Ahura Mazda

Ahura Mazda is the Avestan name for an exalted divinity of ancient proto-Indo-Iranian origin. Ahura Mazda (or Ormazd, in its shortened Pahlavi transliteration) that was declared by Zarathustra (Zoroaster) to be the one uncreated creator of all. Subsequently, this deity became the supreme divinity of the Zoroastrianism faith. The Zoroastrian faith is described by its adherents as Mazdayasna, the worship of Mazda. In Zoroastrian tradition, to worship a lesser divinity is to worship Ahura Mazda, since all the divinities are but a manifestation of the Creator.

Nomenclature

Ahura denotes the class of the 'right' divinities (as opposed to the daevas, the 'wrong' divinities). The term existed in Proto-Indo-Iranian times, but probably had a slightly different meaning.

Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå, reflect Proto-Iranian *Mazdāh. It is generally taken to be the proper name of the deity, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means "intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European *mn̩sdʰeh₁, literally meaning "placing (dʰeh₁) one's mind (mn̩-s)", hence "wise".

In the Gathas (Gāθās), the hymns thought to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, the two halves of the name are not necessarily used together, or are used interchangeably, or are used in reverse order. However, in later texts of the Avesta, both Ahura and Mazda are integral parts of the name Ahura Mazda, which were conjoined as Ahuramazda in western Iran. In Old Persian the name had the form Auramazdāh.

Perceived origin

Although Ahura Mazda is accepted to be the conceptual equivalent of a proto-Indo-Iranian divinity, the details are a matter of speculation and debate. Scholarly consensus identifies a connection to the prototypical *vouruna and *mitra, but whether Ahura Mazda is one of these two, or both together, or even a superior of the two has not been conclusively established.

One view (Kuiper) is that the proto-Indo-Iranian divinity is the nameless "Father Ahura", that is, Varuna of the Rigveda. In this view, Zoroastrian mazda is the equivalent of the Vedic medhira, described in Rigveda 8.6.10 as the "(revealed) insight into the cosmic order" that Varuna grants his devotees. Kuiper also suggested that Ahura Mazda could also be an Iranian development of the dvandvah expression *mitra-*vouruna, with *mitra being the otherwise nameless 'Lord' (Ahura) and *vouruna being mazda/medhira as noted above. In this constellation, Ahura Mazda is then a compound divinity in which the favorable characteristics of *mitra negate the unfavorable qualities of *vouruna.

In another view (Boyce, Schlerath, et al), Ahura Mazda is seen as the Ahura par excellence, superior to both *vouruna and *mitra. In a development of this view (Boyce, 2001), the dvandvah expression *mitra-*vouruna is none other than the archaic 'Mithra-Baga' of the Avesta. But while in the Vedas Bhaga is a minor divinity in its own right, in proto-Indo-Iranian times this was but one aspect of *vouruna's concept and in Greater Iran continued to be a cult title for *vouruna and eventually replaced it (Boyce, 2001:243-244). Boyce also notes that on Persepolis fortification tablet #337, Ahura Mazda is distinct from both Mithra and the Baga (Boyce, 1983:685).

In Zoroaster's revelation

In both the ancient religions as well as in Zoroaster's doctrine, the deity Ahura Mazda is recognized as the Creator of the universe (Avestan: Dadvāh or Dātār, middle Persian: Dādār). However, Zoroaster gave Ahura Mazda new layers of dimension, mainly by characterizing the traditional Creator as the one uncreated God (Yasna 30.3, 45.2). No evidence has suggested that the concept of a supreme god existed among the Iranians before Zoroaster, or that any Iranian divinity ever enjoyed an exclusive cult of his or her own outside either the ancient pantheons.

