Difference between revisions of "Middle school" - New World Encyclopedia

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The term '''Middle school''', also known as '''Junior High school''', most commonly used in the [[United States of America]], is a school in the [[secondary education|secondary educational]] system that usually bridges the gap between [[elementary school|elementary]] and [[High school]]. In America, the exact organization varies from state to state, but most often middle schools consist of sixth, seventh and eighth grades, students usually being between the ages of 12-14.  
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'''Middle school,''' also known as '''Junior High school,''' is a [[school]] in the [[secondary education|secondary educational]] system that usually bridges the gap between [[elementary school|elementary]] and [[high school]]. The exact organization varies, but most often middle schools consist of sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, students usually being between the ages of 12-14. Junior high schools traditionally include only seventh and eighth grades. The middle school is most common in the United States. Variations of middle schools exist in education systems around the world, although in some countries there is no designated school that bridges between elementary and high school.  
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Variations of middle schools exist in education systems around the world, although sometimes there is no designated bridge between elementary and high school.  
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The middle school years are a significant time in [[compulsory schooling]] for students, as [[education]]al expectations rise and the social and biological changes of [[puberty]] affect the students. The middle school was established to act as a transition, moving the student away from the world of [[childhood]] and introducing social skills and mastery of knowledge and techniques that will be further developed in high school. To succeed in this role, middle schools nurture their students socially and [[emotion]]ally, providing guidance in social relationships as well as academic and other studies.  
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==Origin==
 
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In 1888 Harvard University president Charles Eliot launched an effort to reorganize primary and secondary schooling. At that time, as state after state enacted compulsory attendance laws, eight-year elementary schools and four-year high schools were the most common types of institutions. But Eliot and his colleagues on the National Education Association's Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies argued that young adolescents wasted time in the last years of elementary school and should be introduced to college preparatory courses such as algebra and Latin at an earlier age. The committee recommended reducing elementary schools to six grade levels (1 - 6) and increasing secondary grades to six grade levels (7 - 12). They also recommended that the new secondary schools be designed to allow talented, college-bound students to be promoted quickly so that they could complete the six years of secondary school in as few as four years.
 
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As grades seven and eight began to be considered junior or introductory high school grades rather than elementary grades, intermediate schools (grades 7 - 8), junior high schools (grades 7 - 9), and junior-senior high schools (grades 7 - 12) began to appear. These new secondary schools were seen as a way of offering young adolescents a curriculum that was more substantial and more differentiated than that offered in elementary schools, while also addressing common practical problems such as the overcrowding of K - 8 elementary schools and high rates of students leaving school after grade eight. In addition to giving college-bound youths earlier access to college preparatory work, educators in these schools sought to entice greater numbers of noncollege-bound youths to stay in school at least through grade nine by offering them commercial, domestic, and vocational curricula. By 1920 the number of junior high schools in the United States had grown to 883. By the 1940s more than half of the nation's young adolescents attended a junior high school, and by 1960 four out of five did so.
 
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The enduring contributions of junior high schools to middle-level education in America are many. These schools introduced a broader range of exploratory, tryout courses and activities in order to assist young adolescents to discover and develop their interests and abilities. Junior high schools were also the source of other educational innovations, including homeroom and teacher-adviser programs, extracurricular activities, and core curriculum approaches emphasizing the correlation of subject areas and the integration of learning across disciplinary boundaries.
 
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== The emergence of middle schools ==
 
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Despite the innovations and successes of junior high schools, these schools became the target of increasing criticism for tending to adopt the curricula, grading systems, large size, schedules, regimentation, and impersonal climate of senior high schools. Ironically, some of the key organizational changes that the early promoters of junior high schools believed would meet the special needs of young adolescents - departmentalization, teacher specialization, and school buildings as seventh- and eighth-grade programs. The ninth-grade program and curriculum were constrained by Carnegie unit requirements for high school graduation and college entrance. Because these requirements affected scheduling and staffing decisions, they often strongly influenced the educational programs offered to seventh and eighth graders in junior high schools as well.
 
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Fifty years after the first junior high schools were established, educators began to call for middle schools - new schools that had a different grade organization and a more developmentally responsive program - in order to provide a more gradual and appropriate transition between the elementary and high school years. In the 1950s Alvin Howard became one of the first to advocate the creation of a 6 - 8 school that would remove the limitations imposed by Carnegie units, have a more stable school climate than a 7 - 8 school, and would recognize the earlier onset of puberty of young adolescents in the second half of the twentieth century. William Alexander and Emmett Williams, in 1965, recommended the creation of 5 - 8 middle schools featuring interdisciplinary teaming, small learning communities, a teacher advisory program, and special learning centers where students could catch up on needed skills or branch out into further exploration. For example, Alexander and Williams suggested the creation of wing units (interdisciplinary teams of teachers to jointly plan curriculum and deliver instruction to 100 students). Each wing unit would join with wing units from the other grade levels in the school to form a "school within the school." The special learning centers would be open during the school day, after school, and on Saturday, and would include a library, a reading laboratory, a home arts center, a typing and writing laboratory, a foreign language laboratory, an arts and hobby center, a music room, and a physical education/recreation center.
 
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In 1966 Donald Eichorn, a school district superintendent, wrote the first full book promoting the creation of 6 - 8 middle schools. The book attempted to apply Piaget's theories regarding early adolescent development in designing a suitable educational program. For example, Eichorn proposed that middle schools offer frequent opportunities for active learning and interaction with peers. He suggested eliminating activities that might embarrass late maturers or place them at a competitive disadvantage (e.g., interscholastic athletics and prom queen contests) and replacing them with less competitive activities that welcome and affirm all students regardless of their current level of physical or cognitive development (intramural athletics and physical education programs and flexible self-selected projects that allow all students to pursue personal interests and develop further interests while making frequent use of a well-equipped resource center). He proposed flexible scheduling to allow for extended learning opportunities and flexible groupings of middle school students for instruction (e.g., by current cognitive functioning or interests) rather than just by chronological age or grade level. He called for a curriculum that featured frequent use of interdisciplinary thematic units that reflected the interrelated nature of different content areas and that balanced traditional academic subjects with cultural studies, physical education, fine arts, and practical arts.
 
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== Growth and maturation of the middle school movement ==
 
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In 1965 only 5 percent of middle-grades schools in the United States were 6 - 8 or 5 - 8 middle schools, and 67 percent were 7 - 9 junior high schools. By the year 2000 these percentages were reversed: only 5 percent of middle-grades schools were 7 - 9 junior highs and 69 percent were 6 - 8 or 5 - 8 middle schools. The number of middle schools grew rapidly - from 1,434 (23%) in 1971 to 4,094 (33%) in 1981; 6,168 (51%) in 1991; and 9,750 (69%) in 2000.
 
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Although the number of middle schools grew quickly during the 1960s and 1970s, according to William Alexander, writing in 1978, most of these new schools displayed "limited progress toward the objectives of the middle school movement" (p. 19). In fact, John Lounsbury noted in 1991 that the first comparative studies of the new middle schools and the old junior high schools revealed that the schools "were surprisingly alike in actual practice" (p. 68). Changes were restricted largely to the names of schools and the grades they contained.
 
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One reason for the lack of progress in implementing a set of distinct practices was that many middle schools were established for reasons of expediency. For example, the new grade arrangements helped some districts reduce overcrowding in elementary schools, poor utilization of buildings, or racial segregation. Through the 1970s little empirical research was conducted on the consequences of implementing or ignoring the lists of recommended practices. Thus, there was no scientific evidence to persuade educators to change their programs and practices.
 
