Difference between revisions of "Zenobia" - New World Encyclopedia

Latest revision as of 05:50, 13 June 2023

Queen Zenobia's Last Look Upon Palmyra,
by Herbert Schmalz

Zenobia (Arabic: زنوبيا) was a Syrian queen (240-after 274 C.E.). After her husband's death, she became a powerful military leader in her own right, conquering both Egypt and much of the Eastern Roman Empire.

The descendant of various royal ancestors, Zenobia became queen of the Palmyrene Empire as the second wife of King Septimius Odaenathus. When he was assassinated, she executed his killer and became the new ruler with her infant son. A woman of broad education, she protected both Jews and "heretics" as queen.

In 269, she challenged Rome by conquering Egypt, defeating the Roman prefect Tenagino Probus. She then proclaimed herself queen of Egypt and conquered parts of Anatolia (modern Turkey), Syria, Palestine, and Lebanon, taking vital trade routes from the Romans. In 274, she was defeated by the forces of the Roman Emperor Aurelian and taken as a hostage to Rome.

Appearing in golden chains in Aurelian’s military triumph parade, Zenobia was freed by the emperor, who granted her an elegant villa in Tibur (modern Tivoli, Italy). She became a prominent philosopher, socialite, and Roman matron. Several notable Romans are counted as her descendants, and she figures prominently in later literature through the present day.

Biography

Family, early life

Palmyrene Empire under Zenobia (right)

Zenobia was born and raised in Palmyra, Syria. Her father, Zabaii ben Selim, also called Julius Aurelius Zenobius, was a chieftain of Syria, and her mother may have been Egyptian. Her father’s gentilicium, Aurelius, shows that his paternal ancestors probably received Roman citizenship under either Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius (reigned 138-161), Marcus Aurelius (reigned 161-180), or Commodus (reigned 180-192).

Zenobia was born with the name Iulia (Julia) Aurelia Zenobia. Her full name in the Arabic language is al-Zabba' bint Amr ibn Tharab ibn Hasan ibn 'Adhina ibn al-Samida, commonly shortened to Al-Zabba'. In Greek, her name is rendered as Ζηνοβία and in English, she is known either as as Xenobia or Zenobia. After her marriage, she was known as Septimia Zenobia, referring to her husband, Septimius Odaenathus. On official documents, she gave her name as Bat-Zabbai (daughter of Al-Zabba').

She was described as beautiful and intelligent. She had a dark complexion, pearly white teeth, black bright eyes that sparkled, and a beautiful face. Zenobia and her mother were both called Al-Zabba', meaning "the one with long lovely hair." Zenobia possessed a strong, melodic voice and many charms. She was well educated and knew Greek, Aramaic, Egyptian, and Latin. Some sources report that she was also given a Jewish education and may have been in some sense a Jew herself. She was very interested in history and knew the works of Homer, Plato, and other writers from Greece. She also enjoyed hunting animals and drinking.

Sixteenth century tapestry depicting Zenobia's execution of Maeonius, her husband's murderer.

Queen of Palmyra

Zenobia married King Septimius Odaenathus of Palmyra in Syria by 258, as his second wife. Originally, a client king under Roman control, Odaenathus had become the de facto ruler of the Eastern provinces of the Roman Empire after the defeat and capture of Emperor Valerian by Shapur I of the Sassanid Empire. Odaenathus’ first marriage had produced a son, Hairan, who became Zenobia's stepson. Around 266, Zenobia and Odaenathus had their own son, Lucius Iulius Aurelius Septimius Vaballathus Athenodorus, known as Vaballathus.

In 267, Odaenathus and Hairan were assassinated by Maeonius, described as either the nephew or cousin of Odaenathus. Zenobia succeeded in having the usurper executed. Since the titled heir, Vaballathus, was only a year old, Zenobia succeeded her husband and ruled Palmyra, bestowing upon herself and her son the honorific titles of Augusta and Augustus.

In 269, Zenobia, her army, and the Palmyrene general Zabdas violently conquered Egypt with help from their Egyptian ally, Timagenes, and his army. The Roman prefect of Egypt, Tenagino Probus, tried to expel them from Egypt, but Zenobia's army captured and beheaded him. She then proclaimed herself queen of Egypt.

