Sudan

جمهورية السودان Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān Republic of the Sudan
Motto: Al-Nasr Lana Arabic: "Victory is Ours"
Anthem: We Are the Army of God and of Our Land
Location of Sudan
Capital		Khartoum 15°31′N 32°35′E
Largest city		Omdurman
Official languages		Arabic, English
Government		Authoritarian Dictatorship
Independence		From Egypt and the Great Britain
Area
-	Total	2,505,813 km² (10th) 967,495 sq mi
-	Water (%)	6%
Population
-	July 2006 estimate	36,992,490 (33rd)
-	1993 census	24,940,683
GDP (PPP)		2005 estimate
-	Total	$84.755 billion (62nd)
-	Per capita	$2,396 (134th)
Currency		Sudanese dinar (SDD)
Time zone		EAT (UTC+3)
-	Summer (DST)	not observed (UTC+3)
Internet TLD		.sd
Calling code		+249

Situated in Northern Africa, The Sudan (officially Republic of Sudan) is the largest country in Africa, and is also the largest Arab country. The capital is Khartoum. Sudan is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, Kenya and Uganda to the southeast, Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest. Sudan is the tenth largest country in the world, geographically.

Military regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments have dominated national politics since independence from the United Kingdom in 1956. Sudan was embroiled in two prolonged civil wars during most of the remainder of the 20th century. These conflicts were rooted in northern economic, political, and social domination of largely non-Muslim, non-Arab southern Sudanese. The first civil war ended in 1972, but broke out again in 1983. The second war and famine-related effects resulted in more than 4 million people displaced and, according to rebel estimates, more than 2 million deaths over a period of two decades.

The chronic instability in Sudan, resulting from this long-standing civil war between the Muslim north and the Christian/Animist south, adverse weather, and weak world agricultural prices, holds much of the population at or below the poverty line. The effects of Sudan's almost constant ethnic and rebel militia fighting since the mid-twentieth century have penetrated all of its border states that provide shelter for fleeing refugees and cover to disparate domestic and foreign conflicting elements.

Though the Sudanese people have experienced decades of war, genocide and poverty, they hold on to hope, as is reflected in their national flag. The Sudanese flag reflects the Pan-Arab colors first adopted by Syria in March 1920, and most recently by Sudan, which officially hoisted it on May 20, 1970. These colors reflect the heart and desires of the Sudanese people. Red represents the struggles and martyrs in the Sudan and the great Arab land; white stands for peace, optimism, light and love; black symbolizes the Sudan and the mahdija revolution during which a black flag was used; and green represents and symbolizes growth and prosperity.

History

Statue of a Nubian king, Sudan

Early History of Sudan

Three ancient Kushite kingdoms existed consecutively in northern Sudan. This region was also known as Nubia and Meroë. These civilizations flourished mainly along the Nile River from the first to the sixth cataracts. The kingdoms were influenced by Ancient Pharaonic Egypt. In ancient times, Nubia was ruled by Egypt from 1500 B.C.E., to around 1000 B.C.E. when the Napatan Dynasty was founded under Alara. It regained independence for the Kingdom of Kush although borders fluctuated greatly.

Christianity was introduced by missionaries in the 3rd or 4th century, and much of the region was converted to Coptic Christianity. Islam was introduced in 640 C.E. with an influx of Muslim. The Arabs conquered Egypt and still the Christian Kingdoms of Nubia managed to persist until the 15th Century.

A merchant class of Arabs became economically dominant in feudal Sudan. An important kingdom in Nubia was the Makuria. The Makuria reached its height in the 8th-9th centuries. It was of The Melkite Christian faith, unlike its Coptic neighbours, Nobatia and Alodia.

Kingdom of Sennar

During the 1500s a people called the Funj conquered much of Sudan. This established the Kingdom of Sennar. By the time the kingdom was conquered by Egypt in 1820, the government was substantially weakened by a series of succession arguments and coups within the royal family.

Foreign Control: Egyptian and British

Modern Sudanese history owes much to Napoleon. It was the victory in 1797, at the battle of the Pyramids which shook the power of the Mamelukes, the Caucasian ruling class of Egypt, and paved the way for the rise to power of the Albenian soldier of fortune Muhammad Mi.

In 1820, Northern Sudan came under the Egyptian rule by Mehemet Alij, the viceroy of the Ottoman Empire. His sons Ismail Pasha and Mahommed Bey were sent to conquer eastern Sudan. The Egyptians developed Sudan’s trade in ivory and slaves.

