Ahura Mazda

Ahura Mazda is the Avestan name for an exalted divinity of ancient proto-Indo-Iranian origin. It was Ahura Mazda (or Ormazd, in its shortened Pahlavi transliteration) that was declared by Zoroaster (the central prophet of Zoroastrianism), to be the one uncreated creator of all. Subsequently, this deity became the supreme divinity of the Zoroastrian faith. Zoroastrianism is classified by its adherents as Mazdayasna, the worship of [Ahura] Mazda illustrating Ahura Mazda's significance in this religion.

Etymology

Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā- (nominative Mazdå), derives from the Proto-Iranian word *Mazdāh. Both the Avestan and Sanskrit languages subsumed the root word *mn̩sdʰeh₁, which literally means "placing one's mind (mn̩-s)", or "wise". Thus, Mazda means "intelligence" or "wisdom". Ahura, meanwhile, refers to a class of 'right' divinities, which exist in relation to the devas, who are considered evil in Persian mythology. Thus, when combinded together the terms Ahura-Mazda mean "Wise Lord".

In the Gathas (Gāθās), the Avestan hymns thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, the two halves of the name are not necessarily used together. They may be used interchangeably, or occassionally in reverse order. However, in later texts of the Avesta, both "Ahura" and "Mazda" are integral parts of the name for God, which were conjoined as Ahuramazda in western Iran. In Old Persian the name had the form Auramazdāh. (How did the name "Ormazd" arise?)

Origins

The origins of Ahura Mazda seem to be tied to the early beleifs of the proto-Indo-Iranian-Aryans. Scholarly consensus identifies a connection between Ahura Mada and the Hindu Vedic gods Varuna and Mitra. For instance, Kuiper (1983) puts forth the view that the proto-Indo-Iranian divinity is the nameless "Father Ahura", that is, Varuna of the Rigveda. In this view, the Zoroastrian mazda is the equivalent of the Vedic medhira, described in Rigveda 8.6.10 as the "(revealed) insight into the cosmic order" that Varuna grants his devotees. Just as Ahura Mazda maintains asha, the ubiquitous principle of truth, Varuna keeps rta, its Vedic equivalent. Kuiper also suggested that Ahura Mazda may be an Iranian development of the dvandvah expression *mitra-*vouruna, with *mitra being the otherwise nameless 'Lord' (Ahura) and *vouruna being mazda/medhira. Just as the Vedic Mitra is virtually inseperable from Varuna throughout the Vedas, Mithra is closely linked with Ahura Mazda in the Avesta. This suggests that Ahura Mazda is then a compound divinity in which the favorable characteristics of *mitra negate the unfavorable qualities of *vouruna.

Another view propounded by Boyce and Schlerath (1983), among others, conceives Ahura Mazda to be the Ahura par excellence, superior to both *vouruna and *mitra. In their view, the dvandvah expression *mitra-*vouruna is none other than the archaic 'Mithra-Baga', an older Iranian god mentioned in the Avesta. While in the Vedas Bhaga is a minor divinity in its own right, in proto-Indo-Iranian times Bhaga was an important aspect of *vouruna's concept. In Greater Iran, there continued to be a cult title for *vouruna and *vouruna eventually replaced all lesser deities such as the Baga. Boyce also notes that on Persepolis fortification tablet #337, Ahura Mazda is distinct from both Mithra and the Baga.

Zoroaster's Teachings

In Zoroaster's religious teachings, the deity Ahura Mazda is recognized as the Creator of the universe (Avestan: Dadvāh or Dātār, middle Persian: Dādār). Ahura Mazda is also described as the one uncreated God (Yasna 30.3, 45.2). No evidence suggests that the concept of a supreme god existed among the Iranians before Zoroaster, or that any Iranian divinity ever enjoyed an exclusive cult of his or her own outside of the ancient pantheons. As such, Ahura Mazda represents the amalgamation of various Indo-Iranian deities into one all-encompassing deity. Zoroaster's assertion that god was One (rather than a multiplicity) was most likely an attempt to differentiate his religious movement from the polytheistic cults of the surrounding area.

Central to Zoroaster's perception of Ahura Mazda is the concept of asha (the Persian equivalent of the Vedic rta), literally, "truth". In the extended sense, asha refers to the equitable law of the universe, which governed the life of Zoroaster's people, the nomadic herdsmen of the Central Asian steppes. Asha was the course of everything observable: the motion of the planets and astral bodies, the progression of the seasons, the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, and governor of metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset. All physical creation (geti) was created and maintained according to a larger divine plan attributed to Ahura Mazda. Violations of the order (druj) were violations against creation, and thus transgressions against Ahura Mazda. In Zoroaster's original teachings, Ahura Mazda was the transcendent entity which actually existed above the opposed forces of asha and druj; in Zoroaster's formulation these antipodes were personified by two spirits who represented good (Spenta Mainyu) and evil (Angra Mainyu).