In the same year, Zenobia supported the Christian "heretic" Paul of Samosata, the bishop of Antioch, Syria, in his struggle against his opponents. As a result, Paul was able to maintain control of his bishopric as long as Zenobia remained queen. According to the Jerusalem Talmud, she also treated the Jews of Palmyra with favor and protected certain rabbis from persecution (Ter. viii. 46 b).

"Warrior Queen"

After her military successes, Zenobia became known as a "Warrior Queen." In leading her army, she displayed significant prowess: she was an able horsewoman and would march several miles with her foot soldiers.

Zenobia coin showing her image, diademed and draped, and giving her title, Augusta, with the obverse showing a standing figure of the goddess, Juno

Zenobia and her large army made expeditions and conquered Anatolia as far as Ancyra (Ankara) and Chalcedon, and then continued on to Syria, Palestine, and Lebanon, taking vital trade routes in these areas from the Romans.

Roman Emperor Aurelian, who was at that time campaigning with his forces in the Gallic Empire, probably did initially recognize the authority of Zenobia and Vaballathus. However this relationship began to degenerate when Aurelian began a military campaign to reunite the Roman Empire in 272-273. Aurelian and his forces thus left Gaul and arrived in Syria. The forces of Aurelian and Zenobia met and fought near Antioch. After a crushing defeat, the remaining Palmyrenes briefly fled into Antioch and into Emesa.

Zenobia was unable to remove her treasury at Emesa before Aurelian successfully besieged and entered the city. Zenobia and her son escaped on camel back with help from the Sassanids, but they were captured on the Euphrates River by Aurelian’s horsemen.

Zenobia’s short-lived Egyptian kingdom and the Palmyrene Empire had ended. The remaining Palmyrenes who refused to surrender were captured by Aurelian and were executed on Aurelian’s orders. Among those killed was Zenobia's chief counselor and Greek sophist, Cassius Longinus.

Zenobia and Vaballathus were taken as hostages to Rome by Aurelian. Vaballathus is presumed to have died on his way to Rome. In 274, Zenobia appeared in golden chains in Aurelian’s military triumph parade in Rome. Aurelian, apparently impressed by her beauty and dignity, freed Zenobia and granted her an elegant villa in Tibur (modern Tivoli, Italy).

She lived the rest of her life in luxury and became a prominent philosopher, socialite, and Roman matron. She later married a Roman governor and senator whose name is unknown. They had several daughters who are also known to have married into Roman noble families. There is a claim that after Aurelian’s defeat, Zenobia committed suicide. However, this is not confirmed and is considered unlikely. Her further descendants are reported to have survived into the fourth century and later.

Legacy

Baroque depiction of Zenobia as the Warrior Queen

Zenobia conquered new territories and increased the Palmyrene Empire in the memory of her husband and as a legacy to her son. Her stated goal was to protect the Eastern Roman Empire from the Sassanid Empire for the peace of Rome. However her efforts significantly increased the power of her throne, and brought her into conflict with Aurelian in the west. During her brief reign, she became perhaps the most powerful woman ever in the Roman Empire.

Prominent Romans are counted as Zenobia's descendants, with evidence of this supported by an inscription found in Rome. One possible descendant of Zenobia is Saint Zenobius of Florence, a Christian bishop who lived in the fifth century.

Zenobia in literature and the theater

Geoffrey Chaucer, speaks of Zenobia in The Canterbury Tales, vv. 359-486
The Irish dramatist Arthur Murphy wrote a tragedy entitled Zenobia, which was first produced in 1768.
Zenobia was the heroine of Alexander Baron's novel The Queen of the East. It is a reasonably persuasive fictional account of her conflict with Emperor Aurelian.
Louis de Wohl's The Living Wood contains many references to Zenobia.
Beloved, by Bertrice Small, is a fictitious retelling (historical novel) of Zenobia's life.
Judith Weingarten wrote The Chronicle of Zenobia: the Rebel Queen, published in 2006.
Haley Elizabeth Garwood published Zenobia in 2005.
Hand maiden of Palmyra, by Fleur Reynolds, is an erotic novel featuring Queen Zenobia.
In 2007, Mansour Rahbani, a Lebanese composer and producer, produced a musical titled Zenobia, a fictitious retelling of Zenobia's life.
Zenobia has been the heroine of three operas: Tomaso Albinoni's Zenobia (1694), Pasquale Anfossi's Zenobia in Palmira (1789), and Rossini's Aureliano in Palmira (1813).

