Difference between revisions of "Raja yoga" - New World Encyclopedia

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'''Rāja Yoga''' ("Royal [[yoga]]," "Royal Union," also known as ''Classical Yoga'' or simply ''Yoga'') is one of the six orthodox (''[[astika]]'') schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], outlined by [[Patanjali]] in his ''[[Yoga Sutras]]''. It is also sometimes referred to as ''{{IAST|Aṣṭānga}}'' (eight-limbed) yoga because there are eight integral practices on the yogic path. Raja yoga is concerned principally with the cultivation of the mind using [[meditation]] ''([[dhyana]])'' to control and subdue mental fluctuations in order to still the mind and achieve [[liberation]].  
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[[Image:Tanumânasî en Meditacion Loto Padmasana.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Padmasana or Lotus pose is a seated posture in yogic practice.]]
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'''Rāja Yoga''' ("Royal [[yoga]]," "Royal Union," also known as ''Classical Yoga'' or simply ''Yoga'') is one of the six orthodox (''[[astika]]'') schools of Hindu philosophy, outlined by [[Patanjali]] in his ''[[Yoga Sutras]]''. It is also sometimes referred to as ''{{IAST|Aṣṭānga}}'' (eight-limbed) yoga because there are eight integral practices on the yogic path. Raja yoga is concerned principally with the cultivation of the mind using [[meditation]] ''([[dhyana]])'' to control and subdue mental fluctuations in order to still the mind and achieve [[liberation]].  
  
 
The term ''Rāja Yoga'' is a retronym, introduced in the 15th century Hatha Yoga Pradipika to distinguish the school based on  the Yoga Sutras from the new current of Hatha Yoga.
 
The term ''Rāja Yoga'' is a retronym, introduced in the 15th century Hatha Yoga Pradipika to distinguish the school based on  the Yoga Sutras from the new current of Hatha Yoga.
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[[Image:Pashupati.gif|thumb|200px|right|A seal from the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], showing a figure in meditation posture.]]
 
[[Image:Pashupati.gif|thumb|200px|right|A seal from the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], showing a figure in meditation posture.]]
 
Archaeological excavations of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] have unearthed a figure who appears to be practicing meditation or yoga; however, this interpretation is merely a conjecture.  
 
Archaeological excavations of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] have unearthed a figure who appears to be practicing meditation or yoga; however, this interpretation is merely a conjecture.  
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The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the ''[[Rig Veda]]'', which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 B.C.E.. In the ''Upanisads'', the older Vedic practices of offering sacrifices and ceremonies to appease external [[deity|gods]] gave way instead to a new understanding that humans can, by means of an inner sacrifice, become one with the Supreme Being (referred to as [[brahman|Brāhman]] or [[Atman|Māhātman]]), through moral culture, restraint and training of the [[mind]].
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The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the ''[[Vedas|Rig Veda]]'', which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 B.C.E.. In the ''Upanisads'', the older Vedic practices of offering sacrifices and ceremonies to appease external [[deity|gods]] gave way instead to a new understanding that humans can, by means of an inner sacrifice, become one with the Supreme Being (referred to as [[Brahman|Brāhman]] or [[Atman|Māhātman]]), through moral culture, restraint and training of the [[mind]].
  
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The [[Bhagavadgita]] (written between the fifth and second centuries B.C.E.) defines yoga as the highest state of enlightenment attainable, beyond which there is nothing worth realizing, in which a person is never shaken, even by the greatest pain. <ref>Sharma, Chandrahar. 2003. ''A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy''. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass.  ISBN 8120803647  ISBN 8120803655 p. 169</ref> In his conversation with Arjuna, Krishna distinguishes several types of "yoga," corresponding to the duties of different nature of people:
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The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' (written between the fifth and second centuries B.C.E.) defines yoga as the highest state of enlightenment attainable, beyond which there is nothing worth realizing, in which a person is never shaken, even by the greatest pain. <ref>Sharma, Chandrahar. 2003. ''A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy''. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass.  ISBN 8120803647  ISBN 8120803655 p. 169</ref> In his conversation with Arjuna, Krishna distinguishes several types of "yoga," corresponding to the duties of different nature of people:
  
 
:(1) ''[[Karma|Karma yoga]]'', the yoga of "action" in the world.
 