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By the 1980s the debates between educators about the best grade structures for young adolescents began to die out, as both middle school and junior high school advocates realized that the typical middle-grades school, regardless of grade organization, was still failing to meet the needs of its students. "Junior high and middle school proponents and practitioners began to coalesce into a single cause - the cause of improving early adolescent education" (Lounsbury, p. 67). This new unity of purpose and vision was also fueled by the emergence of a strong and respected literature on the characteristics of early adolescents, and by research indicating that the transition to middle-grades schools was associated with declines in academic motivation and performance.
 
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Research also indicated that students perceived their middle-grades teachers as more remote and impersonal than their elementary teachers, and that they were less certain that their middle-grades teachers cared about them or knew them well. Furthermore, student work completed in the first year of the middle grades was often less demanding than in the last year of elementary school, academic expectations in middle-grades schools were generally low, and students had few opportunities to learn important new concepts and apply them to real-world problems. This research along with case studies and empirical analyses of the effects of recommended practices on the quality of school programs and on the learning, motivation, and development of young adolescents all gave further impetus to the calls for the reform of middle-grades schools.
 
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As practitioners, researchers, and scholars began speaking with one voice about the continuing shortcomings of middle-grades education in the United States, middle-grades reform began receiving unprecedented national attention. That is, at the end of the 1980s, states and foundations that had been focusing their educational reform initiatives on pre-school and early elementary education or on high school improvement and dropout prevention, began to recognize that the middle grades might be central to helping more students succeed and stay in school. California was one of the first states to produce a task-force report calling for middle-grades reform. California's 1987 report, Caught in the Middle, was followed by a long line of reports from Florida, Maryland, Louisiana, and at least fifteen other states. At about the same time, foundations such as the Lilly Endowment, the Carnegie Corporation of New York, the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, and the W. K. Kellogg Foundation began advocating and funding middle-grades reform initiatives.
 
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These efforts helped solidify the consensus on the kinds of supportive structures and responsive practices needed by students in the middle grades (e.g., the eight principles outlined in 1989 by the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development in Turning Points). At this time, research in the middle grades by a wide variety of researchers began to show that schools serving early adolescents, especially middle schools, were increasingly implementing educational programs that were based on these recommended practices for the middle grades. Fewer schools were middle schools only in name.
 
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== Accomplishments of the middle school movement ==
 
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Anthony Jackson and Gayle Davis noted in 2000 that "structural changes in middle-grades education - how students and teachers are organized for learning - have been fairly widespread and have produced good results" (p. 5). Changes in practice that ensure each student in a middle-grades school has more support from (and more meaningful relationships with) caring adults at the school have reduced the negative shifts in students' motivational beliefs during the middle grades. Schools-within-schools, looping (assigning teachers to the same students for two or three years), semidepartmentalizion (assigning a teacher to teach two subjects to three class sections rather than one subject to six class sections), and interdisciplinary teaming with a common planning period for the teachers on a team are examples of structural reforms that have been made in many middle-grades schools. Such reforms have been found to increase students' well-being and perceptions that their teacher cares about them and their learning, and to strengthen teacher - student relationships. In turn, when middle-grades students perceive their teachers care about them and their learning, they are more likely to report that they try to do what their teachers ask them to do and give their best effort in class, and they are less likely to engage in risky behaviors.
 
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In sum, many middle-grades schools have succeeded in changing their climates and structures to become what Joan Lipsitz and colleagues, in 1997, called "warmer, happier, and more peaceful places for students and adults"(p. 535). However, as David Hamburg noted in 2000, changes in climates and structures "are necessary but not sufficient for major improvement in academic achievement" (p. xii). That is, while modest achievement gains may result from changes in school organization - such as semidepartmentalization, team teaching, or creating smaller learning environments - major achievement gains are obtained only in schools that have implemented both changes in school organization and in curriculum, instruction, and professional development changes that assist teachers to "transmit a core of common, substantial knowledge to all students in ways that foster curiosity, problem solving, and critical thinking" (Hamburg, p. x). For example, in a 1997 study by Robert Felner and colleagues of a group of thirty-one Illinois middle schools, those schools that had made both structural and instructional changes that were consistent with Turning Points recommendations achieved substantially better and displayed larger achievement gains over a two-year period than did similar schools that had implemented at least some of the key structural changes outlined in Turning Points, but not changes in curriculum and instruction. Another study suggesting the critical importance of going beyond just structural changes in improving achievement was conducted by Steven Mertens, Nancy Flowers, and Peter Mulhall in 1998, and involved 155 middle-grades schools in Michigan. When these researchers analyzed outcomes in schools that had one of the key structural changes in place (interdisciplinary teams that were given high levels of common planning time), they found that achievement gains were much higher among the subset of these schools that had a received a grant from the Kellogg Foundation that made it possible for their teachers to engage more regularly in staff development activities focused on curriculum and instruction. In fact there is even evidence from this study that staff development may be more important than common planning time in facilitating achievement gains. Schools whose teams had inadequate common planning (but had a grant that made frequent professional development possible) showed more achievement gains than did schools without grants, even those whose teams had high levels of planning time.
 
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Unfortunately, high-performing middle schools are still rare, because "relatively little has changed at the core of most students' school experience: curriculum, assessment, and instruction" (Jackson and Davis, p. 5). Although structures and practices that are in keeping with the best of the middle-grades reform documents are an essential foundation for middle-grade reform, dramatic and sustained improvements in student performance occur only if teachers also provide all students with markedly better learning opportunities every day.
 
  
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Also notice these acomplishments vary and some middle schools have made no acomplishments and have uncaring staff, however most middle schools are making an attempt.
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==Purpose==
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The middle school years are a significant time in [[compulsory schooling]] for students, as [[education]]al expectations rise and the social and biological changes of [[puberty]] affect the students. Hence, the primary purpose of a middle school is to serve as an educational facility to help in the transition from primary to secondary education, often by combining elements of both upper primary and lower secondary school buildings to create an environment that is both familiar and new to its students.  
  
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== Problems ==
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==Origin in the United States==
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One particularly vexing problem that plagued junior high schools and continues to plague middle schools is what Samuel H. Popper termed being "a school without teachers" <!--(p. 57) from an unsourced article; what should be done?—>. Because of the lack of teacher education programs and licensure that focus on the middle school level, the majority of young adolescents are taught by teachers who prepared for a career as an elementary or high school teacher. Fewer than one in four middle-grades teachers have received specialized training to teach at the middle level before they begin their careers. As a result, teachers who wind up teaching in middle schools, even those who discover that they enjoy teaching middle school students, find themselves woefully unprepared to work with this age group. Thomas Dickinson commented in 2001 that these instructors enter middle schools "unschooled in appropriate curriculum and instruction for young adolescents, and ignorant of the place and purpose of middle school organizational practices and the complex role of the middle school teacher" <!-- (p.7) from an unsourced article; what should be done with this? —>. This is clearly one reason why curriculum and instruction in the middle grades continues to show little improvement over time.
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[[Image:Crispell Middle School.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Crispell Middle School, Pine Brush, [[New York]], United States of America, The U.S.]]
  