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

Dear, Nick. Zenobia. Boston: Faber and Faber, 1995. ISBN 9780571176762.
Garwood, Haley Elizabeth. Zenobia. Franklin, KY: Writers Block, 2005. ISBN 9780965972130.
Jackson-Laufer, Guida. Women Who Ruled. Santa Barbara: A Barnes & Noble Books, 1998. ISBN 9780760708859.
Weingarten, Judith. The Chronicle of Zenobia: The Rebel Queen. Vanguard Press, 2006. ISBN 9781843862192.

External links

All links retrieved June 13, 2023.

Credits

New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:

Zenobia ^history

The history of this article since it was imported to New World Encyclopedia:

History of "Zenobia"

Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-[[Image:Herbert Schmalz-Zenobia.jpg|thumb|300px|''Queen Zenobia's Last Look Upon Palmyra'',<br />by Herbert Schmalz]]
+{{Images OK}}{{submitted}}{{approved}}{{copyedited}}
-'''Zenobia''' ({{lang-ar|زنوبيا}}, 240-after 274 C.E.) was a [[Syria]]n queen who lived in the third century of the [[Common Era]]. After her husbands death she became a powerful military leader in her own right, conquering both Egypt and much of the Eastern [[Roman Empire]].
+[[Image:Herbert Schmalz-Zenobia.jpg|thumb|250px|''Queen Zenobia's Last Look Upon Palmyra'',<br />by Herbert Schmalz]]
+'''Zenobia''' ({{lang-ar|زنوبيا}}) was a [[Syria]]n queen (240-after 274 C.E.). After her husband's death, she became a powerful military leader in her own right, conquering both [[Egypt]] and much of the Eastern [[Roman Empire]].
-The descendant of various royal ancestors, Zenobia became [[Queen regnant|queen]] of the [[Palmyrene Empire]] as the second wife of King Septimius [[Odaenathus]]. Upon his death, she became the ruler of the empire. In 269, she conquered [[Egypt]], expelling the Roman prefect [[Tenagino Probus]], whom she beheaded when he led an attempt to recapture the territory. She then proclaimed herself queen of [[Egypt]]. After this, she led campaigns that conquered parts of [[Anatolia]] (modern Turkey), [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], and [[Lebanon]], taking vital [[trade route]]s from the Romans. In 274, she was defeated and taken as a hostage to Rome by the the forces of the Roman Emperor [[Aurelian]].
+The descendant of various royal ancestors, Zenobia became [[Queen regnant|queen]] of the [[Palmyrene Empire]] as the second wife of King Septimius [[Odaenathus]]. When he was assassinated, she executed his killer and became the new ruler with her infant son. A woman of broad education, she protected both [[Jews]] and "[[heretic]]s" as queen.
-Appearing in golden chains in Aurelian’s military triumph parade, Zenobia was freed by emperor, who granted her an elegant villa in Tibur (modern [[Tivoli, Italy]]). She became a prominent [[philosopher]], [[socialite]], and Roman matron. Several notable Romans are counted as her descendants, and she figures prominently in later literature through the present day.
+In 269, she challenged Rome by conquering [[Egypt]], defeating the Roman prefect [[Tenagino Probus]]. She then proclaimed herself queen of Egypt and conquered parts of [[Anatolia]] (modern Turkey), [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], and [[Lebanon]], taking vital [[trade route]]s from the Romans. In 274, she was defeated by the forces of the Roman Emperor [[Aurelian]] and taken as a hostage to Rome.
+{{toc}}
+Appearing in golden chains in Aurelian’s military triumph parade, Zenobia was freed by the emperor, who granted her an elegant villa in Tibur (modern [[Tivoli, Italy]]). She became a prominent [[philosopher]], [[socialite]], and Roman matron. Several notable Romans are counted as her descendants, and she figures prominently in later literature through the present day.
 ==Biography==
-===Family, ancestry, and early life===
+===Family, early life===
-[[Image:Romanworld271AD.jpg|thumb|300px|Palmyran Empire under Zenobia (right)]]
+[[Image:Romanworld271AD.jpg|thumb|300px|Palmyrene Empire under Zenobia (right)]]
