Difference between revisions of "Viroid" - New World Encyclopedia
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A '''viroid''' is a submicroscopic infectious agent, smaller than a [[virus]], that consists of a short section (a few hundred [[nucleobase]]s) of highly complementary, circular, single-stranded [[RNA]] without the protective [[capsid|protein coat]] that is typical for [[virus]]es. They are known to cause important diseases in plants, but have not been found in animals. The nucleic acid is not known to code for specific proteins, but viroids can replicate themselves by using host [[enzyme]]s. | A '''viroid''' is a submicroscopic infectious agent, smaller than a [[virus]], that consists of a short section (a few hundred [[nucleobase]]s) of highly complementary, circular, single-stranded [[RNA]] without the protective [[capsid|protein coat]] that is typical for [[virus]]es. They are known to cause important diseases in plants, but have not been found in animals. The nucleic acid is not known to code for specific proteins, but viroids can replicate themselves by using host [[enzyme]]s. | ||
| − | Plants such as | + | Plants such as [[tomato]]es, [[potato]]es, [[avocado]]s, [[coconut]]s, [[peach]]es, [[pear]]s, [[apple]]s, [[chrysanthemum]]s, and [[cucumber]]s are known to be infected with viroids, which can be transmitted by pollen or seed. |
| − | == | + | ==Description== |
| − | Viroids consists of short strands of [[RNA]] without a protein coat. They differ from viruses in that | + | Viroids consists of short strands of the nucleic acid [[RNA]] without a protein coat. They lack any [[DNA]]. Viroids differ from viruses in that viruses, at their most basic level, consist of [[gene|genetic material]] ([[DNA]] or [[RNA]]) contained within a protective [[protein]] shell. Viroids differ from [[prion]]s, another type of submicroscopic infectious agent, in that prions are made only of protein, lacking [[nucleic acid]]. |
The smallest viroid identified so far is a 220 [[nucleobase]] scRNA (small cytoplasmic RNA) associated with the rice yellow mottle sobemovirus (RYMV) (Collins et al. 1998). In comparison, the genome of the smallest known viruses capable of causing an infection by themselves are around 2 [[kilobase]]s in size. Many viroids consist of only 300 to 400 [[nucleotide]]s. | The smallest viroid identified so far is a 220 [[nucleobase]] scRNA (small cytoplasmic RNA) associated with the rice yellow mottle sobemovirus (RYMV) (Collins et al. 1998). In comparison, the genome of the smallest known viruses capable of causing an infection by themselves are around 2 [[kilobase]]s in size. Many viroids consist of only 300 to 400 [[nucleotide]]s. | ||
| − | Viroids were discovered and given this name by [[Theodor O. Diener]], a plant pathologist at the Agricultural Research Service in Maryland, in 1971 | + | Viroids were discovered and given this name by [[Theodor O. Diener]], a plant pathologist at the Agricultural Research Service in Maryland, in 1971 (ARS 1989; OU 2007). |
| − | |||
| − | Viroid RNA does not code for any known | + | Viroid RNA does not code for any known protein; some even lack the AUG [[start codon|initiation codon]]. Nonetheless, they replicate autonomously in host cells. The replication mechanism involves interaction with RNA polymerase II, an [[enzyme]] normally associated with synthesis of [[messenger RNA]], and "rolling circle" synthesis of new RNA. Some viroids are [[ribozymes]], having RNA enzyme properties that allow self-cleavage and ligation of unit-size genomes from larger replication intermediates. It has been proposed that viroids are "escaped [[intron]]s". |
| − | Viroids are usually transmitted by [[seed]] or [[pollen]]. Infected plants can show distorted growth. The first viroid to be identified was the ''[[Potato spindle tuber viroid]]'' (PSTVd). Some 33 species have been identified. | + | Not all viroids are known to be pathogenic, but some are serious pathogens of plants. Viroids are usually transmitted by [[seed]] or [[pollen]], but may be transported by farm implements as well. Infected plants can show distorted growth and sometimes are killed by the viroid. |
