Difference between revisions of "Patriotism" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:Statue X DSC08329.JPG|thumb|right|240px|Defence of the fatherland is a commonplace of patriotism: The statue in the courtyard of [[École polytechnique]], [[Paris]], commemorating the students' involvement in defending France against the 1814 invasion of the [[Sixth Coalition|Coalition]].]]  
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[[Image:Statue X DSC08329.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The statue in the courtyard of [[École polytechnique]], [[Paris]], commemorating the students' involvement in defending France in 1814.]]  
  
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'''Patriotism''' denotes positive and supportive attitudes to a 'fatherland' ([[Latin language|Latin]] ''patria'' < [[Greek language|Greek]] ''patris, πατρίς''), by individuals and groups. The 'fatherland' (or 'motherland') can be a region or a city, but patriotism usually applies to a [[nation]] and/or a [[nation-state]]. Patriotism covers such attitudes as: pride in its achievements and culture, the desire to preserve its character and the basis of the culture, and identification with other members of the nation. Patriotism is closely associated with [[nationalism]], and is often used as a [[synonym]] for it. Strictly speaking, nationalism is an [[ideology]] - but it often promotes patriotic attitudes as desirable and appropriate. (Both nationalist [[politics|political movements]], and patriotic expression, may, yet need not, be negative towards other people's 'fatherland').
+
'''Patriotism''' denotes positive and supportive attitudes to a 'fatherland' ([[Latin]] ''patria''), by individuals and groups. The 'fatherland' (or 'motherland') can be a region or a city, but patriotism usually applies to a [[nation]] and/or a [[nation-state]]. Patriotism covers such attitudes as: pride in its achievements and culture, the desire to preserve its character and the basis of the [[culture]], and identification with other members of the nation. Patriotism is closely associated with [[nationalism]], and is often used as a [[synonym]] for it.  
  
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Patriotism has ethical connotations: it implies that the 'fatherland' (however defined) is a moral standard or moral value in itself. The expression ''my country right or wrong'' - perhaps a misquotation of the American naval officer [[Stephen Decatur]], but also attributed to [[Carl Schurz]] - is the extreme form of this belief. Patriotism also implies that the individual should place the interests of the nation above their personal and group interests. In [[war|wartime]], the sacrifice may extend to their own life. Death in battle for the fatherland is the [[archetype]] of extreme patriotism.
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Patriotism has ethical connotations: it implies that one places the welfare of the nation above that of oneself. It may also imply that one's nation is more important than other nations. However, it does not necessarily imply that one should support the principle of "my country right or wrong," for patriots may also at times be strong critics of their nation's policies.
  
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== Types of patriotism ==
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In [[war|wartime]], sacrifice for one's nation may include death. Such sacrifices for the fatherland are indeed the [[archetype]] of patriotism.
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[[Image:PatriotismUSAMagnet.png|thumb|200px|left|[[Magnets]] on [[automobiles]] became a popular way to display patriotism in the United States during the 2004 elections.]]
 
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'''Personal patriotism''' is emotional and voluntary. The patriot adheres to certain patriotic [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]], such as respect for the flag. They may insist that the entire citizenry shares adherence to these values, or that they be legally enforced, see [[Flag Desecration Amendment]].
 
  
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Governments promote an '''official patriotism''' which has a high symbolic and ceremonial content. It is a logical consequence of the state itself, which derives legitimacy from being the expression of the common good of the political community. [[National monument]]s, and [[Veterans Day|veterans days]] and [[Remembrance Day|commemoration ceremonies]] are typical examples. Often official patriotism is highly regulated by [[diplomatic protocol|protocol]], with specific methods for handling flags, or specific pledges and displays of allegiance.
+
==Types of patriotism==
 +
[[Image:Nathan Hale hanged by British 200px.gif|thumb|250px|left|The American patriot Nathan Hale epitomized the patriotic ideal when he declared, "I regret that I have but one life to give to my country."]]
 +
''Personal patriotism'' is emotional and voluntary. The patriot adheres to certain patriotic [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]], such as respect for the flag or the honoring of veterans. Other expressions of personal patriotism include enlisting in the army, public service, and participation in the political process through voting or other forms of activism.
  
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Patriotism relies heavily on '''symbolic''' acts, such as displaying the [[flag]], singing the [[national anthem]], participating in a mass rally, placing a patriotic [[bumper sticker]] on one's vehicle, or any other way of publicly proclaiming allegiance to the state. Symbolic patriotism in wartime is intended to raise morale, in turn contributing to the war effort. Peacetime patriotism can not be so easily linked to a measurable gain for the state, but the patriot does not see it as inferior.
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Governments promote an ''official patriotism'' which has a high symbolic and ceremonial content. It is a logical consequence of the state itself, which derives legitimacy from being the expression of the common good of the political community. [[National monument]]s, and [[Veterans Day|veterans days]] and [[Remembrance Day|commemoration ceremonies]] are typical examples. Often official patriotism is highly regulated by [[diplomatic protocol|protocol]], with specific methods for handling flags, or specific pledges and displays of allegiance.
  
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Some critics have maintained that (unlike modern nationalism, which is a creation of the 19th-century nation state) '''authentic patriotism''' (as the Latin 'pater' would suggest) must be based in some form of [[genophilia]] and the sharing of ancestors.  
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Official patriotism relies heavily on symbolic acts, such as displaying the [[flag]], singing the [[national anthem]], saying a pledge, participating in a mass rally, placing a patriotic [[bumper sticker]] on one's vehicle, or any other way of publicly proclaiming allegiance to the state. Symbolic patriotism in wartime is intended to raise morale, in turn contributing to the war effort. Peacetime patriotism can not be so easily linked to a measurable gain for the state, but the patriot does not see it as inferior.
  