-Zenobia was born with the name Iulia (Julia) Aurelia Zenobia. Her full name in the [[Arabic language]] is al-Zabba' bint Amr ibn Tharab ibn Hasan ibn 'Adhina ibn al-Samida, commonly shortened to Al-Zabba'. In Greek, her name is rendered as Ζηνοβία and in English she is  known either as as Xenobia or Zenobia. After her marriage, she was known as Septimia Zenobia, referring to her husband, Septimius Odaenathus. On official documents, she gave her name as Bat-Zabbai (daughter of Al-Zabba'). Zenobia and her mother were both called Al-Zabba', meaning "the one with long lovely hair."
+Zenobia was born and raised in Palmyra, [[Syria]]. Her father, Zabaii ben Selim, also called Julius Aurelius Zenobius, was a chieftain of Syria, and her mother may have been Egyptian. Her father’s ''gentilicium,'' Aurelius, shows that his paternal ancestors probably received [[Roman citizenship]] under either Roman Emperor [[Antoninus Pius]] (reigned 138-161), [[Marcus Aurelius]] (reigned 161-180), or [[Commodus]] (reigned 180-192).
-Zenobia's, father, Zabaii ben Selim, or Iulius Aurelius Zenobius, was a chieftain of Syria, and her mother may have been Egyptian. Her father’s ''gentilicium'' Aurelius shows that his paternal ancestors probably received [[Roman citizenship]] under either Roman Emperor [[Antoninus Pius]] (reigned 138-161), [[Marcus Aurelius]] (reigned 161-180), or [[Commodus]] (reigned 180-192).
+Zenobia was born with the name Iulia (Julia) Aurelia Zenobia. Her full name in the [[Arabic language]] is al-Zabba' bint Amr ibn Tharab ibn Hasan ibn 'Adhina ibn al-Samida, commonly shortened to Al-Zabba'. In Greek, her name is rendered as Ζηνοβία and in English, she is known either as as Xenobia or Zenobia. After her marriage, she was known as Septimia Zenobia, referring to her husband, Septimius Odaenathus. On official documents, she gave her name as Bat-Zabbai (daughter of Al-Zabba').
-Zenobia was born and raised in Palmyra, [[Syria]]. The theory that her mother was Egyptian is based on the fact that Zenobia knew the ancient Egyptian language very well and had a strong predisposition toward the culture of [[Egypt]].
+She was described as beautiful and intelligent. She had a dark complexion, pearly white teeth, black bright eyes that sparkled, and a beautiful face. Zenobia and her mother were both called Al-Zabba', meaning "the one with long lovely hair." Zenobia possessed a strong, melodic voice and many charms. She was well educated and knew Greek, Aramaic, Egyptian, and [[Latin]]. Some sources report that she was also given a Jewish education and may have been in some sense a Jew herself. She was very interested in history and knew the works of [[Homer]], [[Plato]], and other writers from [[Greece]]. She also enjoyed hunting animals and drinking.
-Her father’s paternal ancestry is traceable up to six generations and includes Sampsiceramus, a Syrian chieftain who founded the [[Royal Family of Emesa]] (modern [[Homs]], [[Syria]]) and Gaius [[Julius Bassianus]], a high priest from Emesa and father of Roman Empress [[Julia Domna]].
-She also claimed to be a descendant of [[Dido (Queen of Carthage)|Dido]], Queen of [[Carthage]] and the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] [[Greeks|Greek]] Queen [[Cleopatra VII]] of Egypt. According to the ''[[Augustan History]]'', Zenobia sent an imperial declaration in 269 to the citizens of [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]], describing the city as “my ancestral city.” Moreover, the historian [[Callinicus (Historian)|Callinicus]] dedicated a 10-book history of Alexandria to a certain "Cleopatra," who seems actually to be Zenobia.
-Zenobia is descended from the above named figures through [[Drusilla of Mauretania (born 38)|Drusilla of Mauretania]]. Drusilla was a daughter of King [[Ptolemy of Mauretania]] and his queen, [[Julia Urania]]. Drusilla’s mother most probably came from the [[Royal Family of Emesa]] and Drusilla married into that royal family. Drusilla’s paternal grandmother Queen of Mauretania [[Cleopatra Selene II]], was a daughter of Ptolemaic Greek Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Roman Triumvir [[Mark Antony]]. Drusilla’s paternal grandfather African King [[Juba II]] of Mauretania claimed to be a descendant of the sister to the General of [[Carthage]], [[Hannibal]] (Lucan. Pharsalia 8.287). Hannibal’s family, the Barcids, claimed to be descended from Dido’s younger brother.
 [[Image:Zenobia and Maeonius.jpg|thumb|350px|Sixteenth century tapestry depicting Zenobia's execution of Maeonius, her husband's murderer.]]
