of Pennsylvania]]'s Positive Psychology Center has developed a Master of Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP) Program, "the world's first degree program in positive psychology."<ref name=MAPP>The University of Pennsylvania, [https://www.lps.upenn.edu/degree-programs/mapp Master of Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP) Program] Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref> The degree "explores the history, theory, and basic research methods of positive psychology," "focuses on such issues as the empirical study of positive emotions, strengths-based character, and healthy institutions," and mentors the student in using "these aspects of positive psychology in" their "particular professional setting."<ref name=MAPP/>
  
−
Zagano and Gillespie (2006) demonstrate the similarities between contemporary positive psychology as a secular phenomenon and the spirituality of Ignatius of Loyola, which is traced to the 16th century in Phyllis Zagano and C. Kevin Gillespie, "Ignatian Spirituality and Positive Psychology," The Way, 45:4 (October 2006) 41-58.
+
Another academic program that focuses on training students in Positive Psychology is the MA in Positive Developmental Psychology and Evaluation offered at [[Claremont Graduate University]]'s School of Social Science, Policy & Evaluation. The positive psychology program at CGU was founded by the "grandfather of Positive Psychology," Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. The program addresses human flourishing and well-being and the factors that contribute to them during lifetime development. <ref> [https://www.cgu.edu/academics/program/positive-developmental-psychology-evaluation/ Positive Developmental Psychology and Evaluation] ''Claremont Graduate University''. Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref>
  
−
==See also==
+
==Criticism==
−
{{wikiversity}}
+
While Positive psychology has made contributions to the field of [[psychology]], several critics have pointed out that it is not without its faults. For example, the simplistic approach taken by some psychologists in the application of positive psychology. A "one size fits all" approach may not be beneficial, suggesting there is a need for [[individual differences]] to be incorporated into its application.<ref name=Held>Barbara S. Held, [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022167803259645 "The Negative Side of Positive Psychology,"] ''Journal of Humanistic Psychology'' 44(1) (2004):9-41. Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref>
  
−
* [[Happiness]]
+
Other causes for concern include the division inside the field of psychology caused by differing opinions held by psychologists on Positive psychology and the separatist and negative approach taken by some positive psychologists to ideas or views that run counter to the approach of Positive psychology; a rejection of negativity and the "tyranny of the positive attitude" which leads to the unintended consequence of making those who are not able to go beyond their suffering or fail to achieve optimism to add guilt and a sense to failure to their problems; the danger of support from the media for Positive psychology enhancing results and leading to a loss of scientific professionalism.<ref name=Held/>
−
* [[Emotional intelligence]]
 
−
* [[Eudaimonia]]
 
−
* [[Gross national happiness]]
 
−
* [[Happiness economics]]
 
−
* [[Meaning of life]]
 
−
* [[Psychological resilience]]
 
−
* [[Positive education]]
 
−
* [[Positive Psychology in the Workplace]]
 
−
* [[Reverence (emotion)]]
 
−
* [[Theory of humor]]
 
  
−
===Precursors to positive psychology===
+
Critics have also noted that contemporary Positive psychology is not a new approach within psychology, nor is it a new approach to life—it has many similarities to the spirituality of [[Ignatius of Loyola]], the sixteenth century [[Roman Catholic]] priest who founded the [[Society of Jesus]].<ref>Phyllis Zagano and C. Kevin Gillespie, [https://www.theway.org.uk/Back/454Zagano.pdf "Ignatian Spirituality and Positive Psychology,"] ''The Way'' 45(4) (October 2006): 41-58. Retrieved September 12, 2023.</ref>
−
* [[Humanistic psychology]]
 
−
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]
 
−
* Needs and Motives [[Henry Murray]]
 
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
−
{{reflist|30em}}
+
<references/>
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
  