:(1) ''[[Karma|Karma yoga]]'', the yoga of "action" in the world.
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===Patanjali===
 
===Patanjali===
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[[Image:patanjali.jpg|Patañjali as an incarnation of Adi Sesha|thumb|250px|right]]
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[[Image:patanjali.jpg|Patañjali as an incarnation of Adi Sesha|thumb|200px|right]]
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Authorship of the ''[[Yoga Sutras]]'', which form the basis of the darshana called "yoga," is attributed to Patanjali (second century B.C.E.).  
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Authorship of the ''Yoga Sutras'', which form the basis of the darshana called "yoga," is attributed to Patanjali (second century B.C.E.). atañjali ([[Devanagari|Devanāgarī]] पतञ्जलि) is known as the compiler of the ''Yoga Sutras'', a major work containing aphorisms on the philosophical aspects of mind and consciousness, and is therefore traditionally regarded as the “founder” of the Yoga school. An individual named Patañjali, who was born in Gonarda and lived, for at least some period, in Kashmir around  140 B.C.E., wrote Mahābhāṣya, or ''Great Commentary'', on the Aṣṭādhyāyī of the early Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini. Many scholars do not consider these two texts to have been written by the same individual, although a comparative study of the two works produces no conclusive evidence. Two eighteenth-century Indian commentators, Rhāmabadra Diksita (author of Patanjalicarita) and Sivrama, and two eleventh-century commentators, King Bhoja of Dhār and Cakrapānidatta, identified the authors of the two works as being the same person.<ref> Dasgupta, Surendranath. 1973. ''A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I''. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass  ISBN 8120804120  ISBN 8120804082 p.230-232</ref>Modern scholarship suggests that the two works may have been written several centuries apart. <ref> Kofi Busia, [http://www.kofibusia.com/level_2_patanjali/patanjali.html Biography of Patanjali]. Retrieved October 22, 2007.</ref>
  
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===Yoga Sutra===
 
===Yoga Sutra===
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The ''Yoga Sūtras'' probably date from around 250 - 200 B.C.E., though some scholars have based a later date of 250 C.E. on the fact that no commentaries on the Yoga Sutras exist before this date. The first three books appear to have been written much earlier than the fourth, which contains material that seems to refer to late [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] thought and could therefore place it in the fifth century C.E..<ref>Zimmer, Heinrich Robert. 1951. ''Philosophies of India.'' Bollingen series, 26. [New York]: Pantheon Books, p. 282-283</ref>
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Patañjali has often been called the founder of [[Yoga]] because of the ''Yoga Sūtras'', although it was actually a compilation of a much older oral tradition. The ''Yoga Sūtras'', as a treatise on Yoga, built on the [[Samkhya]] school and the Hindu scripture of the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' (see also: [[Vyasa]]). Yoga, the science of uniting one's consciousness, is also found in the [[Purana]]s, the [[Veda]]s and the [[Upanishad]]s. Patañjali reinterpreted and clarified what others had said, resolved contradictions, and synthesized many lines of argument. His practical summary can be regarded the greatest initiator into the essence and the science of Yoga.
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Yoga Sūtras is a major work among the great Hindu scriptures and serves as the basis of the yoga-system known as Raja yoga. Patañjali's Yoga is one of the six schools or darshanas of Hindu Philosophy. The sūtras give us the earliest reference to the popular term Ashtanga Yoga which translates literally as the “eight limbs of yoga.” They are [[yamas|yama]], [[niyama]], [[asana]], [[pranayama]], [[pratyahara]], [[dharana]], [[dhyana]] and [[samadhi]].
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The ''Yoga Sūtras'' is to be regarded as a devotional handbook rather than a philosophical text to be studied as an end in itself. Patanjali himself repeatedly warns against the futility of approaching meditation through the intellect, emphasizing the attainment of wisdom which lies beyond intellect by abandoning conceptual frameworks. The sutras can be understood more deeply in the context of the reader’s own direct meditative experiences.
 +
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According to biographer and scholar Kofi Busia <ref> [http://www.kofibusia.com/ Kofi Busia]</ref>, Patañjali defended several ideas in his treatise on yoga that are not in accord with  classical [[Sankhya]] or [[Yoga]]. He does not acknowledges the [[ego]] as a separate entity, and does not regard the subtle body ''[[linga sarira]]'' as permanent, denying it a direct control over external matters.
 +
 
The Yoga Sutra is divided into four parts. The first, ''Samahdi-pada'', deals with the nature and aim of concentration. The second, Sadhanapada explains the means to realize this concentration. The third, Vibhuitpada, deals with the supranormal powers which can be acquired through yoga, and the fourth, Kaivalyapada, describes the nature of liberation and the reality of the transcendental self. <ref>Ibid.</ref>
 
The Yoga Sutra is divided into four parts. The first, ''Samahdi-pada'', deals with the nature and aim of concentration. The second, Sadhanapada explains the means to realize this concentration. The third, Vibhuitpada, deals with the supranormal powers which can be acquired through yoga, and the fourth, Kaivalyapada, describes the nature of liberation and the reality of the transcendental self. <ref>Ibid.</ref>
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Patanjala Yoga is also known as Raja Yoga (Skt: "Royal yoga") or "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"), and is held as authoritative by all schools.
 
