Difference between revisions of "Food coloring" - New World Encyclopedia
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[[Image:Food coloring.jpg|thumb|250px|Food coloring spreading on a thin water film.]] | [[Image:Food coloring.jpg|thumb|250px|Food coloring spreading on a thin water film.]] | ||
| − | A '''food coloring''' is any substance that is added to [[food]] to change its [[color]]. It is sometimes used in cooking. | + | A '''food coloring''' is any substance that is added to [[food or drink]] to change its [[color]]. It is sometimes used in cooking. |
==Purpose of food coloring== | ==Purpose of food coloring== | ||
| − | People associate certain [[color]]s with certain [[flavor]]s, and the color of [[food]] can influence the [[perception|perceived]] flavor, in anything from [[confectionery|candy]] to [[wine]]. | + | |
| − | <ref>{{cite journal | + | People associate certain [[color]]s with certain [[flavor]]s, and the color of [[food]] can influence the [[perception|perceived]] flavor, in anything from [[confectionery|candy]] to [[wine]].<ref>{{cite journal |
| author=Jeannine Delwiche | | author=Jeannine Delwiche | ||
| title= The impact of perceptual interactions on perceived flavor | | title= The impact of perceptual interactions on perceived flavor | ||
| Line 13: | Line 12: | ||
| year=2004 | | year=2004 | ||
| volume=15 | | volume=15 | ||
| − | | pages= | + | | pages=137–146 }}</ref> |
| − | For this reason, food manufacturers add | + | For this reason, food manufacturers add dyes to their products. Sometimes, the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as natural, such as adding red coloring to glacé [[cherry|cherries]] (which would otherwise be beige). At other times, it is for effect, such as a variety of children's cereals or the green [[ketchup]] that [[H. J. Heinz Company|Heinz]] launched in 2000. |
| − | + | Although most consumers are aware that foods with bright or unnatural colors likely contain food coloring, far fewer people know that seemingly "natural" foods such as oranges and salmon are sometimes also dyed to mask natural variations in color.<ref name="fdacf">{{cite web | |
|url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/colorfac.html | |url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/colorfac.html | ||
|title=FDA/CFSAN Food Color Facts|publisher=[[Food and Drug Administration]] | |title=FDA/CFSAN Food Color Facts|publisher=[[Food and Drug Administration]] | ||
| − | |accessdate=2006-09-07 | + | |accessdate=2006-09-07}}</ref> Color variation in foods throughout the seasons and the effects of processing and storage often make color addition commercially advantageous to maintain the color expected or preferred by the consumer. |
| − | }}</ref> Color variation in foods throughout the seasons and the effects of processing and storage often make color addition commercially advantageous to maintain the color expected or preferred by the consumer. Some of the primary reasons include: | + | |
| + | Some of the primary reasons for adding food coloring include: | ||
*Offsetting color loss due to light, air, extremes of temperature, moisture, and storage conditions. | *Offsetting color loss due to light, air, extremes of temperature, moisture, and storage conditions. | ||
*Masking natural variations in color. | *Masking natural variations in color. | ||
| Line 26: | Line 26: | ||
*Providing identity to foods. | *Providing identity to foods. | ||
*Protecting flavors and vitamins from damage by light. | *Protecting flavors and vitamins from damage by light. | ||
| − | *Decorating | + | *Decorating, such as cake icing. |
| + | |||
| + | ==Regulations== | ||
| + | |||
| + | Food colorings are tested for safety by various bodies around the world and sometimes different bodies have different views on food color safety. In the [[United States]], [[FD&C]] (Foods, [[Drugs]] and [[Cosmetics]]) numbers are given to synthetic food dyes that do not exist in nature. In the [[European Union]], [[E number]]s are used for all additives approved in food applications. | ||
| − | + | Most other countries have their own regulations and list of food colors, which can be used in various applications, including maximum daily intake limits. | |
| − | |||
| − | + | Natural colors are not required to be tested by FDA in the [[United States]] and many other countries. | |
==Natural food dyes== | ==Natural food dyes== | ||