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There is a growing consensus to support specialized teacher preparation at the middle-grades level. Numerous studies show that middle-grades teachers and principals favor specialized teacher preparation of middle-grades teachers. Similarly, the National Middle School Association, The National Association for Secondary School Principals, and the National Forum to Accelerate Middle Grades Reform have all called for the specialized preparation of middle-grades teachers. Perhaps the only solution to this enduring problem is for states to establish mandatory requirements for middle-level licensure that do not overlap significantly with licensure for elementary school or high school teachers. This will serve as an incentive for colleges and universities to establish specialized programs that prepare practicing and future teachers to work effectively with middle school students, curricula, and instructional practices, and also as an incentive to teachers to pursue this specialized training.
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The genesis for the '''middle school''' in the [[United States]] came in the late nineteenth century, with a major study by the president of [[Harvard University]] and the [[National Education Association]]'s Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies that outlined a re-organization of [[education]] in America.<ref name=maciver>Douglas MacIver and Allen Ruby, [http://www.answers.com/topic/middle-school Middle Schools,] ''Encyclopedia of Education,'' Gale Group, Inc., 2002. Retrieved August 21, 2008.</ref> At that time, education was mostly broken up into [[elementary school]]s, which consisted of grades 1-8, and [[high school]]s, grades 9-12. The core argument of the study was that students would benefit from starting more advanced studies earlier in their education, and suggested that elementary schools be compromised of grades 1-6 and high schools grades 7-12.<ref name=maciver/>
  
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Unfortunately, there is also a lack of middle-school principal preparation. "Preparation to lead a school based on the tenets of the middle school concept is even more rare than middle school teacher preparation programs. The same can be said for the licensure of middle school principals" <!--(Dickinson, p. 7) Here it goes again...—>.
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In 1909, the first junior high schools were established in Columbus, [[Ohio]], compromising grades 7-8.<ref name=banks>Ron Banks, [http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/poptopics/middle.html#1 Middle School,] Clearinghouse on Early Education and Parenting, 2004. Retrieved August 21, 2008.</ref> It was not long before more junior high schools started to develop in other parts of the country. These schools were largely focused upon transitioning students from elementary studies to more advanced subjects and extracurricular activities, such as sports, in order to properly prepare students for high schools, which were seen as being the preparation for college.
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[[Image:Eckstein Middle School hallway 02A.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A hallway at the Eckstein Middle School, [[Seattle]], [[Washington]].]]
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In the middle of the twentieth century, a new movement began that eventually established the middle school. While junior high schools were popular, there were also areas for improvement. Some of the difficulties with junior high schools were economic and logistical; and establishing junior high schools for students for only two years was an additional burden upon resources for school districts. The short time span of junior high also meant that the social relationships of students became fractured and strained during the years between sixth and ninth grade.  
  
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The National Forum to Accelerate Middle Grades Reform declared in 2000 that high-performing middle schools are "academically excellent, developmentally responsive, and socially equitable" <!--(p. K7) Another unsourced statement from some article not mentioned.—>. If such middle schools are going to become the norm rather than the exception, both middle school teachers and principals need more specialized preparation and continuing professional development to support and sustain their trajectory toward excellence.Thus in some governmental and institutional contexts, "Middle school" may be used as no more than an alternative name to "junior high school," or it might imply a pedagogical shift away from primary and secondary school practices. The concept of the name ''junior high'' dates back to 1909, with the founding of [[Indianola Junior High School]] in [[Columbus, Ohio]]. <ref name="paul"> [http://ceep.crc.uiuc.edu/poptopics/middle.html#1 CEEP. Popular Topics. Middle School, U of I<!-- Bot generated title —>]. </ref> The concept of the name "middle school" dates back to 1950, from [[Bay City, Michigan]]. <ref name="paul"/>
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The first middle school in America opened in Bay City, [[Michigan]], in 1950.<ref name=banks/> Structured to host students from grades six through eight, the early middle school movement was based upon the belief that by the time students entered sixth grade, they were intellectually and socially advanced beyond the confines of elementary schools, and that as most students in sixth grade were of the age of [[puberty]], and hence entering the first stages of adulthood, sixth grade was the appropriate grade to begin to transition from elementary to secondary education. The spread of middle schools also helped logistical problems, such as overcrowding, and spread teachers and administrators more evenly among districts. Today, middle and junior high schools exist in America, and while often these terms can be used interchangeably, the grades are often divided differently among the two, with junior high schools taking students in seventh and eighth grades while middle schools include sixth grade as well.
  
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== Asia ==
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==Organization==
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===Afghanistan===
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Like other schools in the U. S., middle schools can be either public or private institutions. Public middle schools are under the jurisdiction of local school boards and state education departments, and are usually funded by a mixture of local and state taxes. Many public school districts are set up so that the many different schools can work interconnected with one another in the flow and maturation of students. As such, middle schools work closely with [[elementary school]]s for incoming students, and with [[high school]] in regards to their graduating students. Private middle schools, while less populous than public schools, do exist in many areas of the United States. Some of these schools are religiously affiliated, while others are secular and are more like [[preparatory school]]s. Private schools are funded through endowments and tuition and so are not under the regulation of local or state education agencies.  
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In [[Afghanistan]] education often does not last until middle school. Under the [[Taliban]], girls were not allowed to attend school. Now, both boys and girls are allowed to attend school, but many families elect to have their children work at home, rather than send them to school.
 
  
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===[[Education in the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]]===
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Private and public middle schools generally have similar administrative organizations. Usually a principal, dean, or headmaster is in charge of the overall school operations, assisted by subordinate administrators. Most middle schools also have a [[guidance counselor|guidance staff]], which helps plan students' schedules and act as advocates for a wide array of student needs. [[school psychology|School psychologists]] and [[social worker]]s may also serve as members of the staff.
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In the [[People's Republic of China]], junior middle schools (chuzhong or 初中) refer to years 7–9. It covers the last 3 years of the 9-year [[compulsory education]], which is subject to fees. At the end of the last year, the college-bound students take exams to enter [[high school]] (gaozhong or 高中) others wishing to continue their training may enter [[technical high school]] (中学专科/中专) or [[vocational school]] (职业学校).
 
  
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===Japan===
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==Facilities==
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In [[Japan]], junior high schools, which cover years seven through nine, are called ''chū gakkō'' (中学校, literally, middle school). They are referred to as "junior high schools" in most conversations in English and are referred to by [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)|MEXT]] as "lower secondary schools." (See [[Secondary education in Japan]].)
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[[Image:Kent Stanton 3.jpg|thumb|200 px|right|Stanton Middle School in Kent, Ohio, showing gym and south end of building.]]
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Most middle schools have facilities comparable to [[high school]]s, only on a smaller scale. In addition to regular classrooms, most middle schools are equipped with cafeterias to serve food to students, [[gymnasium]]s for [[physical education]], auditoriums for assemblies and student performances, and [[health]] or [[nurse]]'s offices to ensure the daily safety and physical well-being of the student population. Depending upon budgeting and [[curriculum|curricular]] restraints, middle schools may also have laboratory facilities for [[science]] classes, [[art]] and [[music]] rooms, and equipment and [[computer]] rooms. Most middle schools will also have outside sport arenas, such as [[football]], [[baseball]], [[soccer]], and running tracks; sometimes a single area will be used for all such activities.
  