  
 
==Philosophy==
 
==Philosophy==
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==Practice==
 
==Practice==
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Patanjala Yoga is also known as Raja Yoga (Skt: "Royal yoga") or "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"), and is held as authoritative by all schools.
 +
 
Raja Yoga aims at controlling all thought-waves or mental modifications. Raja Yoga is so-called because it is primarily concerned with the mind, which is traditionally conceived as the "king" of the psycho-physical structure that does its bidding. Because of the relationship between the mind and the body, the body must be first "tamed" through self-discipline and purified by various means. A good level of overall health and psychological integration must be attained before the deeper aspects of [[yoga]] can be pursued. Humans have all sorts of addictions and obsessions and these preclude the attainment of tranquil abiding (meditation). Through restraint (''yama'') such as celibacy, abstaining from drugs and alcohol, and careful attention to one's actions of body, speech and mind, the human being becomes fit to practice meditation. This yoke that one puts upon oneself (discipline) is another meaning of the word yoga.
 
Raja Yoga aims at controlling all thought-waves or mental modifications. Raja Yoga is so-called because it is primarily concerned with the mind, which is traditionally conceived as the "king" of the psycho-physical structure that does its bidding. Because of the relationship between the mind and the body, the body must be first "tamed" through self-discipline and purified by various means. A good level of overall health and psychological integration must be attained before the deeper aspects of [[yoga]] can be pursued. Humans have all sorts of addictions and obsessions and these preclude the attainment of tranquil abiding (meditation). Through restraint (''yama'') such as celibacy, abstaining from drugs and alcohol, and careful attention to one's actions of body, speech and mind, the human being becomes fit to practice meditation. This yoke that one puts upon oneself (discipline) is another meaning of the word yoga.
  
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====Yama====
 
====Yama====
 
{{main|Yamas}}
 
{{main|Yamas}}
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Yama consists of five parts: [[Ahimsa]] (non-violence), [[Satya]] (truthfulness), [[Asteya]] (not stealing), [[Brahmacharya]] (celibacy), and [[Aparigraha]] (non-covetousness).  
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Yama consists of five parts: [[Ahimsa]] (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (not stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy), and [[Aparigraha]] (non-covetousness).  
 
Ahimsa is perfect harmlessness and positive love also. This removes the brutal nature in man and strengthens the will.
 
Ahimsa is perfect harmlessness and positive love also. This removes the brutal nature in man and strengthens the will.
  
 
====Niyama====
 
====Niyama====
 
{{main|Niyama}}
 
{{main|Niyama}}
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Niyama is observance of five canons: [[Saucha]] (internal and external purity), [[Santosha]] (contentment), [[Tapas (Sanskrit)|Tapas]] (austerity), [[Svadhyaya]] (study of religious books and repetitions of Mantras), and [[Ishvarapranidhana]] (self-surrender to God, and His worship).  
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Niyama is observance of five canons: Saucha (internal and external purity), Santosha (contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of religious books and repetitions of Mantras), and Ishvarapranidhana (self-surrender to God, and His worship).  
  
 
He who practises meditation without ethical perfection, without the practice of Yama-Niyama cannot obtain the fruits of meditation. Purify your mind first through the practice of Yama-Niyama. Then practice regular meditation. Then you will attain illumination.
 
He who practises meditation without ethical perfection, without the practice of Yama-Niyama cannot obtain the fruits of meditation. Purify your mind first through the practice of Yama-Niyama. Then practice regular meditation. Then you will attain illumination.
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====Dharana====
 
====Dharana====
 
{{main|Dharana}}
 
{{main|Dharana}}
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Real Yoga starts from concentration. Concentration merges into meditation. Meditation ends in Samadhi. Retention of breath, Brahmacharya, [[Satvic]] (pure) food, seclusion, silence, [[Satsang]]a (being in the company of a guru), and not mixing much with people are all aids to concentration. Concentrate on [[Mind's eye|Trikuti]] (the space between the two eyebrows) with closed eyes is preferred. The mind can be easily controlled, as this is the seat for the mind.
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Real Yoga starts from concentration. Concentration merges into meditation. Meditation ends in Samadhi. Retention of breath, Brahmacharya, Satvic (pure) food, seclusion, silence, Satsanga (being in the company of a guru), and not mixing much with people are all aids to concentration. Concentrate on Trikuti (the space between the two eyebrows) with closed eyes is preferred. The mind can be easily controlled, as this is the seat for the mind.
  
 
====Dhyana====
 
====Dhyana====
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===Goal===
 
===Goal===
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The ultimate goal of yoga is clearly stated in the opening verse of [[Patanjali]]'s [[Yoga Sutra]]. Patañjali's ''[[Yoga Sutras]]'' begin with the statement ''{{IAST|yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ}}'' (1.2), "Yoga limits the oscillations of the mind." They go on to detail the ways in which mind can create false ideations and advocate meditation on real objects, which process, it is said, will lead to a spontaneous state of quiet mind, the "Nirbija" or "seedless state," in which there is no mental object of focus.
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The ultimate goal of yoga is clearly announced in the opening verse of [[Patanjali]]'s ''Yoga Sutra,'' which states: ''{{IAST|yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ}}'' (1.2), "Yoga limits the oscillations of the mind." They go on to detail the ways in which mind can create false ideations and advocate meditation on real objects, which process, it is said, will lead to a spontaneous state of quiet mind, the "Nirbija" or "seedless state," in which there is no mental object of focus.
  