This concept of asha versus the druj should not be confused with the good-versus-evil battle evident in western religions. Although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the asha versus druj concept is more subtle and nuanced, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order) or "uncreation" (evident as natural decay; Avestan: nasu) that opposes creation. Thus, in Zoroaster's perception of Ahura Mazda's role as the one uncreated Creator of all (Yasna 44.7), the Creator is not also the creator of 'druj', for as anti-creation, the druj are not created (or not creatable, and therefore, like Ahura Mazda, uncreated). "All" is therefore the "supreme benevolent providence" (Yasna 43.11), and Ahura Mazda as the benevolent Creator of all is consequently the Creator of only the good (Yasna 31.4). In Zoroaster's revelation, Ahura Mazda will ultimately triumph (Yasna 48.1), but cannot (or will not) control the druj in the here and now. As such, Zoroaster did not perceive Ahura Mazda to be the root of evil, nor was he considered wholly omnipotent.

Throughout the Gathas Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions, for it is only through "good thoughts, good words, good deeds" that order can be maintained. In Zoroaster's revelation it is indeed the paramount purpose of mankind to assist in maintaining the order Ahura Mazda has created. In Yasna 45.9, Ahura Mazda "has left to men's wills" to choose between doing good (that is, living under a regimen of good thoughts, good words and good deeds) and doing evil (living with bad thoughts, bad words and bad deeds). This concept of a free will is perhaps Zoroaster's greatest contribution to religious philosophy.

Ahura Mazda's Emanations

Although Zoroaster described Ahura Mazda to be essentially one, Zoroastrian tradition eventually inherited some ideas from the polytheistic traditions they once attempted to differentiate themselves from. Thus, Ahura Mazda has been accredited with a number of emanations which are referred to as Amesha Spentas (or "Holy Immortals"). These six primeval creations mentioned in Yasna 47.1 of the Gathas are: Vohu Manah (Good Mind), Asha Vahistah (Truth), Khshatra Vairya (Good Dominion), Spenta Armaiti (Devotion), Haurvatat (Wholeness and Health), Ameretat (Immortality). These Amesha Spentas exist as a function of Ahura Mazda's divine will, personifying attributes of his character and putting them in place within the physical world. Amesha Spentas are considered to be divine, although they are ultimately subordinate to Ahura Mazda. Ahura Mazda dwells within each of these deities since they are part of his creation, though he cannot be said to be any one of the members at a given time. In some ways, the Amesha Spentas resemble the Holy Trinity of Christianity, as personifications of the supreme god's qualities, separate while remaining one. They may also represent attributes of some of the polytheistic gods from other Persian religions which Ahura Mazda subsumed.

In West-Iranian Iconography

The Greek historian Herodotus (484 B.C.E.–ca. 425 B.C.E.) reported that Persians generally did not use statues, temples, or altars as a part of thier religious activities. This statement has been confirmed by archaelogical records, and no doubt explains why there are so few known images of Ahura Mazda. The earliest reference to the use of an image to accompany devotion to Ahura Mazda is from the 39th year of the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon (c. 365 B.C.E.) in which a Satrap of Lydia raised a statue (according to the Greek commentator) to "Zeus" the Lawgiver. From the reign of Cyrus the Great (6th century B.C.E.) down to Darius III (4th century B.C.E.), it was apparently customary for an empty chariot drawn by white horses to accompany the Persian army. According to Herodotus, who first described the practice, this chariot was sacred to a supreme god also referred to as "Zeus" who was presumably believed to position himself at the head of the army. This supreme deity referred to in these examples is most likely Ahura Mazda, as Greek authors frequently used the term for their supreme deity Zeus in order to refer to gods who served a similar function in other cultures.

The worship of Ahura Mazda with accompanying images is also known to have occurred during the Parthian era (250 B.C.E.–226 C.E.), but by the beginning of the Sassanid period (226–651), the custom appears to have fallen out of favor. Several images from Sassanid times do exist however. Some torsos depict Ahura Mazda emerging from a disk or a winged ring accompanied by paws and a bird's tail. Although there are various opinions as to the meaning of such images, most scholars agree that the winged disk represents Ahura Mazda himself. Other images claiming to depict "Ohrmazd" reveal a male figure wearing a high crown. However, rejection of anthropomorphic images of divine entities including Ahura Mazda is most common of later Zoroastrianism, which is largely aniconic.

In Zurvanite Zoroastrianism

The dualism which is evident in Zoroaster's original writings became even more explicitly developed within the movement known as Zurvanism, a cult which arose out of the greater Zoroastrian establishment during the Achaemenid period (between the sixth and fourth centuries B.C.E.). Here, Ahura Mazda was not considered to be the transcendental God, taking a subordinate position to Zurvan, a deification of time. Instead, Ahura Mazda was one of two equal-but-opposite divinities under Zurvan's supremacy along with Angra Mainyu. According to Zurvan mythology, Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu are twin sons of Zurvan who have co-existed since the genesis of the universe. The antipodes of good and evil were no longer considered to be spirits but were the creator god Ahura Mazda himself and his archenemy Angra Mainyu. Due to the fact that Ahura Mazda had been reduced to a role of the opponent of evil, he became identified with Spenta Mainyu, the personification of good. This interpretation rests in large part on an interpretation of Yasna 30.3, which refers to Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu as twin brothers that have co-existed for all Time.