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===South Korea===
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==Cultural variations==
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In the [[Republic of Korea]], a middle [[school]] is called ''junghakgyo'' (중학교, 中學校, also literally meaning "middle school") which includes grades 7 through 9.
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The existence and purpose of middle schools is quite varied around the world. While middle schools were developed in the U.S. as transitional facilities specifically designed to help students through the period of change between [[childhood]]'s [[elementary education]] and into the [[secondary education]] of [[adolescence]], in many countries no such system exists. In some, there is no transitional phase; students merely attend [[primary school]] and then [[high school]], although these may be of different types depending on ability and other factors. In other countries, [[compulsory education]] ends after middle school and, therefore, for many students the transition is not into secondary education but rather into the workforce.
  
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===[[Education in Indonesia|Indonesia]]===
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===Africa===
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In [[Indonesia]] children go to school at the age of 3. They start from pre-school and kindergarten. At the age of 6 they go to SD 1 (grade school). They spend six years here then continue to Junior High School (SMP) for three years. After Junior high they go to Senior high for three years. After 12 years of completing grade school, it's up to them to continue college or university in what they prefer.
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Middle schools are rare in [[Africa]], due to the political instability, [[poverty]], [[disease]], lack of infrastructure, and civil violence that have caused problems in many regions of the continent. Since many countries within Africa are still struggling to fully modernize, many areas have very basic schools that are usually underfunded and understaffed. Since middle schools are usually developed as bridges between well established primary and secondary schools, there are as yet few middle schools in many parts of Africa. Those countries with more established educational institutions, such as [[South Africa]], [[Egypt]], and [[Kenya]], have generally divided their schools into primary and secondary systems.  
  
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===Taiwan===
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===Asia===
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[[Taiwan]]ese junior high schools (3-year) were originally called ''chuzhong'' (初級中學, 初中; "primary middle school"). However, in August 1968, they were renamed ''guozhong'' (國民中學, 國中; "citizen middle school") when they became free of charge and compulsory. Private middle school nowadays are still called ''chuzhong''. Taiwanese junior high schools are attended normally by those older than twelve. Accompanied with the switch from junior high to middle school was the cancellation of entrance examination needed to enter senior high school.
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Education has always been important in the East, and the rapid [[modernization]] that swept through many Asia countries during the twentieth century has also ushered in the idea of middle schools. In the [[People's Republic of China]], junior middle schools (''chuzhong'' or 初中) refer to years seven through nine. This covers the last three years of the nine-year [[compulsory education]], which is subject to fees. At the end of the last year, the college-bound students take exams to enter [[high school]] (''gaozhong'' or 高中) others wishing to continue their training may enter [[technical high school]] (中学专科/中专) or [[vocational school]] (职业学校).<ref>China Education and Research Network, [http://www.edu.cn/20041203/3123354.shtml Education System in China,] 2000. Retrieved July 27, 2008</ref>
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[[Image:Japanese Middle School.jpg|thumb|200 px|left|The courtyard and classrooms wing of Onizuka Middle School in Karatsu, Japan. Third year students have classes on the first floor, second year students the second, and first year students the third floor.]]
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In [[Japan]], junior high schools, which cover years seven through nine, are called ''chū gakkō'' (中学校, literally, middle school). They are referred to as "junior high schools" in most conversations in English and are referred to by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology as "lower secondary schools." Junior High school is the last stage of [[compulsory education]] in Japan, after which those that plan to continue to the "higher secondary schools" are required to pay a small fee.<ref>International Education Media, [http://www.internationaleducationmedia.com/japan/ Japan Education,] Trinity House, London, 2007. Retrieved July 27, 2008</ref>
  
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== Australia/Oceania ==
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Middle schools in [[South Korea]] consist of three grades. Most students enter at age 12 and finish at age 15 (western years). These three grades correspond roughly to grades seven through nine in the North American system and second to fourth form in the British system. Middle school in South Korea marks a considerable shift from elementary school, with students expected to take studies and school much more seriously.
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===Australia===
 
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In most regions of [[Australia]] don't have middle schools as students go straight from [[primary school]] to [[secondary school]].
 
  
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In 1996 and 1997 a national conference met to develop what became known as the [[National Middle Schooling Project]], which aimed to develop a common Australian view of
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===Europe===
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* early adolescent needs
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In [[France]], the ''[[Secondary education in France|collège]]'' is the first level of secondary education in the French educational system. Entry into the ''sixième'' year, the first year of ''collège,'' occurs directly after the last year of [[primary school]], called ''cours moyen deuxième année'' (CM2). There is no entrance examination into ''collège,'' yet administrators have established a comprehensive academic examination for pupils starting ''sixième,'' the purpose of which is to evaluate the level of each pupil on graduation from primary school.<ref>Francois Louis, ''Secondary Education in France: A Decade of Change'' (Organization for Economic Cooperation & Development, 1995, ISBN 9264145486).</ref>
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* guiding principles for educators
 
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* appropriate strategies to foster positive adolescent learning.
 
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The first middle school established in Australia is [[The Armidale School]], in [[Sydney]]. Schools have followed this trend such as [[The King's School, Sydney|The King's School]].
 
  
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As of 2007, the [[Northern Territory]] has introduced a [[three-tier education|three tier system]] featuring Middle Schools for years 7-9 (approx ages 12-15) and high school year 10-12. (approx ages 15-18)<ref name="NT">{{Cite web|url=http://www.middleyears.nt.gov.au/about/|title=About Middle Years|accessdate=2008-02-01|publisher=Northern Territory Government|year=200|work=Middle Years - N8orthern Territory of Australia}}</ref>
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In [[Italy]], middle school ''(scuola media)'' refers to the three years of schooling for students aged between 10-11 and 13-14. At the end of the third year, students have to take a final test due to complete this grade. Middle school in Italy is the last year of [[compulsory education]]. However, the legal age to begin employment is 16, and so even students who do not wish to continue their studies after middle school usually enroll in a short professional course (two years).<ref>The European Education Directory, [http://www.euroeducation.net/prof/italco.htm Italy,] 2002. Retrieved July 27, 2008</ref>
  
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===New Zealand===
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In the [[United Kingdom]], all middle schools must be deemed either primary or secondary. Thus, schools which accept pupils up to age 12 are entitled '''middle-deemed-primary,''' while those accepting pupils aged 13 or over are entitled '''middle-deemed-secondary.''' For statistical purposes, such schools are often included under primary and secondary categories "as deemed."<ref>Her Majesty's Stationery Office, [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/SI/si2002/20021983.htm The Education (Middle School) (England) Regulations,] 2002. Retrieved July 27, 2008.</ref> Notably, most schools also follow teaching patterns in line with their deemed status, with most deemed-primary schools offering a primary-style curriculum taught by one class teacher, and most deemed-secondary schools adopting a more specialist-centered approach with multiple teachers.
−
In [[New Zealand]] '''intermediate schools''' cover years 7 and 8 (formerly known as form 1 and 2, with children aged 11-12) in areas where the local primary schools teach year 1 to year 6 students. Many primary schools however, do teach year 7 and 8. These primary schools may have a relationship with a nearby intermediate school to teach manual training classes such as woodwork.
+
[[Image:07M-GM3-60.JPG|thumb|right|200 px|Gymnasium (middle school) of Janusz Kusociński in Mińsk Mazowiecki, [[Poland]].]]
 +
In [[Germany]], schools that may be considered middle schools, include the ''[[Hauptschule]]'' and ''[[Realschule]]''. A ''Hauptschule'' is a secondary school starting after four years of [[elementary school]]ing. Any student who has completed a German elementary school can attend a ''Hauptschule,'' whereas students who want to attend a ''Realschule'' or ''[[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]]'' must achieve a certain academic standard. The students spend five to six years at the ''Hauptschule,'' from fifth to ninth (or tenth) grade. They finish at about age 15 or 16. Conversely, pupils start at a ''Realschule'' at the age of eleven or twelve and typically finish school at the age of 16, when they are expected to take on an [[apprenticeship]]. The ''Realschule'' is ranked between ''Hauptschule'' (lowest) and ''Gymnasium'' (highest) in the [[secondary school]] system.
  