Ismail Pasha, the khedive of Egypt from 1863-1879, tried to extend Egyptian rule to the south, bringing in the British influence. Religious leader Muhammad al Abdalla, the self-proclaimed Messiah, sought to purify Islam in Sudan. He led a nationalist revolt against the British-Egyptian rule. The revolt was successful. Both Egypt and Great Britain abandoned Sudan, leaving Sudan a theocratic Mahdist state.

In the 1890s the British sought to regain control of Sudan. Anglo-Egyptian military forces were successful in their endevour. Sudan became subject to a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British consent. In reality, Sudan became a colony of Great Britain.

On January 19, 1899 Britain and Egypt signed a condominium agreement under which the Sudan was to be administered jointly. In the twelve ensuing years, the Sudan's revenue had increased seventeen fold, its expenditure tripled, and its budget reached a balanced state which was to be maintained until 1960. Mounting Egyptian nationalism in the period after World War I culminated in 1924 in the assassination in the streets of Cairo of Sir Lee Stack, Governor - General of the Sudan; British reaction resulted in the expulsion of all Egyptian officials from the Sudan.

After the Anglo-Egyptian entente of 1936, a few Egyptians were allowed to return to the country in minor posts. But the signing of the 1936 agreement stimulated Sudanese nationalists who objected both to the return of the Egyptians and to the fact that other nations were deciding their destiny. Expression of this feeling was seen in the formation of the Graduates' Congress, under the leadership of Ismail al-Azhari.

By 1945, two political parties had emerged. The National Unionist Party led by al-Azhari, demanded union of the Sudan and Egypt; it had the support of Sayed Sir Ali al- Mirghani, head of a powerful religious sect. The Umma Party, backed by Sayed Sir Abdur-Rahman al-Mahdi demanded unqualified independence and no links with Egypt.

From 1924, until independence in 1956, the British had a policy of running Sudan as two essentially separate colonies, the south and the north.

Independence

On February 12, 1953, Britain and Egypt signed an accord ending the condominium arrangement and agreeing to grant Sudan self government within three years. The agreement also provided for a senate for the Sudan, a Council of Ministers, and a House of Representatives, elections to which was to be supervised by an international commission.

The elections, which were held during November and December 1953, resulted in victory for the NUP, and its leader, Ismail al-Aihari, became the Sudan's first Prime Minister in January 1954. The replacement of British and Egyptian officers in the Sudanese civil service by Sudanese nationals followed rapidly.

On December 19, 1955, the Parliament voted unanimously that the Sudan should become "a fully independent sovereign state". British and Egyptian troops left the country on January 1, 1956; the same day a five-man Council of State was appointed to take over the powers of the governor general until a new constitution was agreed.

First Sudanese Civil War

The year before independence, a civil war began between Northern and Southern Sudan. Southerners, who knew independence was coming, were afraid the new nation would be dominated by the North.

The North of Sudan had historically closer ties with Egypt and was predominately Arab and Muslim. The South of Sudan was predominately Black, with a mixture of Christians and Animists. These divisions were emphasized by the British policy of ruling Sudan’s North and South separately. From 1924 it was illegal for people living above the 10th parallel to go further south, and people below the 8th parallel to go further north. The law was ostensibly enacted to prevent the spread of malaria and other tropical diseases that had ravaged British troops. It also prevented Northern Sudanese from raiding Southern tribes for slaves. The result was increased isolation between the already distinct north and south. This was the beginning of heated conflict simmering for many decades.

The resulting conflict was known as the First Sudanese Civil War which lasted from 1955 to 1972. The war ended officially in March 1972, when Colonel Numeiry signed a peace pact with Major-General Lagu, the Leader of the Anya-Nya rebels in the south [6], known as the Addis Ababa Agreement(A.A.A.). This brought a cessation of the north-south civil war and established a degree of self-rule. This led to a ten-year hiatus in the civil war. Under the Addis Ababa Agreement, Southern Sudan was given considerable autonomy.

Second Sudanese Civil War

In 1983 the civil war was reignited following President Gaafar Nimeiry’s decision to circumvent the Addis Ababa Agreement, by attempting to create a Federated Sudan including states in Southern Sudan. This violated the Addis Ababa Agreement which had previously granted the South considerable autonomy. The Sudan People's Liberation Army formed in May 1983 as a result. Finally, in June 1983, the Sudanese Government under President Gaafar Nimeiry abrogated the Addis Ababa Peace Agreement.