Despite the scriptual evidence, from the viewpoint of mainstream Zoroastrianism the Zurvanite beliefs are considered to be an apostasy. Although Zurvanism was officially supported during the Sassanid era (226–651), no traces of it remain beyond the 10th century CE. Thus, this belief system is hardly representative of the greater Zoroastrian tradition. However, it was this Zurvanite dualism which was recorded in the Greek and Christian sources concerning Zoroastrianism, such as those by Aristotle and Eznik of Kolb, among others, as well as Pahlavi literature from the ninth and tenth centuries CE. These accounts were the first traces of Zoroastrianism to reach the west, which misled European scholars to conclude that Zoroastrianism was primarily a monist faith, and that Ahura Mazda was merely an emanation of the oneness of the greater divine essence.

In present-day Zoroastrianism

In 1884, Martin Haug proposed a new interpretation of Yasna 30.3 that provided an escape from the dualism that was often considered implicit in the Gathas. According to Haug's interpretation, the "Twin spirits" of 30.3 were Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu, the former being the 'Destructive Emanation' of Ahura Mazda and the latter being His 'Creative Emanation'. In effect, this proposed dualism of Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu was simply a rediscovery of the precepts of Zurvanism, with the difference being that Angra Mainyu was no longer Ahura Mazda's equal, but rather one of his many emanations. Haug developed the idea even further, interpreting the concept of a free will discussed in Yasna 45.9 as an accomodation which served to solve problems of theodicy concerning Ahura Mazda. The free will of Angra Mainyu, Haug claimed, made it possible for him to choose to defect from Ahura Mazda and become evil, thereby taking responsibility for the existence of evil off of Ahura Mazda, who was said to create only good.

Although there is no trace of such a philosophy in the previous Zoroastrian texts or tradition, Haug's interpretation was gratefully accepted by some Parsis since it provided a defence against Christian missionaries who attacked Zoroastrians doctrine. These missionaries claimed that the idea of substantiated evil that was as uncreated as god established an unsatisfying dualism. Notwithstanding the oversight that Zoroastrianism did not hypostatize good and evil as the Abrahamic religions did, Haug's ideas were subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating the theories. Haug's ideas were so popular that they are now almost universally accepted as doctrine by Zoroastrians worldwide.

Significance

Due to the gradual decrease in Iranian and Parsi Zoroastrians throughout the centuries, Ahura Mazda is considered the supreme deity by only a small number of individuals today. However, he is still a foremost figure in the history of religions for two reasons. First, Ahura Mazda and the closely-related Amesha Spentas provide a looking glass into the deities and theologies of the ancient Persian cults from which Zoroastrianism developed. Secondly, Ahura Mazda is one of the most important influences upon some of the most widespread perspectives of God that exist today. Ahura Mazda represents what some lines of evidence suggest to be the first manifestation of monotheism, a conceptualization of God which is at the root of the Abrahamic traditions. Moreover, Ahura Mazda seems to have ties to Vedic Hinduism by way of such gods as Varuna and Mitra. This dual influence upon both Eastern and Western traditions means that Ahura Mazda may be an important historical and theological bridge between a number of seemingly unrelated traditions.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• "Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu." Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mercia Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 157-158.
• Boyce, Mary. History of Zoroastrianism: Vol. I, The early period. Leiden: Brill, 1975.
• Boyce, Mary. History of Zoroastrianism: Vol. II, Under the Achamenians. Leiden: Brill, 1982. ISBN 9004065067
• Boyce, Mary. "Ahura Mazda." In Encyclopaedia Iranica (volume 1). Cosa Mesa: Mazda Publishing, 1983. 684–687.
• Boyce, Mary. "Mithra the King and Varuna the Master." In Festschrift für Helmut Humbach zum 80. Trier: WWT, 2001. 239–257.
• Clark, Peter. Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to an Ancient Faith. Portland, OR: Sussex Academic Press, 1998. ISBN 1898723788
• Humbach, Helmut. The Gathas of Zarathushtra and the other Old Avestan texts Heidelberg: Winter, 1991.
• Kuiper, Bernardus Franciscus Jacobus. "Ahura." In Encyclopaedia Iranica (volume 1). Cosa Mesa: Mazda Publishing, 1983. 682–683.
• Schlerath, Bernfried. "Ahurani." In Encyclopaedia Iranica (volume 1). Cosa Mesa: Mazda Publishing, 1983. 683–684.
• "Zoroastrianism." Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mercia Eliade. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1987. 579-591.

See also

• The Gathas, the most sacred texts of the Avesta
• Zoroastrianism, the religion founded by Zoroaster
• Yazatas, the divinities of Zoroastrianism

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