-Zenobia was described as beautiful and intelligent. She had a dark complexion, pearly white teeth, black bright eyes that sparkled, and a beautiful face. Zenobia possessed a strong, melodic voice and many charms. She was well educated and knew Greek, Aramaic, Egyptian, and [[Latin]]. She was very interested in history and knew the works of [[Homer]], [[Plato]], and other writers from [[Greece]]. She also enjoyed hunting animals and drinking.
 ===Queen of Palmyra===
-Zenobia married King Septimius [[Odaenathus]] of Palmyra by 258, as his second wife. Odaenathus had taken control of the Eastern provinces of the [[Roman Empire]] after the defeat and capture of Emperor [[Valerian]] by [[Shapur I]] of the [[Sassanid Empire]]. She had a stepson Hairan, a son from Odaenathus’ first marriage. Around 266, Zenobia and had their own son, Lucius Iulius Aurelius Septimius Vaballathus Athenodorus, known as Vaballathus .
+Zenobia married King Septimius [[Odaenathus]] of [[Palmyra]] in Syria by 258, as his second wife. Originally, a client king under Roman control, Odaenathus had become the ''de facto'' ruler of the Eastern provinces of the [[Roman Empire]] after the defeat and capture of Emperor [[Valerian]] by [[Shapur I]] of the [[Sassanid Empire]]. Odaenathus’ first marriage had produced a son, Hairan, who became Zenobia's stepson. Around 266, Zenobia and Odaenathus had their own son, Lucius Iulius Aurelius Septimius Vaballathus Athenodorus, known as [[Vaballathus]].
+In 267, Odaenathus and Hairan were assassinated by [[Maeonius]], described as either the nephew or cousin of Odaenathus. Zenobia succeeded in having the usurper executed. Since the titled heir, Vaballathus, was only a year old, Zenobia succeeded her husband and ruled Palmyra, bestowing upon herself and her son the honorific titles of ''Augusta'' and ''Augustus''.
-In 267, Odaenathus and Hairan were assassinated by [[Maeonius]], described as either the nephew or cousin of Odaenathus. The titled heir, Vaballathus, was only a year old, so his mother succeeded her husband and ruled Palmyra. Zenobia succeeded in having the usurper executed and bestowed upon herself and her son the honorific titles of ''Augusta'' and ''Augustus''.
+In 269, Zenobia, her army, and the Palmyrene general Zabdas violently conquered Egypt with help from their Egyptian ally, Timagenes, and his army. The Roman prefect of Egypt, Tenagino Probus, tried to expel them from Egypt, but Zenobia's army captured and beheaded him. She then proclaimed herself queen of Egypt.
-In 269, Zenobia, her army, and the Palmyrene general Zabdas violently conquered Egypt with help from their Egyptian ally, Timagenes, and his army. The Roman prefect of Egypt, Tenagino Probus, and his forces tried to expel them from Egypt, but Zenobia's army captured and beheaded Probus. She then proclaimed herself Queen of Egypt.
+In the same year, Zenobia supported the Christian "[[heretic]]" [[Paul of Samosata]], the bishop of [[Antioch]], Syria, in his struggle against his opponents. As a result, Paul was able to maintain control of his bishopric as long as Zenobia remained queen. According to the Jerusalem [[Talmud]], she also treated the Jews of Palmyra with favor and protected certain [[rabbi]]s from persecution (Ter. viii. 46 b).
-==='Warrior Queen'===
+==="Warrior Queen"===
-After these military successes, Zenobia became known as a "Warrior Queen." In leading her army, she displayed significant prowess: she was an able horsewoman and would several miles with her foot soldiers.
+After her military successes, Zenobia became known as a "Warrior Queen." In leading her army, she displayed significant prowess: she was an able horsewoman and would march several miles with her foot soldiers.
-[[Image:Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg|thumb|300px|Zenobia [[coin]] showing her diademed and draped and giving her title, ''[[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]'', with the obverse showing a standing figure of the goddess,[[Juno]]]]
+[[Image:Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg|thumb|300px|Zenobia [[coin]] showing her image, diademed and draped, and giving her title, ''[[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]'', with the obverse showing a standing figure of the goddess, [[Juno]]]]