−
* [[Michael Argyle (psychologist)|Argyle, Michael]] (2001). ''The Psychology of Happiness''. Routledge.
+
* Argyle, Michael. ''The Psychology of Happiness''. Routledge, 2002. ISBN 978-0415226653
−
* Benard, Bonnie (2004). ''Resiliency: What We Have Learned''. San Francisco: WestEd
+
* Ben-Shahar, Tal. ''Happier: Learn the Secrets to Daily Joy and Lasting Fulfillment''. McGraw-Hill, 2007. ISBN 978-0071492393
−
* [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly]]  (1990). ''Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience''. HarperCollins Publishers.
+
* Ben-Shahar, Tal. ''The Pursuit of Perfect: How to Stop Chasing Perfection and Start Living a Richer, Happier Life''. McGraw-Hill, 2009. ISBN 0071608826
−
* [[Jonathan Haidt|Haidt, Jonathan]] (2005). ''[[The Happiness Hypothesis]]''. Basic Books.
+
* Ben-Shahar, Tal. ''Being Happy: You Don't Have to Be Perfect to Lead a Richer, Happier Life''. McGraw-Hill, 2010. ISBN 978-0071746618
−
* Haidt, J. (2003). [http://faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/haidt.elevation-and-positive-psychology.manuscript.html Elevation and the positive psychology of morality]. In C. L. M. Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.) ''Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived''. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. (pp.&nbsp;275–289).
+
* Compton, William C. ''An Introduction to Positive Psychology''. Wadsworth Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0534644538
−
* [[Daniel Kahneman|Kahneman, Daniel]], Diener, Ed, Schwarz, Norbert (2003). ''Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology''. Russell Sage Foundation Publications.
+
* Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. ''Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience''. HarperCollins Publishers, 2008. ISBN 978-0061339202
−
* Kashdan, T.B. (2009). [http://www.harpercollins.com/books/9780061661181/Curious/index.aspx?AA=index_authorIntro_34286 ''Curious? Discover the Missing Ingredient to a Fulfilling Life''.] New York, NY: HarperCollins.
+
* Csikszentmihalyi, Mihalyi, Kevin Rathunde, and Samuel Whalen. ''Talented Teenagers: The Roots of Success and Failure''. Cambridge University Press, 1997. {{ASIN|B004HP0AFY}}
−
* Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.) ''Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived''. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. (pp.&nbsp;275–289).
+
* Diener, Ed, and Robert Biswas-Diener. ''Happiness: Unlocking the Mysteries of Psychological Wealth''. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. ISBN 978-1405146616
−
* McMahon, Darrin M. (2006). ''Happiness: A History''. Atlantic Monthly Press.
+
* Eid, Michael, and Randy J. Larsen (eds.). ''The Science of Subjective Well-Being''. The Guilford Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1606230732
−
* Robbins, B.D (2008). [http://mythosandlogos.com/Goodlife.pdf What is the good life? Positive psychology and the renaissance of humanistic psychology]. ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', 36(2), 96-112.
+
* Haidt, Jonathan. ''The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom''. Basic Books, 2005. ISBN 978-0465028016
−
* Sample, I 2003, ''How to be happy'', The Guardian UK, 18 May 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2003/nov/19/1
+
* Kahneman, Daniel, Edward Diener, and Norbert Schwarz (eds.). ''Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology''. Russell Sage Foundation Publications, 2003. ISBN 978-0871544230
−
* [[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin]] (1990). ''Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life''. Free Press.
+
* Kashdan, Todd. ''Curious? Discover the Missing Ingredient to a Fulfilling Life''. New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 0061661198
−
* Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). ''Can Happiness be Taught?''. [[Daedalus (journal)|Daedalus journal]], Spring 2004.
+
* Keyes, Corey L.M., and Jonathan Haidt (eds.). ''Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived''. Washington DC: American Psychological Association, 2002. ISBN 978-1557989307
−
* Snyder, C.R., and Lopez, Shane J. (2001) ''Handbook of Positive Psychology.'' Oxford University Press.
+
* Lopez, Shane J., and C.R. Snyder (eds.). ''The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0199862160
−
* Ward, Tony/Maruna, Shadd: Rehabilitation. Routledge 2007.
+
* Maslow, Abraham. H. ''Motivation and Personality''. New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1987. ISBN 978-0060419875
−
* Biswas-Diener, Robert, & Diener, Ed. (2004). The psychology of subjective well-being. Daedalus, (133)2, 18-25
+
* McMahon, Darrin M. ''Happiness: A History''. Grove Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0802142894
−
* Held, BS 2004, ‘The Negative Side of Positive Psychology’, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 44 No. 1, pp.&nbsp;9–41, retrieved 27 April 2010, PsycINFO database.
+
* Peterson, Christopher, and Martin E.P. Seligman. ''Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0195167016
−
*Phyllis Zagano and C. Kevin Gillespie, "Ignatian Spirituality and Positive Psychology," The Way, 45:4 (October 2006) 41-58. (Tr. to Italian: "La Spiritualita Ignaziana e la psicologia positiva" La relazione d’aiuto: il counseling tra psicologia e fede, Ed. Andrea Toniolo, Padua, (November 2008) 29-44)
+
* Seligman, Martin E.P. ''Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death''. San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1975. ISBN 978-0716723288
 +
* Seligman, Martin E.P. ''Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment''. Atria, 2004. ISBN 978-0743222983
 +
* Seligman, Martin E.P. ''Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life''. Vintage, 2006. ISBN 978-1400078394
 +
* Seligman, Martin E.P. ''Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being''. New York, NY: Free Press, 2011. ISBN 978-1439190753
  
−
==Further reading==
+
==External links==
−
* Gable, S. L., & Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology? ''[[Review of General Psychology]], 9,'' 103-110. [http://faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/gable.haidt.what-is-positive-psychology.pdf Full text]
+
All links retrieved September 12, 2023.
−
* [http://whyfiles.org/297human_needs/index.php?g=1.txt Economic Downturn: Can Money Buy Happiness?] WhyFiles.org
 
−
* Niemiec, R., & Wedding D. (2008). [http://www.hogrefe.com/program/positive-psychology-at-the-movies.html Positive Psychology at the Movies: Using Films to Build Virtues and Character Strengths.] Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe. http://www.hogrefe.com/program/positive-psychology-at-the-movies.html
 
−
* Eric Fromm, [http://www.worldcat.org/title/anatomy-of-human-destructiveness/oclc/677299&referer=brief_results ''The anatomy of human destructiveness''] (New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston [1973]) ISBN 0030075963
 
  
−
==External links==
+
* [http://www.div17pospsych.com/ APA Division 17, Section on Positive Psychology]  
−
* [http://www.actionforhappiness.org Action For Happiness] is a UK movement committed to building a happier society based on Positive Psychology
+
* [https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/ Positive Psychology Center] at the University of Pennsylvania
−
* [http://www.searchhappiness.com SearchHappiness.com] Articles about Positive Psychology and Mindfulness
 
−
* [http://www.div17pospsych.com/ APA Division 17, Section on Positive Psychology] American Psychological Association Division 17, Society of Counseling Psychology, Section on Positive Psychology -  dedicated to the study and promotion of positive psychology.
 