 
Practices that serve to maintain for the individual the ability to access this state may be considered Raja Yoga practices. Thus, Raja Yoga encompasses and differentiates itself from other forms of Yoga by encouraging the mind to avoid the sort of absorption in obsessional practice (including other traditional yogic practices) that can create false mental objects.
 
Practices that serve to maintain for the individual the ability to access this state may be considered Raja Yoga practices. Thus, Raja Yoga encompasses and differentiates itself from other forms of Yoga by encouraging the mind to avoid the sort of absorption in obsessional practice (including other traditional yogic practices) that can create false mental objects.
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==Misconceptions==
 
==Misconceptions==
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In western popular culture and yoga classes, it is sometimes stated that the goal of Yoga is to "unite with God."  However, this presentation of Yoga is not accurate according to the ancient texts. While the idea of God can play a role in helping the aspirant attain greater concentration and focus in yogic practice as a meditative ally, the ultimate realization of differentiation between Purusha and Prakriti is not necessarily the same thing as union with God, as traditionally understood by westerners.  Nevertheless, the intrinsic metaphysical diversity of Hinduism has allowed yogic practicioners to interpret ancient teachings in a variety of ways to suit their own interests as yoga has adapted and conformed to modern times and non-Indian societies.
+
In western popular culture and yoga classes, it is sometimes stated that the goal of Yoga is to "unite with God."  However, this presentation of Yoga is inaccurate according to the ancient texts. While the idea of God can play a role in helping the aspirant attain greater concentration in yogic practice (as a meditative focus), the ultimate realization of differentiation between Purusha and Prakriti is not necessarily the same thing as union with God, as traditionally understood by westerners.  Nevertheless, the intrinsic metaphysical diversity of Hinduism has allowed yogic practicioners to interpret ancient teachings in a variety of ways to suit their own interests as yoga has adapted and conformed to modern times and non-Indian societies.
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
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==References==
 
==References==
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*Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli and Moore, Charles A., eds.  ''A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy.'' Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1973. ISBN 0691019584
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* Dasgupta, Surendranath. 1973. ''A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I''. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass.  ISBN 8120804120  ISBN 8120804082
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* Sharma, Chandrahar. ''A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy.'' Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 2003. ISBN 8120803647
+
* Patañjali, & Miller, B. S. (1996). ''Yoga discipline of freedom : the Yoga Sutra attributed to Patanjali ; a translation of the text, with commentary, introduction, and glossary of keywords''. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. ISBN 0520201906 ISBN 9780520201903
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*Sivananda, Swami. ''Raja Yoga.''Kessinger Publishing, 2005. ISBN 978-1425359829
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* Patanjali, and B. K. S. Iyengar. 2002. ''Light on the yoga sutras of Patanjali.'' London: Thorsons. ISBN 0007145160 ISBN 9780007145164
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*Thakar, Vimala. ''Glimpses of Raja Yoga: An Introduction to Patanjali's Yoga Sutras (Yoga Wisdom Classics).'' Rodmell Press; 1st North American Pbk. Ed edition, 2004. ISBN 978-1930485075
+
* Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli and Moore, Charles A., eds.  ''A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy.'' Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1973. ISBN 0691019584
−
*Vivekananda,Swami. ''Raja-Yoga.'' Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center; Pocket Rev edition (June 1980. ISBN 978-0911206234
+
* Sharma, Chandrahar. 2003. ''A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy''. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120803647 ISBN 8120803655
 +
* Sivananda, Swami. ''Raja Yoga.''Kessinger Publishing, 2005. ISBN 978-1425359829
 +
* Thakar, Vimala. ''Glimpses of Raja Yoga: An Introduction to Patanjali's Yoga Sutras (Yoga Wisdom Classics).'' Rodmell Press; 1st North American Pbk. Ed edition, 2004. ISBN 978-1930485075
 +
* Villoldo, Alberto. 2007. ''Yoga, power, and spirit Patanjali the Shaman''. Carlsbad, Calif: Hay House, Inc. ISBN 9781401910471 ISBN 1401910475
 +
* Vivekananda,Swami. ''Raja-Yoga.'' Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center; Pocket Rev edition (June 1980. ISBN 978-0911206234
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* Zimmer, Heinrich Robert. 1951. ''Philosophies of India''. Bollingen series, 26. [New York]: Pantheon Books.
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
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{{Credits|Raja_Yoga|172552806|Yoga|56902484|History_of_Yoga|168336509|Buddhism_and_Hinduism|172319330}}
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{{Credits|Raja_Yoga|172552806|Yoga|56902484|History_of_Yoga|168336509|Buddhism_and_Hinduism|172319330|Pata%C3%B1jali|160651900}}

Revision as of 09:17, 20 December 2007

Padmasana or Lotus pose is a seated posture in yogic practice.