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | |||
| − | ==United States== | + | Several food dyes are derived from natural sources. Prominent examples are given below. |
| − | Seven dyes were initially approved under the [[Pure Food and Drug Act]] of 1906, but several have been delisted and replacements have been found. <ref name=fdc>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=News of Food; U. S. May Outlaw Dyes Used to Tint Oranges and Other Foods |url= |quote=The use of artificial colors to make foods more attractive to the eye may be sharply curtailed by action of the United States Food and Drug Administration. Three of the most extensively used coal tar dyes are being considered for removal from the Government's list of colors certified as safe for internal and external use and consumption. |publisher=[[New York Times]] |date=January 19, 1954, Tuesday |accessdate=2007-08-21 }}</ref> | + | * [[Caramel coloring]] is found in [[cola]] products. It is made from [[caramelization|caramelized]] [[sugar]]. It is also used in cosmetics. |
| + | * [[Annatto]] is a reddish-orange [[dye]] made from the seed of the [[Achiote]]. | ||
| + | * [[Chlorella]] is green and is derived from [[algae]]. | ||
| + | * [[Cochineal]] is a red dye derived from cochineal insects. | ||
| + | * [[Beet]] juice, [[turmeric]], [[saffron]], and [[paprika]] are also used as colorants. | ||
| + | |||
| + | ==Artifical Coloring in United States== | ||
| + | |||
| + | Seven dyes were initially approved under the [[Pure Food and Drug Act]] of 1906, but several of those have been delisted and replacements have been found.<ref name=fdc>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=News of Food; U. S. May Outlaw Dyes Used to Tint Oranges and Other Foods |url= |quote=The use of artificial colors to make foods more attractive to the eye may be sharply curtailed by action of the United States Food and Drug Administration. Three of the most extensively used coal tar dyes are being considered for removal from the Government's list of colors certified as safe for internal and external use and consumption. |publisher=[[New York Times]] |date=January 19, 1954, Tuesday |accessdate=2007-08-21 }}</ref> | ||
===Current seven=== | ===Current seven=== | ||
| − | In the USA, the following seven artificial colorings are permitted in food (the most common in bold) | + | |
| + | In the USA, the following seven artificial colorings are permitted in food (the most common in bold), as of 2007: | ||
*'''[[FD&C]] Blue No. 1 - [[Brilliant Blue FCF]], [[E133]]''' (Blue shade) | *'''[[FD&C]] Blue No. 1 - [[Brilliant Blue FCF]], [[E133]]''' (Blue shade) | ||
*FD&C Blue No. 2 - [[Indigotine]], [[E132]] (Dark Blue shade) | *FD&C Blue No. 2 - [[Indigotine]], [[E132]] (Dark Blue shade) | ||
| Line 48: | Line 57: | ||
*'''FD&C Red No. 40 - [[Allura Red AC]], [[E129]]''' (Red shade) | *'''FD&C Red No. 40 - [[Allura Red AC]], [[E129]]''' (Red shade) | ||
*FD&C Red No. 3 - [[Erythrosine]], [[E127]] (Pink shade) <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/CONSUMER/CON00063.html |title=Red No. 3 and Other Colorful Controversies |accessdate=2007-08-26 |quote=FDA terminated the provisional listings for FD&C Red No. 3 on January 29, 1990, | *FD&C Red No. 3 - [[Erythrosine]], [[E127]] (Pink shade) <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/CONSUMER/CON00063.html |title=Red No. 3 and Other Colorful Controversies |accessdate=2007-08-26 |quote=FDA terminated the provisional listings for FD&C Red No. 3 on January 29, 1990, | ||
| − | at the conclusion of its review of the 200 straight colors on the 1960 provisional list. | + | at the conclusion of its review of the 200 straight colors on the 1960 provisional list. Commonly called erythrosine, FD&C Red No. 3 is a tint that imparts a watermelon-red color and was one of the original seven colors on Hesse's list. |publisher=[[FDA]] }}</ref> |
*'''FD&C Yellow No. 5 - [[Tartrazine]], [[E102]]''' (Yellow shade) | *'''FD&C Yellow No. 5 - [[Tartrazine]], [[E102]]''' (Yellow shade) | ||
*FD&C Yellow No. 6 - [[Sunset Yellow FCF]], [[E110]] (Orange shade) | *FD&C Yellow No. 6 - [[Sunset Yellow FCF]], [[E110]] (Orange shade) | ||
===Delisted=== | ===Delisted=== | ||
| + | |||
* FD&C Red No. 2 - [[Amaranth (dye)]] | * FD&C Red No. 2 - [[Amaranth (dye)]] | ||
| − | * FD&C Red No. 4 <ref name=eb/> | + | * FD&C Red No. 4<ref name=eb/> |