| + | |||
| + | The first viroid to be identified was the ''[[Potato spindle tuber viroid]]'' (PSTVd). Some 33 species have been identified. | ||
Primary and secondary structure of the PSTVd viroid: | Primary and secondary structure of the PSTVd viroid: | ||
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==Viroids and RNA silencing== | ==Viroids and RNA silencing== | ||
| − | There has long been confusion over how viroids are able to induce [[symptom]]s on plants without encoding any [[protein]] products within their sequences. Evidence now suggests that [[RNA silencing]] is involved in the process. Firstly, changes to the viroid [[genome]] can dramatically alter its [[virulence]] | + | There has long been confusion over how viroids are able to induce [[symptom]]s on plants without encoding any [[protein]] products within their sequences. Evidence now suggests that [[RNA silencing]] is involved in the process. |
| + | |||
| + | Firstly, changes to the viroid [[genome]] can dramatically alter its [[virulence]] (Dickson et al. 1979). This reflects that fact that any [[siRNA]]s produced would have less complementary [[base pairing]] with target [[messenger RNA]]. Secondly, siRNAs corresponding to sequences from viroid genomes have been isolated from infected plants (Papaefthimiou et al. 2001). Finally, [[transgenic]] expression of the noninfectious [[Hairpin RNA|hpRNA]] of [[potato spindle tuber viroid]] develop all the corresponding viroid like symptoms (Wang et al. 2004). | ||
This [[evidence]] indicates that when viroids [[replicate]] via a double stranded intermediate [[RNA]], they are targeted by a [[dicer]] enzyme and cleaved into siRNAs that are then loaded onto the [[RNA-induced silencing complex]]. The viroid siRNAs actually contain sequences capable of complementary base pairing with the plant's own messenger RNAs and induction of degradation or inhibition of [[translation]] is what causes the classic viroid symptoms. | This [[evidence]] indicates that when viroids [[replicate]] via a double stranded intermediate [[RNA]], they are targeted by a [[dicer]] enzyme and cleaved into siRNAs that are then loaded onto the [[RNA-induced silencing complex]]. The viroid siRNAs actually contain sequences capable of complementary base pairing with the plant's own messenger RNAs and induction of degradation or inhibition of [[translation]] is what causes the classic viroid symptoms. | ||
| Line 65: | Line 68: | ||
==References== | ==References== | ||
| + | * Agricultural Research Service (ARS). 1989. [http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/timeline/viroid.htm |title=ARS Research Timeline - Tracking the Elusive Viroid |date=[[2006-03-02]] |accessdate=2007-07-18}}</ref>''USDA Agricultural Research Service''. | ||
| + | |||
<ref>{{cite journal |author=Collins RF, Gellatly DL, Sehgal OP, Abouhaidar MG |title=Self-cleaving circular RNA associated with rice yellow mottle virus is the smallest viroid-like RNA |journal=Virology |volume=241 |issue=2 |pages=269-75 |year=1998 |pmid=9499801 |doi=10.1006/viro.1997.8962}}</ref>. | <ref>{{cite journal |author=Collins RF, Gellatly DL, Sehgal OP, Abouhaidar MG |title=Self-cleaving circular RNA associated with rice yellow mottle virus is the smallest viroid-like RNA |journal=Virology |volume=241 |issue=2 |pages=269-75 |year=1998 |pmid=9499801 |doi=10.1006/viro.1997.8962}}</ref>. | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Davis, R. E., R. Hammond, R. A. Owens, and Y. Zhao. 1999. [http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/dec99/boon1299.htm VIROIDS!—From Scourge to Boon in the 21st Century?]. ''USDA Agricultural Research Service''. | ||
| + | |||
| + | <ref>{{cite journal |author=Elizabeth Dickson, Hugh D. Robertson, C. L. Niblett, R. K. Horst & Milton Zaitlin |title=Minor differences between nucleotide sequences of mild and severe strains of potato spindle tuber viroid |year=1979 |journal=Nature |volume=277 |pages=60-62 |doi=10.1038/277060a0}}</ref> | ||
