Nabonidus
Nabonidus (Akkadian Nabû-nāʾid) was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, reigning from 556-539 B.C.E.
Historiography on Nabonidus
More than with others, our perception of Nabonidus' reign has been heavily coloured by later accounts, notably by the Persians and the Greeks, as well as in the Hebrew Bible. As a result of this, Nabonidus was often described in very negative terms in modern and contemporary scholarship. However, an accumulation of evidence and a reassassment of existing material has caused opinions on Nabonidus and the events that happened during his reign to have altered significantly in recent decades.
Uncertain backgound
In his own inscriptions, Nabonidus himself makes no claim to royal origins.[1] His mother may have been connected to the temple of the moongod Sîn in Harran, but her ancestry is unknown. The fact that Nabonidus makes repeated references to Ashurbanipal, the last great Neo-Assyrian king has been cited as evidence that he may have been of Assyrian origin.[2] However Nabonidus' Persian successor, Cyrus the Great, also referred to Ashurbanipal, as did several of Nabonidus' predecessors.[3]
In any case, it is clear that Nabonidus did not belong to the previous ruling dynasty, the Chaldeans, of whom Nebuchadnezzar II was the most famous member. He came to the throne in 556 B.C.E. by overthrowing the youthful king Labashi-Marduk, the son of Neriglissar. Labashi-Marduk had succeeded his father when still only a boy, after the latter's four-year reign. Most likely due to his very young age, he was considered unfit to rule, and was murdered in a conspiracy only nine months after his inauguration. Nabonidus was consequently chosen as the new king.
Reign
In most ancient accounts, Nabonidus is being depicted as a royal anomaly. He is supposed to have worshiped the moongod Sîn beyond all the other gods, to have paid special devotion to Sîn's temple in Harran, where his mother was a priestess, and to have neglected the Babylonian chief god, Marduk. Because of the tensions that these religious reforms generated, he had to leave Babylon early in his reign, residing at the rich desert oasis of Tayma in Arabia, and returning only after many years. In the meantime, his son Belshazzar ruled from Babylon.
Nabonidus' stay in Tayma
Why Nabonidus stayed in Tayma for so long is another matter of uncertainty. His reason for going there is unproblematic enough: Tayma was an important oasis, from which lucrative Arabian trade routes could be controlled. The Neo-Assyrians before him had already attempted the same. However, why Nabonidus stayed for so long—about ten years, perhaps from 553-543—remains a question, as does his reason for returning at the moment that he did. One theory is that he was not comfortable in Babylon, which was the center of Marduk-worship and was opposed to his emphasis on Sîn. Another possibility is that he was ill and went to the oasis to recover.
Regarding his return, this may have had to do with the mounting threat of Cyrus and growing disagreements with his son Belshazzar, who was relieved of his command directly after Nabonidus returned, along with a number of administrators. During his stay in Tayma, Nabonidus adorned the oasis with a full royal complex, most of which has come to light during recent excavations.
The Persian conquest of Babylonia
Different accounts of the fall of Babylon survive. According to the Cyrus Cylinder, the people opened their gates for Cyrus and greeted him as their liberator. Isaiah 40-55 prophecies that the Persians will carry off Babylonian women and cultic statues. Herodotus says that Cyrus beat the Babylonian outside the city, after which a siege began. When this took too long, he diverted the Euphrates, so that his troops could march into the city through the river bed.[4] Xenophon thinks so too, but he does not mention the battle.[5] Finally, Berossus again claims that Cyrus beat the Babylonian army, but this time, Nabonidus is supposed to have fled to nearby Borsippa. There he hid, while Cyrus took Babylon and demolished its outer walls. When he turned towards Borsippa, Nabonidus soon surrendered himself.[6]
As these accounts contradict each other, due to their backgrounds in propaganda (the Cyrus Cylinder and Isaiah; for the later, see Cyrus in the Judeo-Christian tradition), oral traditions (Herodotus and Xenophon) and conflicting records (Berossus), they are quite confusing. More helpful is the Nabonidus Chronicle. This is a part of the Babylonian Chronicles, which are terse, factual accounts of historical events, and are therefore considered to be very reliable, although not very informative.[7] This text has the following to say on the taking of Babylon by Cyrus:
"In the month of Tašrîtu, when Cyrus attacked the army of Akkad in Opis on the Tigris, the inhabitants of Akkad revolted, but he massacred the confused inhabitants. The fifteenth day [12 October], Sippar was seized without battle. Nabonidus fled. The sixteenth day, Gobryas [litt: Ugbaru], the governor of Gutium, and the army of Cyrus entered Babylon without battle. Afterwards, Nabonidus was arrested in Babylon when he returned there. Till the end of the month, the shield carrying Gutians were staying within Esagila but nobody carried arms in Esagila and its buildings. The correct time for a ceremony was not missed. In the month of Arahsamna, the third day [29 October], Cyrus entered Babylon, green twigs were spread in front of him - the state of peace was imposed upon the city. Cyrus sent greetings to all Babylon. Gobryas, his governor, installed subgovernors in Babylon."