−
* [http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~ediener/ Ed Diener, Positive Psychology], University of Illinois site.
 
−
* [http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu/ Positive Psychology Center] at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]
 
−
* [http://www.cgu.edu/positivepsych/ Positive Psychology] at [[Claremont Graduate University]]
 
−
* [http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/martin_seligman_on_the_state_of_psychology.html Martin Seligman presentation on positive psychology (Video)] at [[TED (conference)|TED conference]]
 
−
* [http://www.butler-bowdon.com/Martin-Seligman-Authentic-Happiness ''Authentic Happiness'': A commentary on Martin Seligman's book]
 
−
* [http://www.slate.com/id/2072079/entry/2072402 Debating Human Happiness] - a conversation between [[Martin Seligman]], [[Steven Pinker]], and [[Robert Wright (journalist)|Robert Wright]]
 
−
* [http://people.virginia.edu/~jdh6n/publications.html Publications on elevation and other subjects within positive psychology], such as [http://faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/036.gable.haidt.2005.what-is-positive-psychology.pdf "What (and Why) Is Positive Psychology?" (pdf)]
 
 
* [http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/ Meaning and Happiness] - Research on meaning and happiness from the perspective of positive psychology
 
* [http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/ Meaning and Happiness] - Research on meaning and happiness from the perspective of positive psychology
−
* [http://www.centreforconfidence.co.uk/pp/ Centre for Confidence] - Resources for positive psychology including information on Professor [[Carol Dweck|Carol Dweck's]] work on 'mindsets'
+
* [https://ippanetwork.org/ International Positive Psychology Association]
−
* [http://www.lifecoachaccess.com/ Life Coach Access] - A directory of life coaches to help increase quality of life using the principles of positive psychology
+
* [https://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/ The Pursuit of Happiness]
−
* [http://www.ippanetwork.org/ International Positive Psychology Association] - to promote the science and practice of positive psychology and to facilitate communication and collaboration among researchers and practitioners around the world who are interested in positive psychology
 
−
* [http://www.zonepositive.com/ Zone Positive] - Created to help people thrive in their personal and professional life using the tenets of positive psychology
 
−
* [http://www.amazon.com/dp/1456374133/ A course in happiness] An authentic happiness formula for well-being, meaning and flourishing - ISBN 9781456374136
 
−
*Author [[Gretchen Rubin]]'s exploration: [http://www.happiness-project.com/ The Happiness Project]
 
  
−
{{Credits|Positive_psychology|469934186}}
+
{{Credits|Positive_psychology|490794473}}
 
[[Category:Psychology]]
 
[[Category:Psychology]]

Latest revision as of 16:04, 12 September 2023

Psychology
Senses brain.png
History
Psychologists
Divisions
Abnormal
Applied
Biological
Clinical
Cognitive
Comparative
Developmental
Differential
Industrial
Parapsychology
Personality
Positive
Religion
Social
Approaches
Behaviorism
Depth
Experimental
Gestalt
Humanistic
Information processing

Positive psychology is a recent branch of psychology which emphasizes normal, successful development rather than the treatment of mental illness. The field is intended to complement, not to replace, traditional psychology. It does not seek to deny the importance of studying how things go wrong, but rather to emphasize the importance of using the scientific method to determine how things go right.

Researchers in this field analyze states of happiness, flow, values, strengths, virtues, and talents, as well as the ways in which they can be promoted by social systems and institutions. Their discoveries help people live life to its fullest potential.

Positive psychologists are concerned with positive experiences, enduring psychological traits, positive relationships, and positive institutions. Their work is changing the way we live our lives on individual, societal, and global levels.

History

Positive psychology has been defined as "the scientific study of positive experiences and positive individual traits, and the institutions that facilitate their development."[1] The term "Positive Psychology" originates with Maslow, in his 1954 book Motivation and Personality, who noted:

The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side. It has revealed to us much about man’s shortcomings, his illness, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological height. It is as if psychology has voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, than the darker, meaner half."[2]/blockquote>

The last chapter of Maslow's book is entitled "Toward a Positive Psychology."

Positive psychology finds its roots in the humanistic psychology of the twentieth century, which focused heavily on happiness and fulfillment. Several humanistic psychologists—such as Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Erich Fromm—developed theories and practices that involve human happiness. The theories of human flourishing developed by these humanistic psychologists have now found empirical support from studies by positive psychologists. Positive psychology has also moved ahead in a number of new directions: Positive psychologists seek "to find and nurture genius and talent," and "to make normal life more fulfilling,"[3] rather than treating mental illness.