| + | |||
| + | * Oakland University, Department of Biology (OU). 2007. [http://www2.oakland.edu/biology/chaudhry/pics/Viroids%5B1%5D.pdf Discovery of Viroids]. ''Oakland University, Department of Biology''. | ||
| + | |||
| + | <ref>{{cite journal |author=Papaefthimiou I, Hamilton A, Denti M, Baulcombe D, Tsagris M, Tabler M |title=Replicating potato spindle tuber viroid RNA is accompanied by short RNA fragments that are characteristic of post-transcriptional gene silencing |journal=Nucleic Acids Res. |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=2395-400 |year=2001 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=55696 |pmid=11376158 |doi=10.1093/nar/29.11.2395}}</ref> | ||
| + | |||
| + | |||
| + | <ref>{{cite journal |author=Wang MB, Bian XY, Wu LM, ''et al'' |title=On the role of RNA silencing in the pathogenicity and evolution of viroids and viral satellites |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=101 |issue=9 |pages=3275-80 |year=2004 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=365780 |pmid=14978267 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0400104101}}</ref> | ||
| + | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
Revision as of 00:56, 29 October 2007
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| Virus classification | ||||
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Pospiviroidae |
A viroid is a submicroscopic infectious agent, smaller than a virus, that consists of a short section (a few hundred nucleobases) of highly complementary, circular, single-stranded RNA without the protective protein coat that is typical for viruses. They are known to cause important diseases in plants, but have not been found in animals. The nucleic acid is not known to code for specific proteins, but viroids can replicate themselves by using host enzymes.
Plants such as tomatoes, potatoes, avocados, coconuts, peaches, pears, apples, chrysanthemums, and cucumbers are known to be infected with viroids, which can be transmitted by pollen or seed.
Description
Viroids consists of short strands of the nucleic acid RNA without a protein coat. They lack any DNA. Viroids differ from viruses in that viruses, at their most basic level, consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA) contained within a protective protein shell. Viroids differ from prions, another type of submicroscopic infectious agent, in that prions are made only of protein, lacking nucleic acid.
The smallest viroid identified so far is a 220 nucleobase scRNA (small cytoplasmic RNA) associated with the rice yellow mottle sobemovirus (RYMV) (Collins et al. 1998). In comparison, the genome of the smallest known viruses capable of causing an infection by themselves are around 2 kilobases in size. Many viroids consist of only 300 to 400 nucleotides.
Viroids were discovered and given this name by Theodor O. Diener, a plant pathologist at the Agricultural Research Service in Maryland, in 1971 (ARS 1989; OU 2007).
Viroid RNA does not code for any known protein; some even lack the AUG initiation codon. Nonetheless, they replicate autonomously in host cells. The replication mechanism involves interaction with RNA polymerase II, an enzyme normally associated with synthesis of messenger RNA, and "rolling circle" synthesis of new RNA. Some viroids are ribozymes, having RNA enzyme properties that allow self-cleavage and ligation of unit-size genomes from larger replication intermediates. It has been proposed that viroids are "escaped introns".
Not all viroids are known to be pathogenic, but some are serious pathogens of plants. Viroids are usually transmitted by seed or pollen, but may be transported by farm implements as well. Infected plants can show distorted growth and sometimes are killed by the viroid.
The first viroid to be identified was the Potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd). Some 33 species have been identified.