 Zenobia and her large army made expeditions and conquered [[Anatolia]] as far as Ancyra ([[Ankara]]) and [[Chalcedon]], and then continued on to [[Syria]], [[Palestine]], and [[Lebanon]], taking vital [[trade route]]s in these areas from the Romans.
-Roman Emperor [[Aurelian]], who was at that time campaigning with his forces in the [[Gallic Empire]], probably did initially recognize the authority of Zenobia and Vaballathus. However this relationship began to degenerate when Aurelian began a military campaign to reunite the [[Roman Empire]] in 272-273. Aurelian and his forces thus left the Gaul and arrived in Syria. The forces of Aurelian and Zenobia met and fought near Antioch. After a crushing defeat, the remaining Palmyrenes briefly fled into [[Antioch]] and into Emesa.
+Roman Emperor [[Aurelian]], who was at that time campaigning with his forces in the [[Gallic Empire]], probably did initially recognize the authority of Zenobia and Vaballathus. However this relationship began to degenerate when Aurelian began a military campaign to reunite the [[Roman Empire]] in 272-273. Aurelian and his forces thus left Gaul and arrived in Syria. The forces of Aurelian and Zenobia met and fought near Antioch. After a crushing defeat, the remaining Palmyrenes briefly fled into [[Antioch]] and into Emesa.
 Zenobia was unable to remove her treasury at Emesa before Aurelian successfully besieged and entered the city. Zenobia and her son escaped on camel back with help from the Sassanids, but they were captured on the [[Euphrates]] River by Aurelian’s horsemen.
@@ Line 45: / Line 43: @@
 Zenobia and Vaballathus were taken as hostages to Rome by Aurelian. Vaballathus is presumed to have died on his way to Rome. In 274, Zenobia appeared in golden chains in Aurelian’s military triumph parade in Rome. Aurelian, apparently impressed by her beauty and dignity, freed Zenobia and granted her an elegant villa in Tibur (modern [[Tivoli, Italy]]).
-She lived the rest of her life in luxury and became a prominent philosopher, socialite, and Roman matron. She later married a Roman governor and senator whose name is unknown. They had several daughters who are also known to have married into Roman noble families. There is a claim that after Aurelian’s defeat, Zenobia committed suicide. However, this is not confirmed as is considered unlikely. Her further descendants are reported to have survived into the fourth century and later.
+She lived the rest of her life in luxury and became a prominent philosopher, socialite, and Roman matron. She later married a Roman governor and senator whose name is unknown. They had several daughters who are also known to have married into Roman noble families. There is a claim that after Aurelian’s defeat, Zenobia committed [[suicide]]. However, this is not confirmed and is considered unlikely. Her further descendants are reported to have survived into the fourth century and later.
 ==Legacy==
-[[Image:C A Tavella Zenobia.jpg|thumb|Baroque depcition of Zenobia as the Warrior Queen]]
+[[Image:C A Tavella Zenobia.jpg|thumb|Baroque depiction of Zenobia as the Warrior Queen]]
-Zenobia conquered new territories and increased the Palmyrene Empire in the memory of her husband and as a legacy to her son. Her stated goal was to protect the Eastern Roman Empire from the [[Sassanid Empire]] for the peace of Rome. However her efforts significantly increased the power of her throne, and brought her into conflict with [[Aurelian]] in the west. During her brief reign, she became perhaps the most power woman ever in the Roman Empire.
+Zenobia conquered new territories and increased the Palmyrene Empire in the memory of her husband and as a legacy to her son. Her stated goal was to protect the Eastern Roman Empire from the [[Sassanid Empire]] for the peace of Rome. However her efforts significantly increased the power of her throne, and brought her into conflict with [[Aurelian]] in the west. During her brief reign, she became perhaps the most powerful woman ever in the Roman Empire.