Positive psychology was not formally accepted as a branch of psychology until 1998 when Martin Seligman chose it as the theme for his term as president of the American Psychological Association.[4] Seligman, considered the father of the modern Positive Psychology movement, began his career studying depression. His experiments at the University of Pennsylvania beginning in 1967 led him to develop the theory of "learned helplessness"—a psychological condition in which a human being or an animal has learned to act or behave helplessly in a particular situation, usually after experiencing some inability to avoid an adverse situation, even when it actually has the power to change its unpleasant or even harmful circumstance. Seligman argued that clinical depression and related mental illnesses result in part from a perceived absence of control over the outcome of a situation.[5] He became interested in how to alleviate the depression, and then in those who resisted becoming depressed. Finally, Seligman realized that he and other psychologists spent their time on victims, suffering and trauma, depression, anxiety, anger, generally making miserable people less miserable. In other words, psychology was primarily based on a model of disease, and this had several costs:

The first one was moral, that we became victimologists and pathologizers. Our view of human nature was that mental illness fell on you like a ton of bricks, and we forgot about notions like choice, responsibility, preference, will, character, and the like. The second cost was that by working only on mental illness we forgot about making the lives of relatively untroubled people happier, more productive, and more fulfilling. And we completely forgot about genius, which became a dirty word. The third cost was that because we were trying to undo pathology we didn't develop interventions to make people happier; we developed interventions to make people less miserable.[6]

He decided to study the positive aspects of life—the understanding and building of positive emotion, of strength and virtue, and of positive institutions. Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi introduced the purpose of Positive psychology: "We believe that a psychology of positive human functioning will arise, which achieves a scientific understanding and effective interventions to build thriving in individuals, families, and communities."[7]

The first Positive psychology summit took place in 1999. The First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place in 2002.[3] More attention was given by the general public in 2006 when a course at Harvard University on Positive Psychology taught by Tal Ben-Shahar became particularly popular.[8] In June 2009, the First World Congress on Positive Psychology took place.

Research

Did you know?
Positive psychology studies people's happiness rather than diagnosing mental illness and treating what makes them miserable

Positive psychology naturally studies happiness, attempting to discover what makes people happy or fulfilled rather than diagnosing and treating what makes them miserable. Nevertheless, the issue of suffering cannot be ignored. Positive psychologists just take a different approach to it.

Seligman originally suggested that Positive psychology can be delineated into three overlapping areas of research:[9]

  1. Research into the Pleasant Life, or the "life of enjoyment," examines how people optimally experience, forecast, and savor the positive feelings and emotions that are part of normal and healthy living (relationships, hobbies, interests, entertainment, and so forth). Seligman has suggested that this is the most transient element of happiness and may be the least important, despite the attention it is given.[4]
  2. The study of the Good Life, or the "life of engagement," investigates the beneficial effects of immersion, absorption, and flow that individuals feel when optimally engaged with their primary activities. These states are experienced when there is a positive match between a person's strength and the task they are doing, in other words when they feel confident that they can accomplish the tasks they face.
  3. Inquiry into the Meaningful Life, or "life of affiliation," questions how individuals derive a positive sense of well-being, belonging, meaning, and purpose from being part of and contributing back to something larger and more permanent than themselves (such as nature, social groups, organizations, movements, traditions, belief systems).

Seligman later suggested that "Meaningful Life" would be better considered as three different categories, resulting in five elements of well being with the acronym PERMA:[10]

  • P(ositive) emotion - tunable by writing down, every day at bed time, three things that went well, and why
  • E(ngagement) - tunable by preferentially using one's highest strengths to perform the tasks which one would perform anyway
  • R(elationships) - tunable, but not in a way that can be explained briefly; listen to timestamp 15:12 and following of the audio
  • M(eaning) - belonging to and serving something bigger than one's self
  • A(chievement) - determination is known to count for more than IQ.

Some other areas of research that have developed out of these ideas include flow, elevation, and learned optimism.

Happiness

Simple exercise, such as running, increases feelings of happiness.
A portrait commemorating a family's day together

Happiness has become a very popular discussion topic in popular culture, especially in the Western world. There are many studies being done to demystify the factors that play into happiness.

Tal Ben-Shahar, who taught the popular Positive Psychology course at Harvard University, has discovered a number of important factors that increase happiness.[11] He has suggested:

  • Real happiness requires both pleasure and meaning, providing both present and future gain
  • Happiness is not an end state, but rather a journey; it is gained from the experience of climbing the mountain not from reaching the summit
  • The mind-body connection is important: Regular exercise, adequate sleep, and healthy eating habits lead to both physical and mental health
  • Simplify: trying to do everything leads to "time poverty," which decreases the ability to derive happiness from any activity
  • Pain and suffering are part of life: Expecting constant happiness is unreasonable and leads to disappointment; allowing oneself to feel the full range of emotions, including fear, sadness, and anxiety, increases happiness in the long run
  • Gratitude increases happiness.

Seligman reviewed hundreds of studies on happiness, finding several factors to be more or less important in producing happiness:[9]

Less important

Money - Although very poor people may have a low level of happiness, beyond a certain level of wealth there are no increases in happiness. Money cannot buy happiness.

Illness - Good health does not lead to greater happiness; and only severe or multiple illnesses lower positive feelings, and often only temporarily.

Climate - Good weather does not lead to greater happiness despite the finding that those who live in harsh climates believe those who live in sunnier climates are happier; in fact, we adapt to the local climate very quickly.

Education and intelligence - Greater intelligence or higher levels of education do not lead to greater happiness. Seligman noted: "As a professor, I don't like this, but the cerebral virtues—curiosity, love of learning—are less strongly tied to happiness than interpersonal virtues like kindness, gratitude and capacity for love."[4]

More important

Marriage - Surveys carried out by the National Opinion Research Center found that a higher proportion of married people were "very happy" than single people. Seligman's own study found that the majority of very happy people were involved in a romantic relationship.