| − | * [[FD&C Red No. 32]] was used to color Florida oranges. <ref name=fdc/> <ref name=eb/> | + | * [[FD&C Red No. 32]] was used to color Florida oranges.<ref name=fdc/><ref name=eb/> |
* [[FD&C Orange No. 1]], was one of the first water soluble dyes to be commercialized, and one of seven original food dyes allowed under the [[Pure Food and Drug Act]] of June 30, 1906.<ref name=fdc/> <ref name=eb>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Food coloring |url=http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9034796 |quote=Among the colours that have been “delisted,” or disallowed, in the United States are FD&C Orange No. 1; FD&C Red No. 32; FD&C Yellows No. 1, 2, 3, and 4; FD&C Violet No. 1; and FD&C Reds No. 2 and 4. Many countries with similar food colouring controls (including Canada and Great Britain) also ban the use of Red No. 40, and Yellow No. 5 is also undergoing testing. |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |date= |accessdate=2007-08-21 }}</ref> | * [[FD&C Orange No. 1]], was one of the first water soluble dyes to be commercialized, and one of seven original food dyes allowed under the [[Pure Food and Drug Act]] of June 30, 1906.<ref name=fdc/> <ref name=eb>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Food coloring |url=http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9034796 |quote=Among the colours that have been “delisted,” or disallowed, in the United States are FD&C Orange No. 1; FD&C Red No. 32; FD&C Yellows No. 1, 2, 3, and 4; FD&C Violet No. 1; and FD&C Reds No. 2 and 4. Many countries with similar food colouring controls (including Canada and Great Britain) also ban the use of Red No. 40, and Yellow No. 5 is also undergoing testing. |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |date= |accessdate=2007-08-21 }}</ref> | ||
| − | + | * [[FD&C Orange No. 2]] was used to color Florida oranges.<ref name=fdc/> | |
| − | * [[FD&C Orange No. 2]] was used to color Florida oranges. <ref name=fdc/> | + | * FD&C Yellows No. 1, 2, 3, and 4<ref name=eb/> |
| − | * FD&C Yellows No. 1, 2, 3, and 4 <ref name=eb/> | + | * FD&C Violet No. 1<ref name=eb/> |
| − | * FD&C Violet No. 1 <ref name=eb/> | ||
==Criticism== | ==Criticism== | ||
| − | *[[Norway]] banned all products containing coal tar and coal tar derivatives in 1978. | + | Though past research showed no correlation between ADHD and food dyes<ref>Wilens TE, Biederman J, Spencer TJ. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan. Annual Review of Medicine, 2002:53:113-131</ref><ref>The MTA Cooperative Group. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Archives of General Psychiatry, 1999;56:1073-1086</ref>. New studies now point to synthetic preservatives and artificial coloring agents as aggravating ADD & ADHD symptoms in both those affected by these disorders and in the general population<ref>Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial,” Lancet, Sept 2007</ref><ref>1997 Graduate Student Research Project conducted at the University of South Florida. Author- Richard W. Pressinger M.Ed.</ref>; Older studies were inconclusive quite possibly due to inadequate clinical methods of measuring offending behavior. Parental reports were more accurate indicators of the presence of additives than clinical tests. <ref>"Food Additives May Affect Kids' Hyperactivity," WebMD Medical News, May 24, 2004</ref> Several major studies show academic performance increased and disciplinary problems decreased in large non-ADD student populations when artificial ingredients, including artificial colors were eliminated from school food programs.<ref>A different kind of school lunch," PURE FACTS October 2002</ref><ref>The Impact of a Low Food Additive and Sucrose Diet on Academic Performance in 803 New York City Public Schools, Schoenthaler SJ, Doraz WE, Wakefield JA, Int J Biosocial Res., 1986, 8(2); 185-195</ref> |
| + | *[[Norway]] banned all products containing coal tar and coal tar derivatives in 1978. New legislation lifted this ban in 2001 after [[EU]] regulations. As such, many [[FD&C]] approved colorings have been banned. | ||
*Tartrazine is a [[coal-tar]] derivative, and causes [[hives]] in less than 0.01% of those exposed to it <ref name="fdacf"/>. | *Tartrazine is a [[coal-tar]] derivative, and causes [[hives]] in less than 0.01% of those exposed to it <ref name="fdacf"/>. | ||
*Erythrosine is linked to [[thyroid]] [[tumor]]s in rats.<ref>Jpn J Cancer Res. 1988 Mar;79(3):314-9</ref> | *Erythrosine is linked to [[thyroid]] [[tumor]]s in rats.<ref>Jpn J Cancer Res. 1988 Mar;79(3):314-9</ref> | ||