The situation was exacerbated after President Gaafar al-Nimeiry went on to implement Sharia Law in September of the same year [7]. In accord with this enactment, the penal code had been revised in order to link it "organically and spiritually" with Islamic Law. Crimes were hence forth judged according to the Koran. [8]

The civil war went on for more than 20 years, resulting in the deaths of 2.2 million Christians and Animists. It displaced roughly 4.5 million people within Sudan and into neighbouring countries. It also damaged Sudan’s economy leading to food shortages resulting in starvation and malnutrition. The lack of investment during this time, particularly in the south, meant a generation lost access to basic health services, education, and jobs.

Peace talks between the southern rebels and the government made substantial progress in 2003 and early 2004. The Naivasha peace treaty was signed on January 9, 2005, granting Southern Sudan autonomy for six years, followed by a referendum about independence. It created a co-vice president position and allowed the north and south to split oil equally. It left both the North's and South's armies in place.

The United Nations Mission In Sudan (UNMIS) was established under UN Security Council Resolution 1590 in March 24, 2005. Its mandate is to support implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, and to perform functions relating to humanitarian assistance, protection and promotion of human rights. There was some hostility toward the UN being in Sudan. In greater hopes of peace, the International Observance in Sudan was formed. It consists of four nations, the U.S., Norway, Italy and Great Britain.

Politics

Map of Sudan with Khartoum

Sudan has an authoritarian government in which all effective political power is in the hands of the President.

From 1983 to 1997, the country was divided into five regions in the north and three in the south, each headed by a military governor. After the April 6, 1985, military coup, regional assemblies were suspended. The RCC (Revolutionary Command Council) was abolished in 1996, and the ruling National Congress Party took over leadership. After 1997, the structure of regional administration was replaced by the creation of 25 states. The executives, cabinets, and senior-level state officials are appointed by the president. Their limited budgets are determined by and dispensed from Khartoum, making the states economically dependent upon the central government.

In December 1999, a power struggle climaxed between President al-Bashir and then-Speaker of parliament Hassan al-Turabi. The government and parliament were suspeneded. A state of national emergency was declared by presidential decree. Parliament resumed again February, 2001, after the December 2000 presidential and parliamentary elections. The national emergency laws remained in effect. This was a time when an interim government was preparing to take over in accordance with the Naivasha agreement and the Machokos Accord.

The Government of National Unity (GNU) - the National Congress Party (NCP) and Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) formed a power-sharing government under the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA); the NCP, which came to power by military coup in 1989, is the majority partner; the agreement stipulates national elections for the 2008 - 2009 timeframe. [9]

A constitution was established on April 12, 1973 and suspended following the coup of April 6, 1985. An interim constitution established on October 10, 1985 was suspended following a coup on June 30, 1989. A new constitution was implemented on June 30, 1998 and partially suspended December 12, 1999 by President President Umar Hassan Ahmad al-BASHIR. Under the CPA, an Interim National Constitution was ratified July 5,2005. The Constitution of Southern Sudan was signed in December 2005. [10]

On October 14th, 2006 a peace treaty was signed by the eastern Sundanese and the Sudanese Government headed by President Al-Bashir. He stated that it was "Africans solving African's problems without foreign help". Efforts are being made to solve the crisis in Darfur and other regions in Sudan. President George W. Bush, for example, put a sanction on areas where top leaders are suspected in the killing of innocent people.

Autonomy, separation, and conflicts

Southern Sudan is an autonomous region intermediate between the states and the national government. Southern Sudan is scheduled to have a referendum on independence in six years as of 2006.

Darfur is a region of three western states affected by the current Darfur conflict. There is also an insurgency in the east led by the Eastern Front.

Foreign relations

In the matter of determining Sudan's foreign policy as well as domestic policy, the military had played a major role since independence. Initially, the military was seen as being free from specific ethnic or religious identification and thus in a position to accomplish what civilians could not, namely to resolve economic problems and to bring peace to the south. Such hopes proved futile, however. [11]

Sudan has had a troubled relationship with many of its neighbors and much of the international community. It is viewed as "an aggressive Islamic country". During the 1990s, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia formed an ad-hoc alliance called the "Front Line States". These states receive support from the United States to be able to keep in check the influence of the National Islamic Front government. Sudan supported anti-Uganda rebel groups such as the Lord's Resistance Army in retaliation for Ugandan support of the Sudan People's Liberation Army. Beginning in the mid-1990s, Sudan gradually began to moderate its positions because of increased U.S. pressure following the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings and the new development of oil fields previously in rebel hands. Sudan also has a territorial dispute with Egypt over its development the Hala'ib Triangle, which is north of the Treaty Line. Since 2003, the foreign relations of Sudan have centered on the support for ending the Second Sudanese Civil War and condemnation of government support for militias in the Darfur conflict.