Sociability - Very happy people lead a "rich and fulfilling social life" while those who spend a lot of time alone had a lower level of happiness.

Religion - Religious people are happier and more satisfied with life; those involved in fundamentalist faiths with strong "hope for the future" feel good about themselves and the world.

The most important factor that Seligman found in determining genuine and long-lasting happiness is character - virtues that are developed rather than our natural talents. He suggested that "authentic happiness" comes from developing ones strengths. This is not to say that genetics, childhood experiences, or current circumstances have no impact on one's level of happiness. Although there are ranges of happiness that are genetically determined, it is possible to live in the upper reaches of one's natural range of happiness.[9]

Suffering

Positive psychology suggests that the Buddhist saying that "Life is Suffering" can be understood as a call to cultivate virtues and a flourishing life

Psychology acknowledges that suffering can be managed and reduced but not eliminated, and the branch of Positive psychology does not refute that: "Psychology’s concern with remedying human problems is understandable and should certainly not be abandoned. Human suffering demands scientifically informed solutions. Suffering and well being, however, are both part of the human condition, and psychologists should be concerned with both."[12]

Suffering can be an indicator of behavior that a person might want to change, as well as ideas that require the person's careful attention and consideration. Positive psychology proposes that suffering can best be understood in the context of the flourishing life: The role of suffering is not to endure it for its own sake, but for the sake of cultivating the flourishing life.[13] Positive psychology, inspired by empirical evidence, focuses on productive approaches to pain and suffering, as well the importance of cultivating strengths and virtues to keep suffering to a minimum.[12]

Seligman has discussed the issue of suffering in relation to Positive psychology, stating that the goal of psychology is not only to make people less unhappy, but also to make people more happy and this is what Positive psychology contributes. He claims this is "not a luxury," but rather that "most of Positive Psychology is for all of us, troubled or untroubled, privileged or in privation, suffering or carefree. The pleasures of a good conversation, the strength of gratitude, the benefits of kindness or wisdom or spirituality or humility, the search for meaning and the antidote to "fidgeting until we die" are the birthrights of us all."[14]

Strengths and Virtues

The development of the Character Strengths and Virtue (CSV) handbook by Seligman and his colleague, Christopher Peterson, represents the first attempt on the part of the research community to identify and classify the positive psychological traits of human beings.[15] Much like the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provides a theoretical framework to assist in understanding strengths and virtues and for developing practical applications for Positive psychology. This manual identifies six classes of virtue ("core virtues"), made up of twenty-four measurable character strengths.[15] Peterson and Seligman reviewed a wide range of cultures and suggested that these six virtues are considered good by the vast majority of cultures and throughout history, and that these traits lead to increased happiness when practiced. The organization of these virtues and strengths is as follows:

  1. Wisdom and Knowledge: creativity, curiosity, open-mindedness, love of learning, perspective, innovation
  2. Courage: bravery, persistence, integrity, vitality
  3. Humanity: love, kindness, social intelligence
  4. Justice: citizenship, fairness, leadership
  5. Temperance: forgiveness and mercy, humility, prudence, self control
  6. Transcendence: appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor, spirituality

The organization of the virtues into these six groups has been contested, with suggestions that they would be better grouped into just three or four categories: Intellectual Strengths, Interpersonal Strengths, and Temperance Strengths[16] or alternatively Interpersonal Strengths, Fortitude, Vitality, and Cautiousness.[17]

Optimism and Helplessness

Learned optimism is the idea that a talent for joy, like any other, can be cultivated. Seligman developed this concept through his study of learned helplessness, the idea that a certain re-occurring negative event is out of the person's control. He noticed that while some subjects blamed themselves for negative outcomes, others blamed the experiment for setting them up to fail.

Seligman shifted his focus to attempting to discover what it is that keeps some people from ever becoming helpless. The answer was optimism. Using his knowledge about conditioning people to be helpless, Seligman shifted his focus to conditioning people to be optimists. In his book, Learned Optimism, Seligman invited pessimists to learn to be optimists by thinking about their reactions to adversity in a new way. The resulting optimism—one that grew from pessimism—is a learned optimism.[18]

According to Seligman, anyone can learn optimism. The difference between optimists and pessimists is in how they view failures and successes. The optimist's outlook on failure can be summarized as "What happened was an unlucky situation (not personal), and really just a setback (not permanent) for this one, of many, goals (not pervasive)."[18] In other words, the pessimist views bad things as permanent and pervasive and good things as temporary and narrowly focused, whereas the optimist views bad things as temporary and narrowly focused and good things as permanent and pervasive.[19]

Pessimists can learn optimism by consciously doing what an optimist may do intuitively. Seligman’s process of learning optimism involves training a new way of responding to adversity—adopting the optimist’s explanatory style. Thus, the pessimist learns to describe good things as permanent and pervasive, and bad things as temporary and restricted to a limited event. The process begins with Adversity—the event that happens; Belief—how that adversity is interpreted; Consequences—the feelings and actions that result from the beliefs; and then Disputation—providing counter-evidence to the negative beliefs in general, the causes of the event, or the implications; and finally Energization—celebration of the positive feelings and sense of accomplishment that come from successful disputation of negative beliefs. Disputation and Energization (celebration) are the keys to Seligman's method of learning optimism.