| + | *Bright food coloring ban unlikely for Australia <ref>http://www.thewest.com.au/default.aspx?MenuID=158&ContentID=67419</ref> | ||
<!-- An interesting side effect of FD&C Blue No.1 causes human feces to turn green. This is due to the fact that the coloring reacts with bile found in the intestine. The effect is considered harmless, and no ill effects have been reported thus far.{{Fact|date=August 2007}} | <!-- An interesting side effect of FD&C Blue No.1 causes human feces to turn green. This is due to the fact that the coloring reacts with bile found in the intestine. The effect is considered harmless, and no ill effects have been reported thus far.{{Fact|date=August 2007}} | ||
| Line 74: | Line 85: | ||
In the [[United States]], certifiable color additives are available for use in food as either "dyes" or "lakes." | In the [[United States]], certifiable color additives are available for use in food as either "dyes" or "lakes." | ||
| − | [[Dyes]] dissolve in water, but are not [[soluble]] in [[oil]]. | + | [[Dyes]] [[solvation|dissolve]] in water, but are not [[soluble]] in [[oil]]. Dyes are manufactured as powders, granules, liquids or other special purpose forms. They can be used in beverages, dry mixes, baked goods, confections, [[dairy]] products, pet foods and a variety of other products. Dyes also have side effects which lakes do not, including the fact that large amounts of dyes ingested can color stools. |
| − | [[lake pigments|Lakes]] are the combination of dyes and insoluble material. | + | [[lake pigments|Lakes]] are the combination of dyes and insoluble material. Lakes tint by [[dispersion]]. Lakes are not [[oil]] [[soluble]], but are oil dispersible. Lakes are more stable than [[dyes]] and are ideal for coloring products containing fats and oils or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve dyes. Typical uses include coated tablets, cake and donut mixes, hard candies and chewing gums, lipsticks, soaps, shampoos, talc etc. |
==Other uses== | ==Other uses== | ||
| − | Because | + | Because food dyes are generally safer to use than normal artistic dyes and pigments, some artists have used food coloring as a means of making pictures, especially in forms such as bodypainting. |
Food coloring can serve as a means of dyeing fabric, however it is not washfast when used on cotton, hemp and other plant fibres, although it can be fixed on Nylon and animal fibres. | Food coloring can serve as a means of dyeing fabric, however it is not washfast when used on cotton, hemp and other plant fibres, although it can be fixed on Nylon and animal fibres. | ||
| Line 86: | Line 97: | ||
*[[E number]] | *[[E number]] | ||
*[[Food additive]] | *[[Food additive]] | ||
| + | |||
| + | == Notes == | ||
| + | <references /> | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
| − | + | ||
| + | *U.S. Food and Drug Administration. ''Everything Added to Food in the United States.'' Boca Raton, FL: C.K. Smoley (c/o CRC Press, Inc.), 1993. | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
| − | |||
*[http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/colorfac.html FDA/CFSAN Food Color Facts] | *[http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/colorfac.html FDA/CFSAN Food Color Facts] | ||
| Line 97: | Line 111: | ||
*[http://www.food-info.net/uk/colour/natcolour.htm Natural Food Colors (Food-Info)] | *[http://www.food-info.net/uk/colour/natcolour.htm Natural Food Colors (Food-Info)] | ||
| + | * [http://www.grokfood.com/ Database of food additives and regulations governing their use] Retrieved April 15, 2007. | ||
| + | * [http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sfp/flav_index_en.html EU legislation on food additives] Retrieved April 15, 2007. | ||
| + | * [http://www.cspinet.org/reports/chemcuisine.htm CSPI's guide to food additives] Retrieved April 15, 2007. | ||
| + | * [http://www.agnr.umd.edu/MCE/Publications/Publication.cfm?ID=108 University of Maryland, College of Agriculture & Natural Resources - Food Additives] Retrieved April 15, 2007. | ||
| − | {{ | + | {{Food chemistry}} |
[[Category:Physical sciences]] | [[Category:Physical sciences]] | ||
| − | + | [[Category:Food science]] | |
| − | |||
Revision as of 03:52, 25 April 2008
A food coloring is any substance that is added to food or drink to change its color. It is sometimes used in cooking.