Central to Zoroaster's perception of Ahura Mazda is the concept of asha (the Persian equivalent of the Vedic rta), literally, "truth". In the extended sense, asha refers to the equitable law of the universe, which governed the life of Zoroaster's people, the nomadic herdsmen of the Central Asian steppes. Asha was the course of everything observable, the motion of the planets and astral bodies, the progression of the seasons, the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, and governer of metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset. All physical creation (geti) was created and maintained according to a larger divine plan, attributed to Ahura Mazda, and violations of the order (druj) were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda. In Zoroaster's original teachings, Ahura Mazda was the transcendent entity which actually existed above the opposed forces of asha and druj; in Zoroaster's formulation these antipodes were personified by two spirits who represented good (Spenta Mainyu) and evil (Angra Mainyu).

This concept of asha versus the druj should not be confused with the good-versus-evil battle evident in western religions, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the asha versus druj concept is more subtle and nuanced, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or 'uncreation', evident as natural decay (Avestan: nasu) that opposes creation; or more literally 'the Lie' of Yasna 31.1 (that opposes truth, righteousness). Thus, in Zoroaster's perception of Ahura Mazda's role as the one uncreated Creator of all (Yasna 44.7), the Creator is not also the creator of 'druj', for as anti-creation, the druj are not created (or not creatable, and thus - like Ahura Mazda - uncreated). "All" is therefore the "supreme benevolent providence" (Yasna 43.11), and Ahura Mazda as the benevolent Creator of all is consequently the Creator of only the good (Yasna 31.4). In Zoroaster's revelation, Ahura Mazda will ultimately triumph (Yasna 48.1), but cannot (or will not) control the druj in the here and now. As such, Zoroaster did not perceive Ahura Mazda to be wholly omnipotent.

Throughout the Gathas Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions, for it is only through "good thoughts, good words, good deeds" that order can be maintained, and in Zoroaster's revelation it is indeed the paramount purpose of mankind to assist in maintaining the order Ahura Mazda has created. In Yasna 45.9, Ahura Mazda "has left to men's wills" to choose between doing good (that is, living under a regimen of good thoughts, good words and good deeds) and doing evil (bad thoughts, bad words and bad deeds). This concept of a free will is perhaps Zoroaster's greatest contribution to religious philosophy.

In Zurvanite Zoroastrianism

The dualism which is evident in Zoroaster's original writings became even more explicitly developed within the movement known as Zurvanism, a cult which arose to popularity out of the greater Zoroastrian establishment during the Achaemenid period (approximately between the sixth and fourth centuries B.C.E.). Here, Ahura Mazda was not the transcendental God, taking a subordinate position to Zurvan, a deification of time. Instead, Ahura Mazda was one of two equal-but-opposite divinities under Zurvan's supremacy along with Angra Mainyu (Ahriman). According to Zurvan mythology, Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu are twin sons of Zurvan who have co-existed since the genesis of the universe. The antipodes of good and evil were no longer considered to be spirits but were the creator god Ahura Mazda himself and his archenemy Angra Mainyu. Due to the fact that Ahura Mazda had been reduced to a role as the opponent of evil, he became identified with Spenta Mainyu. This interpretation rests in large part on an interpretation of Yasna 30.3, that refers to Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu as twin brothers that have co-existed for all Time.

From the viewpoint of mainstream Zoroastrianism, such beliefs as these are considered to be an apostasy. Although Zurvanism was officially supported during the Sassanid era (226–651), no traces of it remain beyond the 10th century CE. Thus, this belief system is hardly representative of the greater Zoroastrian tradition. However, it was this Zurvanite dualism which was recorded in the Greek and Christian sources concerning Zoroastrianism, such as those by Aristotle and Eznik of Kolb, among others, as well as Pahlavi literature from the ninth and tenth centuries CE. It was these accounts of typically Zurvanite beliefs which were the first traces of Zoroastrianism to reach the west, which misled European scholars to conclude that Zoroastrianism was primarily a monist faith, and Ahura Mazda was merely an emanation of the oneness of the greater divine essence.