Both optimists and pessimists can benefit from exposure to the process of learned optimism, improving their responses to both large and small adversities. Seligman's research suggests that optimism has many benefits. Optimistic people catch fewer infectious diseases, they have better general health habits, their immune systems seems to work better, and optimistic people tend to live longer.[18]

Elevation

After several years of researching disgust, a complex emotion that protects the body and the soul from degradation, Jonathan Haidt studied its opposite, which he called "elevation."[20] Elevation is a positive moral emotion. It involves a desire to act morally and do "good." It can be characterized by physical feelings in the chest, especially warm, pleasant, or "tingling" feelings; and by feelings of being wanting to help others, to become a better person, and to affiliate with others.[20]

Haidt pointed out that the power of positive moral emotions to uplift and transform people has long been known, but not studied by psychologists. Positive psychology, with the goal of bringing about a balanced reappraisal of human nature and human potential, can balance out what is known about the emotions that make people compassionate towards each another.

Flow

A concept proposed by psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, flow is an intrinsically rewarding experience, which can also help one achieve a goal (such as winning a game) or improve skills (for example, becoming a better chess player). It is a state of absorption in one's work, characterized by intense concentration, loss of self-awareness, a feeling of being perfectly challenged (neither bored nor overwhelmed), and a sense that "time is flying." It is "the state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience itself is so enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it."[21]

Flow can be encountered in many different situations, including play, creativity, hobbies, sports, and work. To experience flow, one needs to have the correct ratio of challenge for their particular skill set. Therefore, those who are very skilled in a certain regard need greater challenge while those who are unskilled need a smaller amount of challenge. If one is too challenged a state of anxiety results and if one is not challenged enough the result is boredom.[21] Being challenged means flow is, of course, temporarily exciting and stressful, but this Eustress is not harmful because it is not chronic stress.

Csikszentmihalyi identified nine components of flow:[22]

  1. There are clear goals every step of the way (expectations and rules are discernible and goals are attainable and align appropriately with one's skill set and abilities)
  2. There is immediate feedback to one's action (successes and failures in the course of the activity are apparent, so that behavior can be adjusted as needed)
  3. There is a balance between challenges and skills (the activity is neither too easy nor too difficult but is matched to one's skill level)
  4. Action and awareness are merged
  5. Distractions are excluded from consciousness
  6. There is no worry of failure
  7. Self-consciousness disappears
  8. The sense of time becomes distorted (time may appear to pass very quickly when one is fully engaged, or slow down at the moment of executing some action for which one has developed a high degree of skill)
  9. The activity becomes "autotelic" (an end in itself, done for its own sake)

For Csikszentmihalyi, "the secret to a happy life is to learn to get flow from as many of the things we have to do as possible."[21]

Good work

As mentioned above, having more money does not reliably cause more happiness. Still, time spent at work constitutes a large proportion of time in our lives. The issue for Positive psychology is how to make work meaningful, and thus lead to positive outcomes both for the individuals doing the work and for society as a whole.

A group of psychologists including Howard Gardner have created the "GoodWork Project," defining 'Good work' as "work that is at once excellent in quality, responsive to the needs of the broader community, and personally meaningful."[23] Their research identifies individuals and institutions that exemplify good work and investigates how best to increase the incidence of good work in our society.

Gardner has suggested that good work has three ingredients, the "3 E's":[24]

  1. technical Excellence (the worker knows his work and keeps up with the latest knowledge and techniques)
  2. being Engaged (it feels good, it feels right, it is personally engaging, yields experiences of flow)
  3. working Ethically in a way that is responsible (good work is good in a moral sense, it serves the wider good).

Applications

Practical applications of Positive psychology include helping individuals and organizations identify their strengths and use them to increase and sustain their respective levels of well-being. Therapists, counselors, coaches, and various psychological professionals, as well as HR departments, business strategists, and others are using these new methods and techniques to broaden and build upon the strengths of individuals. Following are a few specific examples of such applications

Education

Positive psychology has been applied to education by Seligman and his colleagues, who defined "Positive Education" as education for both the traditional skills of achievement and the skills of well-being.[25] In 2008 a whole-of-school implementation of Positive Psychology was undertaken by Geelong Grammar School (Victoria, Australia) in conjunction with the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania. This involved initial training of teaching staff in the principles and skills of Positive psychology. Ongoing support was provided by The Positive Psychology Center staff remaining in-residence for the entire year. This, and other implementations of positive education, suggests that it is possible to educate not just for prosperity based on financial wealth but prosperity that includes well-being and happiness.

Csikszentmihalyi has suggested that flow is a strong predictor of student progress in education.[26] He and his colleagues found that successful teachers focused on cultivation of passionate interest as a primary educational goal. They also noted that flow is not static and so teachers must adapt to the shifting needs of their students. Once a skill has been mastered more complexity must be added or the student will become bored–there must always be a close fit between challenges and skills.