Rāja Yoga ("Royal yoga," "Royal Union," also known as Classical Yoga or simply Yoga) is one of the six orthodox (astika) schools of Hindu philosophy, outlined by Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras. It is also sometimes referred to as Aṣṭānga (eight-limbed) yoga because there are eight integral practices on the yogic path. Raja yoga is concerned principally with the cultivation of the mind using meditation (dhyana) to control and subdue mental fluctuations in order to still the mind and achieve liberation.

The term Rāja Yoga is a retronym, introduced in the 15th century Hatha Yoga Pradipika to distinguish the school based on the Yoga Sutras from the new current of Hatha Yoga.

Etymology

The term Raja Yoga derives from two Sanskrit words "Raja" ("King") and "Yoga" (from the root Yuj meaning "to control"). Thus, placed together, the term "Raja Yoga" means the "Royal Yoga," the "King of the Yogas", the "Highest Yoga," the "Regal way of controlling one's mind and thoughts."

The word was first used in connection with harnessing animals (controlling them with leashes). Out of this literal practice arose the metaphorical idea of harnessing the thoughts of the mind through mental discipline, which became the practice of yoga.

History

File:Pashupati.gif
A seal from the Indus Valley Civilization, showing a figure in meditation posture.

Archaeological excavations of the Indus Valley Civilization have unearthed a figure who appears to be practicing meditation or yoga; however, this interpretation is merely a conjecture. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the Rig Veda, which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 B.C.E.. In the Upanisads, the older Vedic practices of offering sacrifices and ceremonies to appease external gods gave way instead to a new understanding that humans can, by means of an inner sacrifice, become one with the Supreme Being (referred to as Brāhman or Māhātman), through moral culture, restraint and training of the mind.

The Bhagavad Gita (written between the fifth and second centuries B.C.E.) defines yoga as the highest state of enlightenment attainable, beyond which there is nothing worth realizing, in which a person is never shaken, even by the greatest pain. [1] In his conversation with Arjuna, Krishna distinguishes several types of "yoga," corresponding to the duties of different nature of people:

(1) Karma yoga, the yoga of "action" in the world.
(2) Jnana yoga, the yoga of knowledge and intellectual endeavor.
(3) Bhakti yoga, the yoga of devotion to a deity (for example, to Krishna).

Patanjali

Patañjali as an incarnation of Adi Sesha

Authorship of the Yoga Sutras, which form the basis of the darshana called "yoga," is attributed to Patanjali (second century B.C.E.). atañjali (Devanāgarī पतञ्जलि) is known as the compiler of the Yoga Sutras, a major work containing aphorisms on the philosophical aspects of mind and consciousness, and is therefore traditionally regarded as the “founder” of the Yoga school. An individual named Patañjali, who was born in Gonarda and lived, for at least some period, in Kashmir around 140 B.C.E., wrote Mahābhāṣya, or Great Commentary, on the Aṣṭādhyāyī of the early Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini. Many scholars do not consider these two texts to have been written by the same individual, although a comparative study of the two works produces no conclusive evidence. Two eighteenth-century Indian commentators, Rhāmabadra Diksita (author of Patanjalicarita) and Sivrama, and two eleventh-century commentators, King Bhoja of Dhār and Cakrapānidatta, identified the authors of the two works as being the same person.[2]Modern scholarship suggests that the two works may have been written several centuries apart. [3]

Yoga Sutra

The Yoga Sūtras probably date from around 250 - 200 B.C.E., though some scholars have based a later date of 250 C.E. on the fact that no commentaries on the Yoga Sutras exist before this date. The first three books appear to have been written much earlier than the fourth, which contains material that seems to refer to late Buddhist thought and could therefore place it in the fifth century C.E..[4]

Patañjali has often been called the founder of Yoga because of the Yoga Sūtras, although it was actually a compilation of a much older oral tradition. The Yoga Sūtras, as a treatise on Yoga, built on the Samkhya school and the Hindu scripture of the Bhagavad Gita (see also: Vyasa). Yoga, the science of uniting one's consciousness, is also found in the Puranas, the Vedas and the Upanishads. Patañjali reinterpreted and clarified what others had said, resolved contradictions, and synthesized many lines of argument. His practical summary can be regarded the greatest initiator into the essence and the science of Yoga.

Yoga Sūtras is a major work among the great Hindu scriptures and serves as the basis of the yoga-system known as Raja yoga. Patañjali's Yoga is one of the six schools or darshanas of Hindu Philosophy. The sūtras give us the earliest reference to the popular term Ashtanga Yoga which translates literally as the “eight limbs of yoga.” They are yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana and samadhi.