−
Recently, however, Junior High Schools covering years 7-10 (the four years between primary and [[NCEA]], the national secondary qualification) have been established. The first was [http://www.ajhs.school.nz Albany Junior High School in [[Albany, New Zealand|Albany]], Auckland.
+
In [[Poland]], the ''gymnasium'' is a type of middle school, consisting of three years of education starting at age 13 to 14, following six years of [[elementary school]]. This level of education is compulsory for all students. After this ''gymnasium'' students may enroll in the non-mandatory three years ''liceum,'' four years ''technikum,'' or two or three years of vocational technical school.
  
−
== Europe ==
+
===Oceania===
−
===Bosnia, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, Slovenia===
+
In [[New Zealand]], "intermediate schools" cover years seven and eight (formerly known as form one and two), with children aged 11 to 12 in areas where the local [[primary school]]s teach students in year one to year six. Many primary schools, however, also teach year seven and eight. These primary schools may have a relationship with a nearby intermediate school to teach manual training classes such as woodwork. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, junior high schools covering years seven to ten, the four years between primary and the National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA), were established.<ref>Mollie Neville-Tisdall, "Pedagogy and Politics in New Zealand's Middle Schools" ''Middle School Journal'' 33(4) Mar 2002: 45-51. </ref>
−
In the countries of former [[Yugoslavia]], srednja škola (literally translated as Middle School) refers to age between 14 and half - 15 and 18, and lasts 2-4 years since elementary school (which lasts 8 or 9 years).
+
[[Image:Darwin Middle School.jpg|thumb|right|200 px|Darwin Middle School, Northern Territory, Australia]]
−
The final four years of elementary school are actually what would be called junior high school in USA. Students have up to 12-13 different subjects in each school year (most of them only two 45-minute class periods per week). For example, 8th grade students do not have one subject called Science but three separate subjects called Chemistry, Physics and Biology.
+
Generally, education in [[Australia]] follows the three-tier model which includes [[primary education]] (primary schools), followed by [[secondary education]] (secondary schools/high schools) and [[tertiary education]] (universities and/or TAFE ([[Technical and Further Education|Technical and Further Education Colleges]])). It was not until the the early twenty-first century that separate middle schools started to develop within this system, but it has not been a widespread movement; in fact, there has been much debate over the effectiveness of middle schools within Australia.<ref>Rod Chadbourne, [http://education.curtin.edu.au/iier/qjer/qjer19/chadbourne.html What makes middle schools and middle schooling distinctive, if anything?] ''Queensland Journal of Educational Research'' 19(1) 2003: 3-12. Retrieved August 21, 2008.</ref>
  
−
===France===
+
===South America===
−
In [[France]], the equivalent period to middle school is [[Secondary education in France|collège]], which ends with the [[:fr:Classe de troisième française|Troisième]] (the equivalent of the Canadian and American [[Grade 9]]). Upon completion of this grade, students are awarded a [[Brevet des collèges]] if they obtain a certain number of points on a series of tests in various subjects.
+
While middle schools are rare in [[South America]], many countries recognize that there is a transitional period for students between primary and secondary education. In many places, the last years of primary school (or the first of secondary, depending upon the location) are labeled as later stages in primary education (beginning stages in secondary).  
−
 
 
−
===Italy===
 
−
In [[Italy]], middle school (which is "scuola media" in Italian) refers to age between 10-11 and 13-14, lasting 3 years. At the end of the third year, students have to take a final test due to complete this grade. Middle school in Italy is the last compulsory year; however, starting to work at the age of 14 is actually illegal, so, even students who don't wish to keep studying anymore, usually take a short professional course (two years). Students who decide to end school at the age of 14, can either get a sabbatical or start working illegally.
 
−
 
 
−
===United Kingdom===
 
−
In the [[United Kingdom]], some [[England|English]] [[Local Education Authority|Local Education Authorities]] introduced Middle Schools in the 1960s and 1970s. The notion of Middle Schools was mooted by the [[Plowden Report]] of 1967 which proposed a change to a [[Three-tier education|three-tier model]] including [[First school]]s for children aged between 5 and 8, Middle Schools for 8–12 year-olds, and then Upper or High Schools for 12–16 year-olds.<ref name="plowden">{{Cite web|url=http://www.dg.dial.pipex.com/documents/plowden10.shtml|title=Volume 1 Chapter 10 The Ages and Stages of Primary Education |accessdate=2008-02-01|publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |year=1967|author=Central Advisory Council for Education (England)|work=Children and their Primary Schools}}</ref> Some authorities introduced Middle Schools for ideological reasons, in line with the report, while others did so for more pragmatic reasons relating to the [[Raising Of School Leaving Age|raising of the school leaving age]] in compulsory education to 16, or to introduce a [[Comprehensive school|comprehensive system]].<ref name="TES1981">{{cite journal | title=Middle Schools Decline Due to Haphazard Development| journal=Times Educational Supplement| year=1981-11-13| url=http://www.tafkam.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/msuk/articles/TES-13111981.pdf | format={{dead link|date=June 2008}} &ndash; <sup>[http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=intitle%3AMiddle+Schools+Decline+Due+to+Haphazard+Development&as_publication=Times+Educational+Supplement&as_ylo=1981-11-13&as_yhi=1981-11-13&btnG=Search Scholar search]</sup>}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Different authorities introduced different age-range schools, although in the main, three models were used:
 
−
*5–8 First Schools, followed by 8–12 '''Middle Schools''', as suggested by Plowden
 
−
*5–9 First Schools, followed by 9–13 '''Middle Schools'''
 
−
*5–10 First Schools followed by 10–13 '''Middle Schools''', or Intermediate Schools
 
−
 
 
−
In addition, some schools were provided as [[combined school]]s catering for pupils in the 5–12 age range as a combined first and middle school. <ref name="TES1981"/>
 
−
 
 
−
Around 2000 middle and combined schools were in place in the early 1980s. However, that number began to fall in the later 1980s with the introduction of the [[National Curriculum]]. The new curriculum's splits in [[Key Stage]]s at age 11 encouraged the majority of [[Local Education Authority|Local Education Authorities]] to return to a two-tier system of [[Primary school|Primary]] and [[Secondary school]]s.<ref name="bbc">{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/121169.stm|title=Education: End of the Middle Way?|accessdate=2008-02-01|publisher=BBC News|year=1998|author=British Broadcasting Corporation|work=BBC News website}}</ref>
 
−
 
 
−
Under current legislation, all middle schools must be deemed either primary or secondary. Thus, schools which accept pupils up to age 12 are entitled '''middle-deemed-primary''', while those accepting pupils aged 13 or over are entitled '''middle-deemed-secondary'''. For statistical purposes, such schools are often included under primary and secondary categories "as deemed".<ref name="SI1983">{{Cite web|url=http://www.opsi.gov.uk/SI/si2002/20021983.htm|title=The Education (Middle School) (England) Regulations 2002|accessdate=2008-02-01|publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office|year=2002|work=Statutory Instrument 2002 No. 1983}}</ref> Notably, most schools also follow teaching patterns in line with their deemed status, with most deemed-primary schools offering a primary-style curriculum taught by one class teacher, and most deemed-secondary schools adopting a more specialist-centred approach.
 