Purpose of food coloring
People associate certain colors with certain flavors, and the color of food can influence the perceived flavor, in anything from candy to wine.[1] For this reason, food manufacturers add dyes to their products. Sometimes, the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as natural, such as adding red coloring to glacé cherries (which would otherwise be beige). At other times, it is for effect, such as a variety of children's cereals or the green ketchup that Heinz launched in 2000.
Although most consumers are aware that foods with bright or unnatural colors likely contain food coloring, far fewer people know that seemingly "natural" foods such as oranges and salmon are sometimes also dyed to mask natural variations in color.[2] Color variation in foods throughout the seasons and the effects of processing and storage often make color addition commercially advantageous to maintain the color expected or preferred by the consumer.
Some of the primary reasons for adding food coloring include:
- Offsetting color loss due to light, air, extremes of temperature, moisture, and storage conditions.
- Masking natural variations in color.
- Enhancing naturally occurring colors.
- Providing identity to foods.
- Protecting flavors and vitamins from damage by light.
- Decorating, such as cake icing.
Regulations
Food colorings are tested for safety by various bodies around the world and sometimes different bodies have different views on food color safety. In the United States, FD&C (Foods, Drugs and Cosmetics) numbers are given to synthetic food dyes that do not exist in nature. In the European Union, E numbers are used for all additives approved in food applications.
Most other countries have their own regulations and list of food colors, which can be used in various applications, including maximum daily intake limits.
Natural colors are not required to be tested by FDA in the United States and many other countries.
Natural food dyes
Several food dyes are derived from natural sources. Prominent examples are given below.
- Caramel coloring is found in cola products. It is made from caramelized sugar. It is also used in cosmetics.
- Annatto is a reddish-orange dye made from the seed of the Achiote.
- Chlorella is green and is derived from algae.
- Cochineal is a red dye derived from cochineal insects.
- Beet juice, turmeric, saffron, and paprika are also used as colorants.
Artifical Coloring in United States
Seven dyes were initially approved under the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, but several of those have been delisted and replacements have been found.[3]
Current seven
In the USA, the following seven artificial colorings are permitted in food (the most common in bold), as of 2007:
- FD&C Blue No. 1 - Brilliant Blue FCF, E133 (Blue shade)
- FD&C Blue No. 2 - Indigotine, E132 (Dark Blue shade)
- FD&C Green No. 3 - Fast Green FCF, E143 (Bluish green shade)
- FD&C Red No. 40 - Allura Red AC, E129 (Red shade)
- FD&C Red No. 3 - Erythrosine, E127 (Pink shade) [4]
- FD&C Yellow No. 5 - Tartrazine, E102 (Yellow shade)
- FD&C Yellow No. 6 - Sunset Yellow FCF, E110 (Orange shade)
Delisted
- FD&C Red No. 2 - Amaranth (dye)
- FD&C Red No. 4[5]
- FD&C Red No. 32 was used to color Florida oranges.[3][5]
- FD&C Orange No. 1, was one of the first water soluble dyes to be commercialized, and one of seven original food dyes allowed under the Pure Food and Drug Act of June 30, 1906.[3] [5]
- FD&C Orange No. 2 was used to color Florida oranges.[3]
- FD&C Yellows No. 1, 2, 3, and 4[5]
- FD&C Violet No. 1[5]
Criticism
Though past research showed no correlation between ADHD and food dyes[6][7]. New studies now point to synthetic preservatives and artificial coloring agents as aggravating ADD & ADHD symptoms in both those affected by these disorders and in the general population[8][9]; Older studies were inconclusive quite possibly due to inadequate clinical methods of measuring offending behavior. Parental reports were more accurate indicators of the presence of additives than clinical tests. [10] Several major studies show academic performance increased and disciplinary problems decreased in large non-ADD student populations when artificial ingredients, including artificial colors were eliminated from school food programs.[11][12]
- Norway banned all products containing coal tar and coal tar derivatives in 1978. New legislation lifted this ban in 2001 after EU regulations. As such, many FD&C approved colorings have been banned.