The Bashir government's need for assistance in pursuing the war in the south determined to a large degree Sudan's foreign policy in the 1990s. Bashir recognized that the measures taken in the south, which outside observers termed human rights abuses, had alienated the West. Historically, the West had been the source of major financial support for Sudan. Furthermore, Sudan's siding with Iraq in the 1991 Persian Gulf War had antagonized Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, principal donors for Sudan's military and economic needs in the preceding several decades.

Bashir therefore turned to Iran, especially for military aid, and, to a lesser extent, to Libya. Iranian president Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani visited Sudan in December 1991, accompanied by several cabinet ministers. The visit led to an Iranian promise of military and economic assistance. Details of the reported aid varied, but in July 1992, in addition to the provision of 1 million tons of oil annually for military and civil consumption, aid was thought to include the financing of Sudanese weapons and aircraft purchases from China in the amount of at least US$300 million. Some accounts alleged that 3,000 Iranian soldiers had also arrived in January 1992 to engage in the war in the south and that Iran had been granted use of Port Sudan facilities and permission to establish a communications monitoring station in the area; these reports were not verified as of mid-August 1992, however.

The only other country with which Sudan had close relations in the early 1990s was Libya. Following an economic agreement the two countries signed in July 1990, head of state Muammar al Qadhafi paid an official visit to Khartoum in October. Bashir paid a return visit to Libya in November 1991. Libyan officials arrived in Khartoum for talks on unity, primarily economic unity, in January 1992. [12]

Since 2003, Janjawid armed militia and Sudanese military have driven about 200,000 Darfur region refugees into eastern Chad; large numbers of Sudanese refugees have also fled to Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, the Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo; southern Sudan provides shelter to Ugandans seeking periodic protection from soldiers of the Lord's Resistance Army; Sudan accuses Eritrea of supporting Sudanese rebel groups; efforts to demarcate the porous boundary with Ethiopia have been delayed by civil and ethnic fighting in Sudan; Kenya's administrative boundary extends into the southern Sudan, creating the "Ilemi Triangle"; Egypt and Sudan retain claims to administer triangular areas that extend north and south of the 1899 Treaty boundary along the 22nd Parallel, but have withdrawn their military presence; periodic violent skirmishes with Sudanese residents over water and grazing rights persist among related pastoral populations from the Central African Republic along the border [13]

On December 23, 2005, Chad, Sudan's neighbor to the west, declared war on Sudan. They accused the country of being the "common enemy of the nation (Chad)." This happened after the December 18 attack on Adre. This attack left approximately 100 people dead. A statement issued by Chadian government on December 23, accused Sudanese militias of making daily incursions into Chad, stealing cattle, killing innocent people and burning villages on the Chadian border. The statement went on to call for Chadians to form a patriotic front against Sudan.[14] The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) have called on Sudan and Chad to exercise self-restraint to defuse growing tensions between the two countries.[15]

United States firms have been barred from doing business in Sudan since 1997.[16]

On December 27, 2005, Sudan became one of the few states to recognize Moroccan sovereignty over Western Sahara. [17]

On June 20, 2006 President Omar al-Bashir told reporters that he would not allow any UN peacekeeping force into Sudan. President al-Bashir denounced any such mission as "colonial forces." [18]

Human Rights

An August 14, 2006 letter from the Executive Director of the Human Rights Watch found that the Sudanese government is both incapable and unwilling to protect its own citizens in Darfur. It states that its militias are guilty of crimes against humanity. The letter added that these human rights abuses have existed since 2004.[19]

Both government forces and militias allied with the government are known not only to attack civilians in Darfur, but to attack humanitarian workers as well. Sympathizers of rebel groups are arbitrarily detained, as are foreign journalists, human rights defenders, student activists, and displaced people in and around Khartoum, some of whom face torture. [20]

The Mountain Dair in central Sudan

The Sudan practices capital punishment, which can be applied to minors as well as adults. [21]

Slavery has been carried out by the Dinka tribe in the south. Former vise president and rebel leader, John Garang, enforced child military conscription in the South in order to strengthen his movement.