The Yoga Sūtras is to be regarded as a devotional handbook rather than a philosophical text to be studied as an end in itself. Patanjali himself repeatedly warns against the futility of approaching meditation through the intellect, emphasizing the attainment of wisdom which lies beyond intellect by abandoning conceptual frameworks. The sutras can be understood more deeply in the context of the reader’s own direct meditative experiences.

According to biographer and scholar Kofi Busia [5], Patañjali defended several ideas in his treatise on yoga that are not in accord with classical Sankhya or Yoga. He does not acknowledges the ego as a separate entity, and does not regard the subtle body linga sarira as permanent, denying it a direct control over external matters.

The Yoga Sutra is divided into four parts. The first, Samahdi-pada, deals with the nature and aim of concentration. The second, Sadhanapada explains the means to realize this concentration. The third, Vibhuitpada, deals with the supranormal powers which can be acquired through yoga, and the fourth, Kaivalyapada, describes the nature of liberation and the reality of the transcendental self. [6]

Philosophy

The Yoga system one of the six "orthodox" Vedic schools of Hindu philosophy. The school (darshana) of Yoga is primarily Upanishadic with roots in Samkhya, and some scholars see some influence from Buddhism. The Yoga system accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic and adds God to the Samkhya’s twenty-five elements of reality[7] as the highest Self distinct from other selves.[8] Ishvara ( the Supreme Lord) is regarded as a special Purusha, who is beyond sorrow and the law of Karma. He is one, perfect, infinite, omniscient, omnipresent, omnipotent and eternal. He is beyond the three qualities of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. He is different from an ordinary liberated spirit, because Ishvara has never been in bondage.

Patanjali was more interested in the attainment of enlightenment through physical activity than in metaphysical theory. Samkhya represents knowledge, or theory, and Yoga represents practice.

The goal of Yoga is defined as 'the cessation of mental fluctuations' (cittavrtti nirodha). Chitta (mind-stuff) is the same as the three “internal organs” of Samkhya: intellect (buddhi), ego (anhakara) and mind (manas). Chitta is the first evolute of praktri (matter) and is in itself unconscious. However, being nearest to the purusa (soul) it has the capacity to reflect the purusa and therefore appear conscious. Whenever chitta relates to or associates itself with an object, it assumes the form of that object. Purusa is essentially pure consciousness, free from the limitations of praktri (matter), but it erroneously identifies itself with chitta and therefore appears to be changing and fluctuating. When purusa recognizes that it is completely isolated and is a passive spectator, beyond the influences of praktri, it ceases to identify itself with the chitta, and all the modifications of the chitta fall away and disappear. The cessation of all the modifications of the chitta through meditation is called “Yoga.”[9]

The reflection of the purusa in the chitta, is the phenomenal ego (jiva) which is subject to birth, death, transmigration, and pleasurable and painful experiences; and which imagines itself to be an agent or enjoyer. It is subject to five kinds of suffering: ignorance (avidyā), egoism (asmitā), attachment (rāga), aversion (dveşa), and attachment to life coupled with fear of death (abhinivesha).


Practice

Patanjala Yoga is also known as Raja Yoga (Skt: "Royal yoga") or "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"), and is held as authoritative by all schools.

Raja Yoga aims at controlling all thought-waves or mental modifications. Raja Yoga is so-called because it is primarily concerned with the mind, which is traditionally conceived as the "king" of the psycho-physical structure that does its bidding. Because of the relationship between the mind and the body, the body must be first "tamed" through self-discipline and purified by various means. A good level of overall health and psychological integration must be attained before the deeper aspects of yoga can be pursued. Humans have all sorts of addictions and obsessions and these preclude the attainment of tranquil abiding (meditation). Through restraint (yama) such as celibacy, abstaining from drugs and alcohol, and careful attention to one's actions of body, speech and mind, the human being becomes fit to practice meditation. This yoke that one puts upon oneself (discipline) is another meaning of the word yoga.

Eight limbs of Ashtanga Yoga

Patanjali's Yoga Sutra sets forth eight "limbs" of yoga practice:

(1) Yama The five "abstentions:" abstention from injury through thought, word or deed (ahimsa); from falsehood (satya); from stealing (asteya); from passions and lust (brahmacharya); and from avarice (aparigraha).
(2) Niyama The five "observances:" external and internal purification (shaucha), contentment (santosa), austerity (tapas), study (svadhyaya), and surrender to God (Ishvara-pranidhana).
(3) Asana: This term literally means "seat," and originally referred mainly to seated positions. With the rise of Hatha yoga, it came to be used for yoga "postures" as well.
(4) Pranayama: Control of prāna or vital breath
(5) Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): "that by which the senses do not come into contact with their objects and, as it were, follow the nature of the mind." — Vyasa
(6) Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object
(7) Dhyana ("Meditation") The undisturbed flow of thought around the object of meditation.
(8) Samadhi: “Concentration.” Super-conscious state or trance (state of liberation) in which the mind is completely absorbed in the object of meditation.