Clinical Psychology

Positive psychologists have proposed a complementary relationship between traditional clinical psychology, which attempts to understand and treat psychological distress, and Positive psychology, which is concerned with well-being and optimal functioning. Seligman and others suggest that a strengths-based approach will support people with psychological problems not just in alleviating their suffering, worry, and sadness, but enable them to experience joy, satisfaction, and lives filled with meaning and purpose—states that do not automatically occur when suffering is removed. In addition, they have argued that "the fostering of positive emotion and the building of character may help—both directly and indirectly—to alleviate suffering and to undo its root causes."[1]

The rationale is based on several empirical findings. Seligman and his colleagues reported interventions focusing on strengths and positive emotions that increased happiness over the long term and decreased depressive symptoms.[27] Others have reported similar results, and taken together they suggest that the incorporation of Positive psychology techniques into clinical work, particularly for treating clients who are depressed, relatively older, or highly motivated to improve, may prove valuable.[28]

In the Workplace

In the twenty-first century, the highly competitive business world requires that workers not just do their jobs, but do good work. To achieve this, it is necessary to go beyond fixing problems in the workplace, such as work violence, stress, burnout, and job insecurity, into the promotion of excellence and flourishing among workers.[29]

Positive psychology in the workplace means creating an environment that is enjoyable and productive. Fun should not be looked at as something that cannot be achieved during work but rather as a motivation factor for the staff.

There are several examples of applying Positive psychology to the workplace. One such application is the Job Characteristics Model (JCM), a theory of work design based upon five characteristics-skill variety, task identity, task significance, task autonomy, and task feedback-which are used to identify the general content and structure of jobs.[30] This model argues that employees with a personal need for growth and development, as well as knowledge and skill, will display more positive work outcomes, including job satisfaction, lower absenteeism, and better work turnover. Stronger experiences of these five traits have been shown to lead to greater job satisfaction and better performance.[30]

Academic programs

The University of Pennsylvania's Positive Psychology Center has developed a Master of Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP) Program, "the world's first degree program in positive psychology."[31] The degree "explores the history, theory, and basic research methods of positive psychology," "focuses on such issues as the empirical study of positive emotions, strengths-based character, and healthy institutions," and mentors the student in using "these aspects of positive psychology in" their "particular professional setting."[31]

Another academic program that focuses on training students in Positive Psychology is the MA in Positive Developmental Psychology and Evaluation offered at Claremont Graduate University's School of Social Science, Policy & Evaluation. The positive psychology program at CGU was founded by the "grandfather of Positive Psychology," Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. The program addresses human flourishing and well-being and the factors that contribute to them during lifetime development. [32]

Criticism

While Positive psychology has made contributions to the field of psychology, several critics have pointed out that it is not without its faults. For example, the simplistic approach taken by some psychologists in the application of positive psychology. A "one size fits all" approach may not be beneficial, suggesting there is a need for individual differences to be incorporated into its application.[33]

Other causes for concern include the division inside the field of psychology caused by differing opinions held by psychologists on Positive psychology and the separatist and negative approach taken by some positive psychologists to ideas or views that run counter to the approach of Positive psychology; a rejection of negativity and the "tyranny of the positive attitude" which leads to the unintended consequence of making those who are not able to go beyond their suffering or fail to achieve optimism to add guilt and a sense to failure to their problems; the danger of support from the media for Positive psychology enhancing results and leading to a loss of scientific professionalism.[33]

Critics have also noted that contemporary Positive psychology is not a new approach within psychology, nor is it a new approach to life—it has many similarities to the spirituality of Ignatius of Loyola, the sixteenth century Roman Catholic priest who founded the Society of Jesus.[34]