−
 
 
−
Some Middle Schools still exist in various areas of England. The are supported by the [[National Middle Schools' Forum]]. A list of [[Middle Schools in England]] is available.
 
−
 
 
−
In [[Scotland]] a similar system was trialled in [[Grangemouth]], [[Falkirk (council area)|Falkirk]] between 1975 and 1987.<ref name="meldrum">{{cite book | title=Three-tier Education in Grangemouth| last=Meldrum| first=James| date=1976}}</ref>(See [[Grangemouth middle schools]] article) The label of '''junior high school''' is used for some through schools in Orkney and Shetland which cater for pupils from 5 up to the age of 16, at which point they transfer to a nearby secondary school.
 
−
 
 
−
== North America==
 
−
 
 
−
The definition of "middle school" is muddied somewhat because, in [[North America]]n contexts, "secondary education" quite frequently means post-compulsory ([[High School]] level) education, encompassing such diverse institutions as "English as a second language" schooling, [[trade school]]s and [[certificate program]]s, as well as other intermediate options such as [[Junior college]]s, four-year [[college]]s and full [[university|universities]].
 
−
 
 
−
===Canada and the United States===
 
−
As mentioned earlier in the article, the first junior high school was established in 1909. Advocated by groups such as the [[National Middle School Association]], the ''middle school concept'' is a relatively new model for the middle-level grades, contrasted with the more traditional junior high concept. North American children at this level are educated either at junior high schools or at middle schools, depending on the philosophy and practice of the particular school.
 
−
 
 
−
====Conceptual distinctions====
 
−
Junior high schools were created for the purpose of "bridging the gap between the elementary and the high school," a concept credited to [[Charles W. Eliot]], president of [[Harvard University]].<ref name="dmn-jh">"Junior high plan outlined," ''The Dallas Morning News'', September 22, 1929, section 1, page 9.</ref> The [[Faculty (university)|faculty]] is organized into [[academic department]]s that operate more or less independently of one another. The middle school movement in the United States saw this model as inadequately addressing the intended purpose of transition by maintaining an emphasis on the high school model, as reflected in the "junior high" designation.
 
−
 
 
−
The middle school concept often involves a group of two to eight teachers from different disciplines working as a team with the same group of students of the same grade level, with each teacher teaching a different subject. This format facilitates [[interdisciplinary]] units, where part or all of the entire team teaches on the same general topic from the perspective of different disciplines. The middle school philosophy also advocates assigning students in each team to a homeroom. By having homeroom daily for various discussions and activities, middle schools try to foster a sense of belonging in students to ease social and emotional difficulties during adolescence.{{Fact|date=May 2008}}
 
−
 
 
−
====Configurations====
 
−
Middle school (sometimes abbreviated MS<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fccpta.org/glossary/glossary2.htm#M|title=Glossary of FCPS Acronyms}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acronymfinder.com/af-query.asp?String=exact&Acronym=ms|title="What does MS stand for?"}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mlcnet.org/cms/sitem.cfm/library_tools/melcat/melcat_procedures/abbreviation_guidelines/|title=Abbreviation Guidelines}}</ref>)is often used instead of junior high school when demographic factors increase the number of younger students.<ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861692773/junior_high.html] Definition of junior high school, accessed June 12, 2007</ref> Middle schools are usually grades 6, 7, and 8 (i.e. around ages 11-14), varying from area to area and also according to population vs. building capacity. Another common model includes grades 5-8.
 
−
 
 
−
The middle school format has now replaced the junior high format by a ratio of about ten to one in the U.S. In Canada, the junior high concept is primarily seen in [[Western Canada]], while middle schools to US-standards are generally only seen in [[Ontario]] and parts of [[Atlantic Canada]], where they are sometimes called '''senior elementary schools'''. Many people also call middle school "junior high school." Middle school does not exist at all in [[Quebec]], where primary school comprises grades 1 to 6, secondary school comprises grades 7 to 11, and those latter are named "secondary 1" through "secondary 5."
 
−
 
 
−
===Mexico===
 
−
In [[Mexico]], the middle school system is called "secundaria" ("secondary") and comprises grades 7-9 and is completed after primary (1-6) and before preparatory (10-12).
 
−
 
 
−
== Professional organizations ==
 
−
The National Middle School Association (NMSA) was founded in 1973. It now claims over 30,000 members representing principals, teachers, central office personnel, professors, college students, parents, community leaders, and educational consultants across the United States, Canada, and 46 other countries.
 
−
An equivalent organisation operates in the UK under the name of The [[National Middle Schools' Forum]].
 
  
 +
For example, in [[Brazil]], "fundamental education" is mandatory for children ages 6 to 14. There are nine "years" (as opposed to the former eight "grades"), and years six, seven, eight, and nine are designated as ''Ensino Fundamental II''.<ref>Folha OnLine, [http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/folha/educacao/ult305u18335.shtml Ensino fundamental de 9 anos beneficia estudantes mais pobres, diz Lula.] Retrieved August 21, 2008.</ref>
  
 +
In [[Venezuela]], students attend primary school until they are eleven. They are then promoted to the second level of basic education, where they stay until they are 14 or 15, at which point they are then given the choice to continue their education or enter the workforce.
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
Line 155: Line 71:
  
 
== References ==
 
== References ==
−
*Arnold, J. "Needed: A Realistic Perspective of the Early Adolescent Learner." CLEARINGHOUSE 54:4 (1980).
+
* Dickinson, Thomas S. ''Reinventing the Middle School ''. RoutledgeFalmer, 2001. ISBN 0415925924.
−
*Atwell, Nancie. "In the Middle: New Understanding About Writing, Reading, and Learning." Boynton/Cook Pub (1987).
+
* McEwin, C. Kenneth, Thomas S. Dickinson, and Doris M. Jenkins. ''America's Middle Schools: Practices and Progress: A 25 Year Perspective''. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association, 1996. ISBN 1560901020.
−
*Beane, J. "Dance to the Music of Time: The Future of Middle Level Education." THE EARLY ADOLESCENT MAGAZINE 2 (September 1987):18&ndash;26.
+
* Fenwick, J. ''Taking Center Stage: A Commitment to Standards-Based Education for California's Middle Grades Students''. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Education, 2001.
−
*Beane, J. A MIDDLE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: FROM RHETORIC TO REALITY. Columbus, Ohio: National Middle School Association, 1990a.
+
* Louis, Francois. ''Secondary Education in France: A Decade of Change''. Organization for Economic Cooperation & Development, 1995. ISBN 9264145486.
−
*Beane, J. AFFECT IN THE CURRICULUM: TOWARD DEMOCRACY, DIGNITY, AND DIVERSITY. New York: Teachers College Press, 1990b.
+
* MacIver, Douglas and Allen Ruby. [http://www.answers.com/topic/middle-school Middle Schools.] ''Encyclopedia of Education'' Gale Group, Inc., 2002. Retrieved August 21, 2008.
−
*Cross Keys Middle School. A PLACE OF OUR OWN. Florissant, Missouri: Florissant Public Schools, 1990.
 
−
*Jennings, W., and Nathan, J. "Startling/Disturbing Research on School Program Effectiveness." PHI DELTA KAPPAN 59 (1977): 568&ndash;572.
 