The eight limbs of Ashtanga Yoga are:

  • Yama - Code of conduct - self-restraint
  • Niyama - religious observances - commitments to practice, such as study and devotion
  • Āsana - integration of mind and body through physical activity
  • Pranayama - regulation of breath leading to integration of mind and body
  • Pratyahara - abstraction of the senses, withdrawal of the senses of perception from their objects
  • Dharana - concentration, one-pointedness of mind
  • Dhyana - meditation (quiet activity that leads to samadhi)
  • Samadhi - the quiet state of blissful awareness, superconscious state

Yama

Yama consists of five parts: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (not stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-covetousness). Ahimsa is perfect harmlessness and positive love also. This removes the brutal nature in man and strengthens the will.

Niyama

Niyama is observance of five canons: Saucha (internal and external purity), Santosha (contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of religious books and repetitions of Mantras), and Ishvarapranidhana (self-surrender to God, and His worship).

He who practises meditation without ethical perfection, without the practice of Yama-Niyama cannot obtain the fruits of meditation. Purify your mind first through the practice of Yama-Niyama. Then practice regular meditation. Then you will attain illumination.

Asana

Main article: Asana

Any easy, steady, comfortable pose is Asana. Asanas steady the body. Posture is mastered by releasing tension and meditation on the unlimited.

Pranayama

Pranayama checks the outgoing tendencies of the mind. It is often misunderstood for breathing exercises. Prana means life force, while yama means to gain control

Pratyahara

Pratyahara gives inner spiritual strength. It removes all sorts of distractions. It develops will-power.

Dharana

Real Yoga starts from concentration. Concentration merges into meditation. Meditation ends in Samadhi. Retention of breath, Brahmacharya, Satvic (pure) food, seclusion, silence, Satsanga (being in the company of a guru), and not mixing much with people are all aids to concentration. Concentrate on Trikuti (the space between the two eyebrows) with closed eyes is preferred. The mind can be easily controlled, as this is the seat for the mind.

Dhyana

Sleep, tossing of mind, attachment to objects, subtle desires and cravings, laziness, lack of Brahmacharya, gluttony are all obstacles in meditation. Reduce your wants. Cultivate dispassion. You will have progress in Yoga. Vairagya thins out the mind. Do not mix much. Do not talk much. Do not walk much. Do not eat much. Do not sleep much. Do not exert much. Never wrestle with the mind during meditation. Do not use any violent efforts at concentration. If evil thoughts enter your mind, do not use your will force in driving them. You will tax your will. You will lose your energy. You will fatigue yourself. The greater the efforts you make, the more the evil thoughts will return with redoubled force. Be indifferent. Become a witness of those thoughts. Substitute divine thoughts. They will pass away. Never miss a day in meditation. Regularity is of paramount importance. When the mind is tired, do not concentrate. Do not take heavy food at night.

The mind passes into many conditions or states as it is made up of three qualities-Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. Kshipta (wandering), Vikshipta (gathering), Mudha (ignorant), Ekagra (one-pointed), and Nirodha (contrary) are the five states of the mind.

By controlling the thoughts the Sadhaka attains great Siddhis. He becomes an adept. He attains Asamprajnata Samadhi or Kaivalya. Do not run after Siddhis. Siddhis are great temptations. They will bring about your downfall. A Raja Yogi practices Samyama or the combined practice of Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi at one and the same time and gets detailed knowledge of an object.

Control the mind by Abhyasa (practice) and Vairagya (dispassion). Any practice which steadies the mind and makes it one-pointed is Abhyasa. Dull Vairagya will not help you in attaining perfection in Yoga. You must have Para Vairagya or Theevra Vairagya, intense dispassion.

Samadhi

Main article: Samadhi

Meditation on OM with Bhava and its meaning removes obstacles in Sadhana and helps to attain Samadhi. Avidya (ignorance), Asmita (egoism), Raga-Dvesha (likes and dislikes), Abhinivesha (clinging to mundane life) are the five Kleshas or afflictions. Destroy these afflictions. You will attain Samadhi.

Samadhi is of two kinds:

  • Savikalpa, Samprajnata or Sabija; and
  • Nirvikalpa, Asamprajnata or Nirbija.

In Savikalpa or Sabija, there is Triputi or the triad (knower, known and knowledge). The samskaras are not burnt or freed. Savitarka, Nirvitarka, Savichara, Nirvichara, Sasmita and Saananda are the different forms of Savikalpa Samadhi. In Nirbija Samadhi or Asamprajnata Samadhi there is no triad.

A Bhakta gets Bhava-Samadhi, a Jnani gets Badha-Samadhi, a Raja Yogi gets Nirodha Samadhi.