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Angela Lee Duckworth, Tracy A. Steen, and Martin E.P. Seligman, "Positive Psychology in Clinical Practice," Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 1 (2005): 629–651. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  2. ↑ Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1987, ISBN 978-0060419875), 354.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 William C. Compton, An Introduction to Positive Psychology (Wadsworth Publishing, 2005, ISBN 0534644538), 1–22.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Claudia Wallis, "The New Science of Happiness", TIME (January 17, 2005). Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  5. ↑ Martin E.P. Seligman, Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death (San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1975, ISBN 978-0716723288).
  6. ↑ Martin E.P. Seligman, Eudaemonia, The Good Life: A Talk with Martin Seligman Edge (March 23, 2004). Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  7. ↑ Martin E.P. Seligman and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, "Positive Psychology: An Introduction" American Psychologist 55(1) (2000): 5–14. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  8. ↑ Jenny Lee, "How the academic field of positive psychology erupted into mainstream culture" Thrive Global (March 8, 2018). Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Martin E.P Seligman, Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment (Atria, 2004, ISBN 978-0743222983).
  10. ↑ Martin E.P. Seligman, Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being (New York, NY: Free Press, 2011, ISBN 978-1439190753).
  11. ↑ Tal Ben-Shahar, Happier: Learn the Secrets to Daily Joy and Lasting Fulfillment (McGraw-Hill, 2007, ISBN 978-0071492393).
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Positive Psychology Centre, Frequently Asked Questions University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  13. ↑ M. Elizabeth Lewis Hall, Richard Langer, and Jason Mcmartin, "The Role of Suffering in Human Flourishing: Contributions from Positive Psychology, theology, and philosophy," Journal of Psychology Theology 38(2) (2010): 111-121. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  14. ↑ Martin E.P. Seligman, "Does Suffering Trump Happiness?" Authentic Happiness, University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Christopher Peterson and Martin E.P. Seligman, Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0195167016).
  16. ↑ Jessica Shryack, Michael F. Steger, Robert F. Krueger, and Christopher S. Kallie, "The structure of virtue: An empirical investigation of the dimensionality of the virtues in action inventory of strengths," Personality and Individual Differences 48(6) (2010): 714–719.
  17. ↑ Ingrid Brdr and Todd B. Kashdan, "Character strengths and well-being in Croatia: An empirical investigation of structure and correlates," Journal of Research in Personality 44 (2010): 151-154.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Martin E.P. Seligman, Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life (Vintage, 2006, ISBN 978-1400078394)
  19. ↑ Douglas B. Turner, Learning Optimism Positive Psychology News (January 15, 2007). Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Jonathan Haidt, "Elevation and the positive psychology of morality" In C.L.M. Keyes and Jonathan Haidt (eds.), Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived (Washington DC: American Psychological Association, 2002, ISBN 978-1557989307).
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience (HarperCollins Publishers, 2008, ISBN 978-0061339202).
  22. ↑ Steve Wright, "In the zone": enjoyment, creativity, and the nine elements of "flow" Meaning and Happiness (September 5, 2008). Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  23. ↑ The GoodWork Toolkit The GoodWork Project (2010). Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  24. ↑ Howard Gardner (ed.), Good Work: Theory and Practice (GoodWork Project, 2010). Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  25. ↑ Martin E.P. Seligman, Randal M. Ernst, Jane Gillham, Karen Reivich, and Mark Linkins, "Positive education:positive psychology and classroom interventions," Oxford Review of Education 35(3) (2009): 293-311. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  26. ↑ Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi, Kevin Rathunde, and Samuel Whalen, Talented Teenagers: The Roots of Success and Failure (Cambridge University Press, 1997).
  27. ↑ Martin E. P. Seligman, Tracy A. Steen, Nansook Park, and Christopher Peterson, "Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions," American Psychologist 60(5) (2005): 410-421. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  28. ↑ Nancy L. Sin and Sonja Lyubomirsky, "Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: A practice-friendly meta-analysis,"Journal of Clinical Psychology 65(5) (2009): 467–487.
  29. ↑ Orin C. Davis, Why the Workplace Needs Positive Psychology Positive Psychology News (March 6, 2012). Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Nick Turner, Julian Barling, and Anthea Zacharatos, "Positive psychology at work." In Shane J. Lopez and C.R. Snyder (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0199862160).
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 The University of Pennsylvania, Master of Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP) Program Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  32. ↑ Positive Developmental Psychology and Evaluation Claremont Graduate University. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Barbara S. Held, "The Negative Side of Positive Psychology," Journal of Humanistic Psychology 44(1) (2004):9-41. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  34. ↑ Phyllis Zagano and C. Kevin Gillespie, "Ignatian Spirituality and Positive Psychology," The Way 45(4) (October 2006): 41-58. Retrieved September 12, 2023.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Argyle, Michael. The Psychology of Happiness. Routledge, 2002. ISBN 978-0415226653
  • Ben-Shahar, Tal. Happier: Learn the Secrets to Daily Joy and Lasting Fulfillment. McGraw-Hill, 2007. ISBN 978-0071492393
  • Ben-Shahar, Tal. The Pursuit of Perfect: How to Stop Chasing Perfection and Start Living a Richer, Happier Life. McGraw-Hill, 2009. ISBN 0071608826
  • Ben-Shahar, Tal. Being Happy: You Don't Have to Be Perfect to Lead a Richer, Happier Life. McGraw-Hill, 2010. ISBN 978-0071746618
  • Compton, William C. An Introduction to Positive Psychology. Wadsworth Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0534644538
  • Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly. Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience. HarperCollins Publishers, 2008. ISBN 978-0061339202
  • Csikszentmihalyi, Mihalyi, Kevin Rathunde, and Samuel Whalen. Talented Teenagers: The Roots of Success and Failure. Cambridge University Press, 1997. ASIN B004HP0AFY
  • Diener, Ed, and Robert Biswas-Diener. Happiness: Unlocking the Mysteries of Psychological Wealth. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. ISBN 978-1405146616
  • Eid, Michael, and Randy J. Larsen (eds.). The Science of Subjective Well-Being. The Guilford Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1606230732
  • Haidt, Jonathan. The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom. Basic Books, 2005. ISBN 978-0465028016
  • Kahneman, Daniel, Edward Diener, and Norbert Schwarz (eds.). Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology. Russell Sage Foundation Publications, 2003. ISBN 978-0871544230
  • Kashdan, Todd. Curious? Discover the Missing Ingredient to a Fulfilling Life. New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 0061661198
  • Keyes, Corey L.M., and Jonathan Haidt (eds.). Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived. Washington DC: American Psychological Association, 2002. ISBN 978-1557989307
  • Lopez, Shane J., and C.R. Snyder (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0199862160
  • Maslow, Abraham. H. Motivation and Personality. New York, NY: Harper Collins, 1987. ISBN 978-0060419875
  • McMahon, Darrin M. Happiness: A History. Grove Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0802142894
  • Peterson, Christopher, and Martin E.P. Seligman. Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0195167016
  • Seligman, Martin E.P. Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death. San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1975. ISBN 978-0716723288
  • Seligman, Martin E.P. Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment. Atria, 2004. ISBN 978-0743222983
  • Seligman, Martin E.P. Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life. Vintage, 2006. ISBN 978-1400078394
  • Seligman, Martin E.P. Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being. New York, NY: Free Press, 2011. ISBN 978-1439190753

External links

All links retrieved September 12, 2023.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

Retrieved from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/p/index.php?title=Positive_psychology&oldid=1122124

Content is available under Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Copyright Logo
Powered by MediaWiki