In present-day Zoroastrianism

In 1884, Martin Haug proposed a new interpretation of Yasna 30.3 that provided an escape from (what was considered to be) the dualism implicit in the Gathas. According to Haug's interpretation, the "Twin spirits" of 30.3 were Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu, the former being the 'Destructive Emanation' of Ahura Mazda and the latter being His 'Creative Emanation'. In effect, this new dualism of Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu theory was simply a rediscovery of the precepts of Zurvanism, with the difference that Angra Mainyu was no longer Ahura Mazda's equal, but rather one of his many emanations. Haug developed the idea even further, interpreting the concept of a free will discussed in Yasna 45.9 as an accomodation to explain where Angra Mainyu chose to succeed from Ahura Mazda, since the supreme deity Ahura Mazda created only good. The free will, Haug claimed, made it possible for Angra Mainyu to choose to be evil.

Although there is no trace of such a philosophy in the previous Zoroastrian texts or tradition, Haug's interpretation was gratefully accepted by some Parsis since it provided a defence against Christian missionaries who attacked Zoroastrians doctrine. These missionaries claimed that the idea of substantiated evil that was as uncreated as god created an unsatisfying dualism. Notwithstanding the oversight that Zoroastrianism did not hypostatize evil as the Abrahamic religions did, Haug's ideas were subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating the theories. Haug's ideas were so popular that they are now almost universally accepted by Zoroastrians as doctrine.

In West-Iranian Iconography

From the reign of Cyrus the Great (6th century B.C.E.) down to Darius III (4th century B.C.E.), it was apparently customary for an empty chariot drawn by white horses to accompany the Persian army. According to Herodotus, who first described the practice, this chariot was sacred to a supreme god referred to as "Zeus" who was presumably believed to position himself at the head of the army. This supreme deity is most likely Ahura Mazda, as Greek authors frequently used the term for their supreme deity Zeus in order to refer to gods who served a similar function in other cultures.

The earliest reference to the use of an image to accompany devotion to Ahura Mazda is from the 39th year of the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon (c. 365 B.C.E.) in which a Satrap of Lydia raised a statue (according to the Greek commentator) to "Zeus" the Lawgiver. The worship of Ahura Mazda with accompanying images is known to have occurred during the Parthian era (250 B.C.E.–226 C.E.), but by the beginning of the Sassanid period (226–651), the custom appears to have fallen out of favor. Most images from Sassanid times that depict "Ohrmazd" reveal a male figure wearing a high crown.

In other religions

In Manichaeism, the name Ohrmazd Bay ("god Ahura Mazda") was used for the primal figure Nāšā Qaḏmāyā, the "original man" through whose fall the original Light became tainted with dark matter.

In Sogdian Buddhism, Xwrmztʔ (Sogdian was written without a consistent representation of vowels) was the name used for the Buddhist ruler-deity Śakra. Via contacts with Turkic-speaking peoples like the Uighurs, this Sogdian name came to the Mongols, who still name this deity Qormusta Tengri; Qormusta (or Qormusda) is now a popular enough deity to appear in many contexts that are not explicitly Buddhist.

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• Boyce, Mary (1975). History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. I, The early period. Leiden: Brill. 
• Boyce, Mary (1982). History of Zoroastrianism, Vol. II, Under the Achamenians. Leiden: Brill. 
• Boyce, Mary. (1983). "Ahura Mazda". Encyclopaedia Iranica 1: 684–687. Cosa Mesa: Mazda Pub.
• Boyce, Mary. (2001). "Mithra the King and Varuna the Master". Festschrift für Helmut Humbach zum 80.: 239–257. Trier: WWT.
• Humbach, Helmut (1991). The Gathas of Zarathushtra and the other Old Avestan texts. Heidelberg: Winter. 
• Kuiper, Bernardus Franciscus Jacobus. (1983). "Ahura". Encyclopaedia Iranica 1: 682–683. Cosa Mesa: Mazda Pub.
• Schlerath, Bernfried. (1983). "Ahurani". Encyclopaedia Iranica 1: 683–684. Cosa Mesa: Mazda Pub.

See also

• The Gathas, the most sacred texts of the Avesta
• Zoroastrianism, the religion founded by Zoroaster
• Yazatas, the divinities of Zoroastrianism

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