Goal

The ultimate goal of yoga is clearly announced in the opening verse of Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, which states: yogaś citta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ (1.2), "Yoga limits the oscillations of the mind." They go on to detail the ways in which mind can create false ideations and advocate meditation on real objects, which process, it is said, will lead to a spontaneous state of quiet mind, the "Nirbija" or "seedless state," in which there is no mental object of focus.

Practices that serve to maintain for the individual the ability to access this state may be considered Raja Yoga practices. Thus, Raja Yoga encompasses and differentiates itself from other forms of Yoga by encouraging the mind to avoid the sort of absorption in obsessional practice (including other traditional yogic practices) that can create false mental objects.

In this sense, Raja Yoga is "king of yogas": all yogic practices are seen as potential tools for obtaining the seedless state, itself considered to be the starting point in the quest to cleanse Karma and obtain Moksha or Nirvana. Historically, schools of yoga that label themselves "Raja" offer students a mix of yogic practices and (hopefully or ideally) this philosophical viewpoint. He states that the purpose of Yoga is the cessessation of mental fluctuations, with the implied goal of stilling the mind in order to discover and see one's true self and nature. This true Self is described as pure Spirit (Purusha). As stated earlier, Raja Yoga is predicated on Samkhian metaphysics and thus assimilated the concepts of Purusha and Prakriti found in Samkhya thought. As a result, Raja Yoga teaches that the ultimate goal of yoga is to realize that one is pure spirit and not matter, which is attained through discriminating knowledge (viveka of the real from the unreal.

This realization is said to result in a state in which one's behavior spontaneously follows the five ethical precepts (Yamas):

  • Ahimsa - refraining from injury (non-life supporting action)
  • satya - truthfulness
  • asteya - freedom from stealing
  • brahmacarya - living within the Self (moderation; abstinence)
  • aparigraha - freedom from attachment to possessions

Misconceptions

In western popular culture and yoga classes, it is sometimes stated that the goal of Yoga is to "unite with God." However, this presentation of Yoga is inaccurate according to the ancient texts. While the idea of God can play a role in helping the aspirant attain greater concentration in yogic practice (as a meditative focus), the ultimate realization of differentiation between Purusha and Prakriti is not necessarily the same thing as union with God, as traditionally understood by westerners. Nevertheless, the intrinsic metaphysical diversity of Hinduism has allowed yogic practicioners to interpret ancient teachings in a variety of ways to suit their own interests as yoga has adapted and conformed to modern times and non-Indian societies.

Notes

  1. ↑ Sharma, Chandrahar. 2003. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120803647 ISBN 8120803655 p. 169
  2. ↑ Dasgupta, Surendranath. 1973. A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 8120804120 ISBN 8120804082 p.230-232
  3. ↑ Kofi Busia, Biography of Patanjali. Retrieved October 22, 2007.
  4. ↑ Zimmer, Heinrich Robert. 1951. Philosophies of India. Bollingen series, 26. [New York]: Pantheon Books, p. 282-283
  5. ↑ Kofi Busia
  6. ↑ Ibid.
  7. ↑ Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli and Moore, Charles A., editors. 1973. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691019584 p. 453
  8. ↑ Sharma, Chandrahar. 2003. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy p. 169
  9. ↑ Ibid. p. 170

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Dasgupta, Surendranath. 1973. A History of Indian Philosophy, Vol. I. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120804120 ISBN 8120804082
  • Patañjali, & Miller, B. S. (1996). Yoga discipline of freedom : the Yoga Sutra attributed to Patanjali ; a translation of the text, with commentary, introduction, and glossary of keywords. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. ISBN 0520201906 ISBN 9780520201903
  • Patanjali, and B. K. S. Iyengar. 2002. Light on the yoga sutras of Patanjali. London: Thorsons. ISBN 0007145160 ISBN 9780007145164
  • Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli and Moore, Charles A., eds. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1973. ISBN 0691019584
  • Sharma, Chandrahar. 2003. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120803647 ISBN 8120803655
  • Sivananda, Swami. Raja Yoga.Kessinger Publishing, 2005. ISBN 978-1425359829
  • Thakar, Vimala. Glimpses of Raja Yoga: An Introduction to Patanjali's Yoga Sutras (Yoga Wisdom Classics). Rodmell Press; 1st North American Pbk. Ed edition, 2004. ISBN 978-1930485075
  • Villoldo, Alberto. 2007. Yoga, power, and spirit Patanjali the Shaman. Carlsbad, Calif: Hay House, Inc. ISBN 9781401910471 ISBN 1401910475
  • Vivekananda,Swami. Raja-Yoga. Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center; Pocket Rev edition (June 1980. ISBN 978-0911206234
  • Zimmer, Heinrich Robert. 1951. Philosophies of India. Bollingen series, 26. [New York]: Pantheon Books.

External links

All links retrieved November 22, 2007


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