−
*Fenwick, J. (Primary Author) Taking Center Stage: A Commitment to Standards-Based Education for California's Middle Grades Students. Sacramento: California Department of Education, 2001
 
−
*"Why Middle Level Schools Are KEY to Young Adolescent Success" Westerville, OH: NMSA, 2003.  
 
  
 +
==External links==
 +
All links retrieved November 9, 2022.
  
−
 
−
 
−
==External links==
 
−
*[http://www.nmsa.org/Publications/TheFamilyConnection/Vol8No2/tabid/214/Default.aspx]
 
 
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-5/model.htm Model Programs for Middle School Teacher Preparation]
 
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-5/model.htm Model Programs for Middle School Teacher Preparation]
−
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-2/middle.htm The Transition to Middle School]
 
 
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9214/middle.htm Integrating Literature into Middle School Reading Classrooms]
 
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9214/middle.htm Integrating Literature into Middle School Reading Classrooms]
 
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9213/middle.htm Middle School Education—The Critical Link in Dropout Prevention]
 
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9213/middle.htm Middle School Education—The Critical Link in Dropout Prevention]
 
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-1/middle.htm Integrated Curriculum in the Middle School]
 
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-1/middle.htm Integrated Curriculum in the Middle School]
−
*[http://www.unb.ca/education/bezeau/eact/eact07.html Canada: Provincial Systems of Education]
 
−
*[http://www.nmsa.org/ National Middle School Association]
 
−
*[http://www.nmsa.org/AboutNMSA/AffiliateOrganizations/CollegiateMiddleLevelAssociation/tabid/553/Default.aspx Collegiate Middle Level Association] A pre-professional organization for students preparing to teach middle school.
 
 
*[http://www.middleschools.org.uk/ National Middle Schools' Forum (UK)]
 
*[http://www.middleschools.org.uk/ National Middle Schools' Forum (UK)]
−
*[http://middleschools.atspace.com/ UK Middle Schools]
+
*[https://sites.google.com/site/middleschools/ UK Middle Schools]
−
*[http://www.parentsagainstchange.org Parents Against Change - large collection of research pro-Middle Schooling]
 
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{{Credits|Middle_school|222667289|}}
 
{{Credits|Middle_school|222667289|}}

Latest revision as of 17:33, 9 November 2022

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Middle school, also known as Junior High school, is a school in the secondary educational system that usually bridges the gap between elementary and high school. The exact organization varies, but most often middle schools consist of sixth, seventh, and eighth grades, students usually being between the ages of 12-14. Junior high schools traditionally include only seventh and eighth grades. The middle school is most common in the United States. Variations of middle schools exist in education systems around the world, although in some countries there is no designated school that bridges between elementary and high school.

The middle school years are a significant time in compulsory schooling for students, as educational expectations rise and the social and biological changes of puberty affect the students. The middle school was established to act as a transition, moving the student away from the world of childhood and introducing social skills and mastery of knowledge and techniques that will be further developed in high school. To succeed in this role, middle schools nurture their students socially and emotionally, providing guidance in social relationships as well as academic and other studies.

Purpose

The middle school years are a significant time in compulsory schooling for students, as educational expectations rise and the social and biological changes of puberty affect the students. Hence, the primary purpose of a middle school is to serve as an educational facility to help in the transition from primary to secondary education, often by combining elements of both upper primary and lower secondary school buildings to create an environment that is both familiar and new to its students.

Origin in the United States

Crispell Middle School, Pine Brush, New York, United States of America, The U.S.

The genesis for the middle school in the United States came in the late nineteenth century, with a major study by the president of Harvard University and the National Education Association's Committee of Ten on Secondary School Studies that outlined a re-organization of education in America.[1] At that time, education was mostly broken up into elementary schools, which consisted of grades 1-8, and high schools, grades 9-12. The core argument of the study was that students would benefit from starting more advanced studies earlier in their education, and suggested that elementary schools be compromised of grades 1-6 and high schools grades 7-12.[1]

In 1909, the first junior high schools were established in Columbus, Ohio, compromising grades 7-8.[2] It was not long before more junior high schools started to develop in other parts of the country. These schools were largely focused upon transitioning students from elementary studies to more advanced subjects and extracurricular activities, such as sports, in order to properly prepare students for high schools, which were seen as being the preparation for college.

A hallway at the Eckstein Middle School, Seattle, Washington.

In the middle of the twentieth century, a new movement began that eventually established the middle school. While junior high schools were popular, there were also areas for improvement. Some of the difficulties with junior high schools were economic and logistical; and establishing junior high schools for students for only two years was an additional burden upon resources for school districts. The short time span of junior high also meant that the social relationships of students became fractured and strained during the years between sixth and ninth grade.

The first middle school in America opened in Bay City, Michigan, in 1950.[2] Structured to host students from grades six through eight, the early middle school movement was based upon the belief that by the time students entered sixth grade, they were intellectually and socially advanced beyond the confines of elementary schools, and that as most students in sixth grade were of the age of puberty, and hence entering the first stages of adulthood, sixth grade was the appropriate grade to begin to transition from elementary to secondary education. The spread of middle schools also helped logistical problems, such as overcrowding, and spread teachers and administrators more evenly among districts. Today, middle and junior high schools exist in America, and while often these terms can be used interchangeably, the grades are often divided differently among the two, with junior high schools taking students in seventh and eighth grades while middle schools include sixth grade as well.

Organization

Like other schools in the U. S., middle schools can be either public or private institutions. Public middle schools are under the jurisdiction of local school boards and state education departments, and are usually funded by a mixture of local and state taxes. Many public school districts are set up so that the many different schools can work interconnected with one another in the flow and maturation of students. As such, middle schools work closely with elementary schools for incoming students, and with high school in regards to their graduating students. Private middle schools, while less populous than public schools, do exist in many areas of the United States. Some of these schools are religiously affiliated, while others are secular and are more like preparatory schools. Private schools are funded through endowments and tuition and so are not under the regulation of local or state education agencies.

Private and public middle schools generally have similar administrative organizations. Usually a principal, dean, or headmaster is in charge of the overall school operations, assisted by subordinate administrators. Most middle schools also have a guidance staff, which helps plan students' schedules and act as advocates for a wide array of student needs. School psychologists and social workers may also serve as members of the staff.

Facilities

Stanton Middle School in Kent, Ohio, showing gym and south end of building.

Most middle schools have facilities comparable to high schools, only on a smaller scale. In addition to regular classrooms, most middle schools are equipped with cafeterias to serve food to students, gymnasiums for physical education, auditoriums for assemblies and student performances, and health or nurse's offices to ensure the daily safety and physical well-being of the student population. Depending upon budgeting and curricular restraints, middle schools may also have laboratory facilities for science classes, art and music rooms, and equipment and computer rooms. Most middle schools will also have outside sport arenas, such as football, baseball, soccer, and running tracks; sometimes a single area will be used for all such activities.

Cultural variations

The existence and purpose of middle schools is quite varied around the world. While middle schools were developed in the U.S. as transitional facilities specifically designed to help students through the period of change between childhood's elementary education and into the secondary education of adolescence, in many countries no such system exists. In some, there is no transitional phase; students merely attend primary school and then high school, although these may be of different types depending on ability and other factors. In other countries, compulsory education ends after middle school and, therefore, for many students the transition is not into secondary education but rather into the workforce.