- Tartrazine is a coal-tar derivative, and causes hives in less than 0.01% of those exposed to it [2].
- Erythrosine is linked to thyroid tumors in rats.[13]
- Bright food coloring ban unlikely for Australia [14]
Dyes and lakes
In the United States, certifiable color additives are available for use in food as either "dyes" or "lakes."
Dyes dissolve in water, but are not soluble in oil. Dyes are manufactured as powders, granules, liquids or other special purpose forms. They can be used in beverages, dry mixes, baked goods, confections, dairy products, pet foods and a variety of other products. Dyes also have side effects which lakes do not, including the fact that large amounts of dyes ingested can color stools.
Lakes are the combination of dyes and insoluble material. Lakes tint by dispersion. Lakes are not oil soluble, but are oil dispersible. Lakes are more stable than dyes and are ideal for coloring products containing fats and oils or items lacking sufficient moisture to dissolve dyes. Typical uses include coated tablets, cake and donut mixes, hard candies and chewing gums, lipsticks, soaps, shampoos, talc etc.
Other uses
Because food dyes are generally safer to use than normal artistic dyes and pigments, some artists have used food coloring as a means of making pictures, especially in forms such as bodypainting. Food coloring can serve as a means of dyeing fabric, however it is not washfast when used on cotton, hemp and other plant fibres, although it can be fixed on Nylon and animal fibres.
See also
- Azo compound
- E number
- Food additive
Notes
- ↑ Jeannine Delwiche (2004). The impact of perceptual interactions on perceived flavor. Food Quality and Preference 15: 137–146.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 FDA/CFSAN Food Color Facts. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 2006-09-07.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 "News of Food; U. S. May Outlaw Dyes Used to Tint Oranges and Other Foods", New York Times, January 19, 1954, Tuesday. Retrieved 2007-08-21.
- ↑ Red No. 3 and Other Colorful Controversies. FDA. Retrieved 2007-08-26.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 "Food coloring", Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-08-21.
- ↑ Wilens TE, Biederman J, Spencer TJ. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan. Annual Review of Medicine, 2002:53:113-131
- ↑ The MTA Cooperative Group. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Archives of General Psychiatry, 1999;56:1073-1086
- ↑ Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial,” Lancet, Sept 2007
- ↑ 1997 Graduate Student Research Project conducted at the University of South Florida. Author- Richard W. Pressinger M.Ed.
- ↑ "Food Additives May Affect Kids' Hyperactivity," WebMD Medical News, May 24, 2004
- ↑ A different kind of school lunch," PURE FACTS October 2002
- ↑ The Impact of a Low Food Additive and Sucrose Diet on Academic Performance in 803 New York City Public Schools, Schoenthaler SJ, Doraz WE, Wakefield JA, Int J Biosocial Res., 1986, 8(2); 185-195
- ↑ Jpn J Cancer Res. 1988 Mar;79(3):314-9
- ↑ http://www.thewest.com.au/default.aspx?MenuID=158&ContentID=67419
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Everything Added to Food in the United States. Boca Raton, FL: C.K. Smoley (c/o CRC Press, Inc.), 1993.
External links
- Database of food additives and regulations governing their use Retrieved April 15, 2007.
- EU legislation on food additives Retrieved April 15, 2007.
- CSPI's guide to food additives Retrieved April 15, 2007.
- University of Maryland, College of Agriculture & Natural Resources - Food Additives Retrieved April 15, 2007.
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