-Prominent Romans are counted as Zenobia's descendants, with evidence of this supported by an inscription found in Rome. The inscription ''Lucius Septimia Patavinia Balbilla Tyria Nepotilla Odaenathiania'' contains the names of her first husband Septimius [[Odaenathus]]. He probably was named in the honor of Zenobia's first husband. (After the deaths of Odaenathus and his sons, Odaenathus had no descendants). Another possible descendant of Zenobia is Saint [[Zenobius of Florence]], a Christian [[bishop]] who lived in the fifth century.
+Prominent Romans are counted as Zenobia's descendants, with evidence of this supported by an inscription found in Rome. One possible descendant of Zenobia is Saint [[Zenobius of Florence]], a Christian [[bishop]] who lived in the fifth century.
 ===Zenobia in literature and the theater===
-* [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], speaks of Zenobia in ''The Canterbury Tales'', vv. 359-486
+* [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], speaks of Zenobia in ''The Canterbury Tales,'' vv. 359-486
-* The Irish dramatist [[Arthur Murphy]] wrote a [[tragedy]] entitled ''Zenobia'', which was first produced in 1768.
+* The Irish dramatist [[Arthur Murphy]] wrote a [[tragedy]] entitled ''Zenobia,'' which was first produced in 1768.
 * Zenobia was the heroine of [[Alexander Baron]]'s novel ''The Queen of the East''. It is a reasonably persuasive fictional account of her conflict with Emperor Aurelian.
-*[[Louis de Wohl]]'s ''The Living Wood'' contains many references to Zenobia.
+* [[Louis de Wohl]]'s ''The Living Wood'' contains many references to Zenobia.
-* ''Beloved'', by [[Bertrice Small]], is a fictitious retelling (historical novel) of Zenobia's life.
+* ''Beloved,'' by [[Bertrice Small]], is a fictitious retelling (historical novel) of Zenobia's life.
-* Judith Weingarten wrote ''The Chronicle of Zenobia: the Rebel Queen'', published in 2006.
+* Judith Weingarten wrote ''The Chronicle of Zenobia: the Rebel Queen,'' published in 2006.
-*Haley Elizabeth Garwood published  ''Zenobia'' in 2005.
+* Haley Elizabeth Garwood published  ''Zenobia'' in 2005.
-*''Hand maiden of Palmyra,'' by Fleur Reynolds, is an erotic novel featuring Queen Zenobia.
+* ''Hand maiden of Palmyra,'' by Fleur Reynolds, is an erotic novel featuring Queen Zenobia.
-* In 2007, [[Mansour Rahbani]], a Lebanese composer and producer, produced a musical titled Zenobia, a fictitious retelling Zenobia's life.
+* In 2007, [[Mansour Rahbani]], a Lebanese composer and producer, produced a musical titled Zenobia, a fictitious retelling of Zenobia's life.
-*Zenobia has been the heroine of three operas: [[Tomaso Albinoni]]'s ''Zenobia'' (1694), [[Pasquale Anfossi]]'s ''Zenobia in Palmira'' (1789), and [[Rossini]]'s ''[[Aureliano in Palmira]]'' (1813).
+* Zenobia has been the heroine of three operas: [[Tomaso Albinoni]]'s ''Zenobia'' (1694), [[Pasquale Anfossi]]'s ''Zenobia in Palmira'' (1789), and [[Rossini]]'s ''[[Aureliano in Palmira]]'' (1813).
 ==References==
-*Dear, Nick. ''Zenobia''. Boston: Faber and Faber, 1995. ISBN 978-0571176762
+* Dear, Nick. ''Zenobia''. Boston: Faber and Faber, 1995. ISBN 9780571176762.
-*Garwood, Haley Elizabeth. ''Zenobia''. Franklin, Ky.: Writers Block, 2005. ISBN 978-0965972130
+* Garwood, Haley Elizabeth. ''Zenobia''. Franklin, KY: Writers Block, 2005. ISBN 9780965972130.
-*Jackson-Laufer, Guida. ''Women Who Ruled''. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 1990. ISBN 978-0874365603
+* Jackson-Laufer, Guida. ''Women Who Ruled''. Santa Barbara: A Barnes & Noble Books, 1998. ISBN 9780760708859.
-*Kephart, Matthew, and Emmens, Beth. ''Zenobia''. Staten Island, NY: Berrett-Koehler Publisher, 2007. ISBN 978-1576755495
+* Weingarten, Judith. ''The Chronicle of Zenobia: The Rebel Queen''. Vanguard Press, 2006. ISBN 9781843862192.
 ==External links==
+All links retrieved June 13, 2023.
 *[http://www.mainlesson.com/display.php?author=morris&book=greek&story=zenobia Zenobia and Longinus]
 *[http://www.roman-emperors.org/zenobia.htm Vaballathus and Zenobia]
-*[http://www.livius.org/paa-pam/palmyra/zenobia.html Zenobia: empress of Palmyra (267-272)]
 *[http://womenshistory.about.com/library/bio/ucbio_zenobia.htm Zenobia as a third-century queen of Palmyra]
+[[category:history]]
+[[category:biography]]
+[[category:politicians and reformers]]
 {{credit|243710493}}