Additionally, a building inscription has been found that mentions the restoration of the Enlil Gate of Babylon shortly after its capture. Through these data, the following reconstruction has been proposed:[8] When Cyrus attempted to march into southern Mesopotamia, he was met by the Babylonians near Opis. In the ensuing battle, the Persians were victorious, after which they massacred the people of Opis. This in turn caused the nearby city of Sippar to surrender. Meanwhile, the Babylonians had withdrawn south to establish a line of defense near the Euphrates that should prevent Cyrus from advancing too far. However, Cyrus did not try the Babylonian army, but sent a small division south along the Tigris to try to take the capital by surprise. This plan worked: the division could reach Babylon undetected and caught it unawares, meeting only minor resistance near one of its gates. Thus, they were not only able to capture Babylon, but also King Nabonidus, who briefly afterwards left his army to return to Babylon, not knowing that the city had already been taken.
This left the Babylonian army in a precarious position, and it soon surrendered. In the meantime, Ugbaru, the commander of the division that had captured Babylon, had taken good care that his men would not plunder or otherwise harm the city; he had even made sure that the temple rites continued to be observed. Nonetheless, it still took Cyrus almost a month before he proceeded towards the city. As many Babylonian officials as well as the Babylonian administrative system stayed in place after the transition of power, it has been surmised that this time was spent on negotiations with representatives from the city;[9] this is similar to what happened when the Neo-Assyrian king Sargon II and later Alexander the Great took the city.[10] Finally then, Cyrus went to Babylon, where he could now have his triumphant entry to the cheers of the people.
The death of Nabonidus?
The subsequent fate of Nabonidus is uncertain. Cyrus has been known for sparing the lives of the kings whom he had defeated, an idea that is based on his treatment of King Croesus of Lydia, who was allowed to live after his defeat at King Cyrus's court as an advisor. But that is only what Herodotus says;[11] Bacchylides tells us that Apollo snatched up Croesus just before the flames of his pyre would burn him, and took him to the Hyperboreans. Also unhelpful is the reference in the Nabonidus Chronicle to a campaign by Cyrus in 547 B.C.E., during which a country was taken and its king killed, as the name of the country is lost.[12] So we can only rely on the accounts by Berossus and the retrospective Hellenistic Babylonian Dynastic Prophecies, which mention that Nabonidus' life was spared, and that he was allowed to retire in Carmania.
See also
- Babylonia
- Cylinder of Nabonidus
- Biblical archaeology (reference to Nabonidus cylinder)
- Nabonidus Chronicle
- http://www.nabonidus.org
Notes
- ↑ Collected in P.-A. Beaulieu The reign of Nabonidus king of Babylon 556-539 B.C.E. (New Haven CT: Yale University Press 1989)
- ↑ W. Mayer, "Nabonidus Herkunft," in M. Dietrich and O. Loretz (eds.), Dubsar anta-men: Studien zur Altorientalistik (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag 1998), 245-61; {{cite journal | quotes = | author = Parpola, Simo | date = | year = 2004 | month = | title = National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times | journal = Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies | volume = Vol. 18 | issue = No. 2 | pages = pp. 19 | publisher = JAAS | location = | issn = | pmid = | doi = | bibcode = | oclc = | id = | url = http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v18n2/Parpola-identity_Article%20-Final.pdf | language = English | format = PDF | accessdate = | laysummary = | laysource = | laydate = | quote =
- ↑ A. Kuhrt, "'Ex oriente lux': How we may widen our perspectives on ancient history," in R. Rollinger, A. Luther and J. Wiesehöfer (eds.), Getrennte Wege? Kommunikation, Raum und Wahrnehmung in der alten Welt (Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Antike 2007), 617-32.
- ↑ Herodotus, Histories 1.188-191
- ↑ Xenophon, Cyropaedia 7.5.1-36
- ↑ From the Babyloniaca: Fragmente der griechischen Historiker 680F9a = Flavius Josephus, Against Apion 1.149-153.
- ↑ R.J. van der Spek, "Review of J.-J. Glassner, Mesopotamian chronicles (ed. B. Foster) (Leiden: Brill 2004).", Review of Biblical Literature (2005/09).
- ↑ P. Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander: A history of the Persian Empire (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns 2002), 50-5, 80-7; G. Tolini, "Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylon par Cyrus (octobre 539 av. J.-C.).", Arta (2005/03); A. Kuhrt, "Ancient Near Eastern history: The case of Cyrus the Great of Persia.", in H.G.M. Williamson (ed.), Understanding the history of ancient Israel. (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007), 107-27.
- ↑ J. Wiesehöfer, "Kontinuität oder Zäsur? Babylon under den Achaimeniden," in J. Renger (ed.), Babylon: Focus Mesopotamischer Geschichte, Wiege früher Gelehrsamheit, Mythos in der Moderne (Saarbrücken: SDV 1999), 167-88; M. Jursa, "The transition of Babylonia from the Neo-Babylonian empire to Achaemenid rule," in H. Crawford (ed.), Regime change in the ancient Near East and Egypt: From Sargon of Agade to Saddam Hussein (New York: Oxford University Press 2007), 73-94.
- ↑ Kuhrt 2007 ("'Ex oriente lux'...").
- ↑ 1.86-88
- ↑ This passage is treated in detail in the article on Croesus.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
External links
- Cylinder of Nabonidus at the British Museum.
- Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar Translation.
- Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur Translation.
- Lihyanite inscription of Nabonidus, at Nat. Museum of Natural History site
| Preceded by: Labashi-Marduk |
King of Babylon 556–539 B.C.E. |
Succeeded by: Nebuchadnezzar IV (self-proclaimed) |
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