Primary and secondary structure of the PSTVd viroid:
1 CGGAACUAAA CUCGUGGUUC CUGUGGUUCA CACCUGACCU CCUGAGCAGA AAAGAAAAAA
61 GAAGGCGGCU CGGAGGAGCG CUUCAGGGAU CCCCGGGGAA ACCUGGAGCG AACUGGCAAA
121 AAAGGACGGU GGGGAGUGCC CAGCGGCCGA CAGGAGUAAU UCCCGCCGAA ACAGGGUUUU
181 CACCCUUCCU UUCUUCGGGU GUCCUUCCUC GCGCCCGCAG GACCACCCCU CGCCCCCUUU
241 GCGCUGUCGC UUCGGCUACU ACCCGGUGGA AACAACUGAA GCUCCCGAGA ACCGCUUUUU
301 CUCUAUCUUA CUUGCUUCGG GGCGAGGGUG UUUAGCCCUU GGAACCGCAG UUGGUUCCU
Taxonomy
- Family Pospiviroidae
- Genus Pospiviroid; type species: Potato spindle tuber viroid
- Genus Hostuviroid; type species: Hop stunt viroid
- Genus Cocadviroid; type species: Coconut cadang-cadang viroid
- Genus Apscaviroid; type species: Apple scar skin viroid
- Genus Coleviroid; type species: Coleus blumei viroid 1
- Family Avsunviroidae
- Genus Avsunviroid; type species: Avocado sunblotch viroid
- Genus Pelamoviroid; type species: Peach latent mosaic viroid
Viroids and RNA silencing
There has long been confusion over how viroids are able to induce symptoms on plants without encoding any protein products within their sequences. Evidence now suggests that RNA silencing is involved in the process.
Firstly, changes to the viroid genome can dramatically alter its virulence (Dickson et al. 1979). This reflects that fact that any siRNAs produced would have less complementary base pairing with target messenger RNA. Secondly, siRNAs corresponding to sequences from viroid genomes have been isolated from infected plants (Papaefthimiou et al. 2001). Finally, transgenic expression of the noninfectious hpRNA of potato spindle tuber viroid develop all the corresponding viroid like symptoms (Wang et al. 2004).
This evidence indicates that when viroids replicate via a double stranded intermediate RNA, they are targeted by a dicer enzyme and cleaved into siRNAs that are then loaded onto the RNA-induced silencing complex. The viroid siRNAs actually contain sequences capable of complementary base pairing with the plant's own messenger RNAs and induction of degradation or inhibition of translation is what causes the classic viroid symptoms.
See also
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Agricultural Research Service (ARS). 1989. [http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/timeline/viroid.htm |title=ARS Research Timeline - Tracking the Elusive Viroid |date=2006-03-02 |accessdate=2007-07-18}}</ref>USDA Agricultural Research Service.
[1].
- Davis, R. E., R. Hammond, R. A. Owens, and Y. Zhao. 1999. VIROIDS!—From Scourge to Boon in the 21st Century?. USDA Agricultural Research Service.
- Oakland University, Department of Biology (OU). 2007. Discovery of Viroids. Oakland University, Department of Biology.
External links
Further reading
- WikiSpecies:Virus
- Wikipedia:WikiProject Viruses
Credits
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- ↑ Collins RF, Gellatly DL, Sehgal OP, Abouhaidar MG (1998). Self-cleaving circular RNA associated with rice yellow mottle virus is the smallest viroid-like RNA. Virology 241 (2): 269-75.
- ↑ Elizabeth Dickson, Hugh D. Robertson, C. L. Niblett, R. K. Horst & Milton Zaitlin (1979). Minor differences between nucleotide sequences of mild and severe strains of potato spindle tuber viroid. Nature 277: 60-62.
- ↑ Papaefthimiou I, Hamilton A, Denti M, Baulcombe D, Tsagris M, Tabler M (2001). Replicating potato spindle tuber viroid RNA is accompanied by short RNA fragments that are characteristic of post-transcriptional gene silencing. Nucleic Acids Res. 29 (11): 2395-400.
- ↑ Wang MB, Bian XY, Wu LM, et al (2004). On the role of RNA silencing in the pathogenicity and evolution of viroids and viral satellites. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101 (9): 3275-80.