Geography

File:Sudd swamp.jpg

Swamp in southern Sudan

Sudan is situated in Northern Africa, bordering the Red Sea, between Egypt and Eritrea. It is dominated by the River Nile and its tributaries. With an area of 2,505,810 square kilometres (967,499 square miles), it is the largest country in the continent and tenth largest in the world. The terrain is generally flat plains, though there are mountains in the east and west. The climate is tropical in the south; arid desert conditions in the north, with a rainy season from April to October. Soil erosion and desertification are environmental hazards.

Economy

Sudan has turned around a struggling economy with sound economic policies and infrastructure investments, but it still faces formidable economic problems. It must rise from a very low level of per capita output. Since 1997 Sudan has been implementing the macroeconomic reforms recommended by the IMF. In 1999, Sudan began exporting crude oil and in the last quarter of 1999 recorded its first trade surplus. Increased oil production, (the current production is half a million barrels a day) revived light industry, and expanded export processing zones. It has helped sustain GDP growth at 6.1% in 2003. These gains, along with improvements to monetary policy, have stabilized the exchange rate. Currently oil is Sudan's main export, and the production is increasing dramatically. With rising oil revenues the Sudanese economy is booming at a growth rate of nearly 7% in 2005.

Agriculture production remains Sudan's most important sector, employing 80% of the work force and contributing 39% of GDP. Still, most farms remain rain-fed and susceptible to drought. Chronic instability — including the long-standing civil war between the Muslim north and the Christian/Animist south, adverse weather, and weak world agricultural prices — ensure that much of the population will remain at or below the poverty line for years.

Demographics

In Sudan’s 1993 census, the population was calculated at 25 million. No comprehensive census has been carried out since that time due to the continuation of the civil war. Current estimates from the United Nations as of 2006 estimate the population to be about 37 million. The population of metropolitan Khartoum (including Khartoum, Omdurman, and Khartoum North) is growing rapidly and is estimated at between five and six million, including around two million displaced persons from the southern war zone as well as western and eastern drought-affected areas.

Sudan has two distinct major cultures—Arabs with Nubian (Kushite) roots and non-Arab Black Africans—with hundreds of ethnic and tribal divisions and language groups, which makes effective collaboration among them a major problem.

The northern states cover most of the Sudan and include most of the urban centers. Most of the twenty-two million Sudanese who live in this region are Arabic-speaking Muslims, though the majority also use a traditional non-Arabic mother tongue — e.g., Nubian, Beja, Fur, Nuban, Ingessana, etc. Among these are several distinct tribal groups: the Kababish of northern Kordofan, a camel-raising people; the dongolese, the Ga’alin, Rubatab, Manasir and Shaiqiyah of the tribes settling along the rivers; the seminomadic Baggara of Kurdufan and Darfur; the Beja in the Red Sea area and Nubians of the northern Nile areas, some of whom have been resettled on the Atbara River. Shokrya in the Butana land, Bataheen bordering the Ga’alin and Shorya in the south west of Butana] Rufaa, Halaween and many other tribes are in the Gazeera region and on the banks of the Blue Nile and the Dindir region. The Nuba of southern Kurdufan and Fur are in the western reaches of the country.

The southern region has a population of around six million and a predominantly rural, subsistence economy. This region has been affected by war for all but ten years since independence in 1956. The results of this have been serious neglect, lack of infrastructure development, and major destruction and displacement. Here a majority of the population practices traditional indigenous beliefs with some Christianity intermingled. The south also contains many tribal groups and many more languages are used than in the north. The Dinka, whose population is estimated at more than one million, are the largest of the many black African tribes of the Sudan. Along with the Shilluk and the Nuer they are Nilotic tribes. The Azande, Bor, and Jo Luo are “Sudanic” tribes in the west, and the Acholi and Lotuhu live in the extreme south, extending into Uganda.

Official languages

According to the Constitution of 2005, Official languages are the Arabic and English languages. Article 8 of the Constitution states:

1) All indigenous languages of the Sudan are national languages and shall be respected, developed and promoted.

2) Arabic is a widely spoken national language in the Sudan.

3) Arabic, as a major language at the national level and English shall be the official working languages of the national government and the languages of instruction for higher education.

4) In addition to Arabic and English, the legislature of any sub-national level of government may adopt any other national language as an additional official working language at its level.