Africa

Middle schools are rare in Africa, due to the political instability, poverty, disease, lack of infrastructure, and civil violence that have caused problems in many regions of the continent. Since many countries within Africa are still struggling to fully modernize, many areas have very basic schools that are usually underfunded and understaffed. Since middle schools are usually developed as bridges between well established primary and secondary schools, there are as yet few middle schools in many parts of Africa. Those countries with more established educational institutions, such as South Africa, Egypt, and Kenya, have generally divided their schools into primary and secondary systems.

Asia

Education has always been important in the East, and the rapid modernization that swept through many Asia countries during the twentieth century has also ushered in the idea of middle schools. In the People's Republic of China, junior middle schools (chuzhong or 初中) refer to years seven through nine. This covers the last three years of the nine-year compulsory education, which is subject to fees. At the end of the last year, the college-bound students take exams to enter high school (gaozhong or 高中) others wishing to continue their training may enter technical high school (中学专科/中专) or vocational school (职业学校).[3]

The courtyard and classrooms wing of Onizuka Middle School in Karatsu, Japan. Third year students have classes on the first floor, second year students the second, and first year students the third floor.

In Japan, junior high schools, which cover years seven through nine, are called chū gakkō (中学校, literally, middle school). They are referred to as "junior high schools" in most conversations in English and are referred to by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology as "lower secondary schools." Junior High school is the last stage of compulsory education in Japan, after which those that plan to continue to the "higher secondary schools" are required to pay a small fee.[4]

Middle schools in South Korea consist of three grades. Most students enter at age 12 and finish at age 15 (western years). These three grades correspond roughly to grades seven through nine in the North American system and second to fourth form in the British system. Middle school in South Korea marks a considerable shift from elementary school, with students expected to take studies and school much more seriously.

Europe

In France, the collège is the first level of secondary education in the French educational system. Entry into the sixième year, the first year of collège, occurs directly after the last year of primary school, called cours moyen deuxième année (CM2). There is no entrance examination into collège, yet administrators have established a comprehensive academic examination for pupils starting sixième, the purpose of which is to evaluate the level of each pupil on graduation from primary school.[5]

In Italy, middle school (scuola media) refers to the three years of schooling for students aged between 10-11 and 13-14. At the end of the third year, students have to take a final test due to complete this grade. Middle school in Italy is the last year of compulsory education. However, the legal age to begin employment is 16, and so even students who do not wish to continue their studies after middle school usually enroll in a short professional course (two years).[6]

In the United Kingdom, all middle schools must be deemed either primary or secondary. Thus, schools which accept pupils up to age 12 are entitled middle-deemed-primary, while those accepting pupils aged 13 or over are entitled middle-deemed-secondary. For statistical purposes, such schools are often included under primary and secondary categories "as deemed."[7] Notably, most schools also follow teaching patterns in line with their deemed status, with most deemed-primary schools offering a primary-style curriculum taught by one class teacher, and most deemed-secondary schools adopting a more specialist-centered approach with multiple teachers.

Gymnasium (middle school) of Janusz Kusociński in Mińsk Mazowiecki, Poland.

In Germany, schools that may be considered middle schools, include the Hauptschule and Realschule. A Hauptschule is a secondary school starting after four years of elementary schooling. Any student who has completed a German elementary school can attend a Hauptschule, whereas students who want to attend a Realschule or Gymnasium must achieve a certain academic standard. The students spend five to six years at the Hauptschule, from fifth to ninth (or tenth) grade. They finish at about age 15 or 16. Conversely, pupils start at a Realschule at the age of eleven or twelve and typically finish school at the age of 16, when they are expected to take on an apprenticeship. The Realschule is ranked between Hauptschule (lowest) and Gymnasium (highest) in the secondary school system.

In Poland, the gymnasium is a type of middle school, consisting of three years of education starting at age 13 to 14, following six years of elementary school. This level of education is compulsory for all students. After this gymnasium students may enroll in the non-mandatory three years liceum, four years technikum, or two or three years of vocational technical school.

Oceania

In New Zealand, "intermediate schools" cover years seven and eight (formerly known as form one and two), with children aged 11 to 12 in areas where the local primary schools teach students in year one to year six. Many primary schools, however, also teach year seven and eight. These primary schools may have a relationship with a nearby intermediate school to teach manual training classes such as woodwork. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, junior high schools covering years seven to ten, the four years between primary and the National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA), were established.[8]

Darwin Middle School, Northern Territory, Australia

Generally, education in Australia follows the three-tier model which includes primary education (primary schools), followed by secondary education (secondary schools/high schools) and tertiary education (universities and/or TAFE (Technical and Further Education Colleges)). It was not until the the early twenty-first century that separate middle schools started to develop within this system, but it has not been a widespread movement; in fact, there has been much debate over the effectiveness of middle schools within Australia.[9]

South America

While middle schools are rare in South America, many countries recognize that there is a transitional period for students between primary and secondary education. In many places, the last years of primary school (or the first of secondary, depending upon the location) are labeled as later stages in primary education (beginning stages in secondary).

For example, in Brazil, "fundamental education" is mandatory for children ages 6 to 14. There are nine "years" (as opposed to the former eight "grades"), and years six, seven, eight, and nine are designated as Ensino Fundamental II.[10]

In Venezuela, students attend primary school until they are eleven. They are then promoted to the second level of basic education, where they stay until they are 14 or 15, at which point they are then given the choice to continue their education or enter the workforce.

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Douglas MacIver and Allen Ruby, Middle Schools, Encyclopedia of Education, Gale Group, Inc., 2002. Retrieved August 21, 2008.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Ron Banks, Middle School, Clearinghouse on Early Education and Parenting, 2004. Retrieved August 21, 2008.
  3. ↑ China Education and Research Network, Education System in China, 2000. Retrieved July 27, 2008
  4. ↑ International Education Media, Japan Education, Trinity House, London, 2007. Retrieved July 27, 2008
  5. ↑ Francois Louis, Secondary Education in France: A Decade of Change (Organization for Economic Cooperation & Development, 1995, ISBN 9264145486).
  6. ↑ The European Education Directory, Italy, 2002. Retrieved July 27, 2008
  7. ↑ Her Majesty's Stationery Office, The Education (Middle School) (England) Regulations, 2002. Retrieved July 27, 2008.
  8. ↑ Mollie Neville-Tisdall, "Pedagogy and Politics in New Zealand's Middle Schools" Middle School Journal 33(4) Mar 2002: 45-51.
  9. ↑ Rod Chadbourne, What makes middle schools and middle schooling distinctive, if anything? Queensland Journal of Educational Research 19(1) 2003: 3-12. Retrieved August 21, 2008.
  10. ↑ Folha OnLine, Ensino fundamental de 9 anos beneficia estudantes mais pobres, diz Lula. Retrieved August 21, 2008.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Dickinson, Thomas S. Reinventing the Middle School . RoutledgeFalmer, 2001. ISBN 0415925924.
  • McEwin, C. Kenneth, Thomas S. Dickinson, and Doris M. Jenkins. America's Middle Schools: Practices and Progress: A 25 Year Perspective. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association, 1996. ISBN 1560901020.
  • Fenwick, J. Taking Center Stage: A Commitment to Standards-Based Education for California's Middle Grades Students. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Education, 2001.
  • Louis, Francois. Secondary Education in France: A Decade of Change. Organization for Economic Cooperation & Development, 1995. ISBN 9264145486.
  • MacIver, Douglas and Allen Ruby. Middle Schools. Encyclopedia of Education Gale Group, Inc., 2002. Retrieved August 21, 2008.

External links

All links retrieved November 9, 2022.

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