5) There shall be no discrimination against the use of either Arabic or English at any level of government or stage of education.

Religion and Culture

A man falls into a religious trance during a Sufi ceremony in Khartoum

Throughout its history, Sudan has been divided between its Arab heritage, identified with northern Sudan, and its African heritages to the south. The two groups are divided along linguistic, religious, racial, and economic lines, and the cleavage has generated ethnic tensions and clashes.

Another major factor that has affected Sudan's evolution is the country's relationship with Egypt. As early as the eighth millennium B.C.E., there was contact between Sudan and Egypt. Modern relations between the two countries began in 1820, when an Egyptian army under Ottoman command invaded Sudan. In the years following this invasion, Egypt expanded its area of control in Sudan down the Red Sea coast and toward East Africa's Great Lakes region. The sixty-four-year period of Egyptian rule, which ended in 1885, left a deep mark on Sudan's political and economic systems. The emergence of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium in 1899 reinforced the links between Cairo and Khartoum. After Sudan gained independence in 1956, Egypt continued to exert influence over developments in Sudan.

Somewhat more than half Sudan's population was Muslim in the early 1990s. Most Muslims, perhaps 90 percent, lived in the north, where they constituted 75 percent or more of the population. Data on Christians was less reliable; estimates ranged from 4 to 10 percent of the population. At least one-third of the Sudanese were still attached to the indigenous religions of their forebears. Most Christian Sudanese and adherents of local religious systems lived in southern Sudan. Islam had made inroads into the south, but more through the need to know Arabic than a profound belief in the tenets of the Quran.

Christianity is most prevalent among the peoples of Al Istiwai State—the Madi, Moru, Azande, and Bari. The major churches in the Sudan are the Roman Catholic, the Anglican Church, the Episcopal Church of the Sudan, the Presbyterian Church and the Coptic Orthodox Church. Southern communities might include a few Christians, but the rituals and world view of the area are not in general those of traditional Western Christianity. The few communities that had formed around mission stations had disappeared with the dissolution of the missions in 1964.

Each indigenous religion is unique to a specific ethnic group or part of a group, although several groups may share elements of belief and ritual because of common ancestry or mutual influence. The group serves as the congregation, and an individual usually belongs to that faith by virtue of membership in the group.

Believing and acting in a religious mode is part of daily life and is linked to the social, political, and economic actions and relationships of the group. The beliefs and practices of indigenous religions in Sudan are not systematized, in that the people do not generally attempt to put together in coherent fashion the doctrines they hold and the rituals they practice. [22]

Education

The public and private education systems inherited by the government after independence were designed more to provide civil servants and professionals to serve the colonial administration than to educate the Sudanese. Since World War II the demand for education has exceeded Sudan's education resources. At independence in 1956, education accounted for only 15.5 percent of the Sudanese budget. By the late 1970s, the government's education system had been largely reorganized. There were some preprimary schools, mainly in urban areas. The basic system consisted of a six-year curriculum in primary schools and three-year curriculum in junior secondary schools. From that point, qualified students could go on to one of three kinds of schools: the three-year upper secondary, which prepared students for higher education; commercial and agricultural technical schools; and teacher- training secondary schools designed to prepare primary-school teachers.

The proliferation of upper-level technical schools has not dealt with what most experts saw as Sudan's basic education problem: providing a primary education to as many Sudanese children as possible. Establishing more primary schools was, in this view, more important that achieving equity in the distribution of secondary schools. Even more important was the development of a primary-school curriculum that was geared to Sudanese experience and took into account that most of those who completed six years of schooling did not go further. [23]

The oldest university is the University of Khartoum, which was established as a university in 1956. Since that time, ten other universities have opened in the Sudan. These include:

• Academy of Medical Sciences (Sudan)|Academy of Medical Sciences
• Ahfad University for Women
• Bayan Science and Technology College
• Computerman College
• Omdurman Ahlia University
• Omdurman Islamic University
• University of Gezira
• University of Juba
• Mycetoma Research Centre
• Sudan University of Science and Technology

References

ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

• [24]
• [25]
• [26]
• Freeman, Michael, Sudan:the land and the people, Seattle, WA : Marquand Books, 2005, ISBN 0-295-98533-X
• Meyer,Gabriel Nicholls,James, War And Faith In Sudan, Grand Rapids, Mich. : William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2005, ISBN 0-802-82933-3

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