 
Levels of patriotism vary across time, and among political communities. Typically, patriotic intensity is higher when the state is under external threat.
 
Levels of patriotism vary across time, and among political communities. Typically, patriotic intensity is higher when the state is under external threat.
  
−
Conversely, high levels of patriotism tends to be coupled with belligerency according to the [[Correlates of War]]. As examples, patriotism was highly rated by Correlates of War in pre-WWI Germany, as is the US today in [[World Values Survey]].
+
==The ethics of patriotism==
 +
[[Image:Patriotic old women - American Flag.jpg|thumb|250px|Patriotic American women during WWI]]
 +
In the hierarchy of [[morality|moral]] values, patriotism ranks above family or local society, but below God and also below conscience. Thus, the saying "my country right or wrong" does not necessarily reflect "authentic patriotism," but a patriotism that confuses the national good with the highest good.
  
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== The ethics of patriotism ==
+
The primary implication of patriotism in [[ethics|ethical theory]] is that a person's moral duty is to place the interests of the nation above one's own needs. One may also have a higher duty to fellow members of the national community than to non-members. Patriotism may thus be selective in its [[altruism]].
  
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The primary implication of patriotism in [[ethics|ethical theory]] is that a person has more moral duties to fellow members of the national community, than to non-members. Patriotism is selective in its [[altruism]]. Criticism of patriotism in ethics is mainly directed at this moral preference: Paul Gomberg compared it to racism.<ref>Paul Gomberg, “Patriotism is Like Racism,” in Igor Primoratz, ed., ''Patriotism'', Humanity Books, 2002, pp. 105-112. ISBN 1-57392-955-7.</ref> The view (in ethics) that moral duties apply equally to all humans is known as [[cosmopolitanism]]. (In practice, many patriots would see [[treason]] rather than cosmopolitanism as the "opposite of patriotism".)
+
Criticism of patriotism in [[ethics]] is mainly directed at this moral preference. [[Moral universalism|Universalist]] beliefs reject such specific preferences, in favor of an alternative, wider, community. In the [[European Union]], thinkers such as the [[Germany|German]] [[philosophy|philosopher]] [[Jürgen Habermas]] have advocated a European-wide patriotism, but patriotism in Europe is usually directed at the [[nation-state]]. Similarly, patriots in any nation may (or may not) see a need for the nation to sacrifice for the world. For example, many Americans saw it as their patriotic duty to fight against totalitarianism in Europe, while others—at least until the [[Japan]]ese attack on [[Pearl Harbor]]—felt that the [[United States]] ought to stay out of the war.
  
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Patriotism implies a value preference for a specific civic or political community. [[Moral universalism|Universalist]] beliefs reject such specific preferences, in favor of an alternative, wider, community. In the [[European Union]], thinkers such as [[Habermas]], however, have advocated a European-wide patriotism, but patriotism in Europe is usually directed at the [[nation-state]] and often coincides with [[Euroscepticism]].
+
Many [[religion|religious]] believers place [[God]] or their religion above their nation. This sometimes results in suspicion that they are not patriotic enough. As a result, in the United Sates, the [[Knights of Columbus]] emphasized patriotism as one of their four principle virtues. Muslims are sometimes seen as owing loyalty to the Islamic community ''([[ummah]])'' rather than to the nation, even though many Muslims voluntarily enlist in the army and fight against Islamic extremists in other countries. Some groups find a serious conflict between certain patriotic acts and religious beliefs. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Quakers]], [[Amish]], and [[Mennonite]]s, for example, often choose to refuse to engage in certain patriotic acts or to display patriotic symbols or serve in the army.
  
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Some religious believers place their religion above their 'fatherland', often resulting in suspicion and hostility from patriots. Two examples of groups that have experienced this suspicion in the United States are [[Roman Catholic|Roman Catholics]] and [[Muslim|Muslims]].  In the United States and the United Kingdom, Roman Catholics were seen as owing loyalty to the [[Pope]] rather than the nation.  As a result, the [[Knights of Columbus]] (referred to as "the strong right arm of the church" by several Popes) established the virtue of patriotism as one of their four principle virtues. Muslims are sometimes seen as owing loyalty to the Islamic community ([[ummah]]) rather than to the nation. Other groups find a conflict between certain patriotic acts and religious beliefs. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and [[Mennonite]]s may choose to refuse to engage in certain patriotic acts or to display certain symbols.
+
[[Image:Shatki Great Patriotic war monument.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Soviet-era patriotic monument]]
  
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Supporters of patriotism in ethics regard it as a [[virtue]]. In his influential article "Is patriotism a virtue?" (1984), the philosopher [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] notes that most contemporary conceptions of morality insist on a blindness to accidental traits like local origin and therefore reject patriotic selectivity. MacIntyre constructs an alternative conception of morality, that he claims would be compatible with patriotism. [[Charles Blattberg]], in his book ''From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics'' (2000), has developed a similar conception of patriotism.
+
A problem with treating patriotism as an objective virtue is that patriotism often conflicts with other ideas. Soldiers of both sides in a war may feel equally patriotic, creating an ethical [[paradox]]. In his influential article "Is patriotism a virtue?" (1984) the philosopher [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] notes that most contemporary conceptions of morality insist on a blindness to accidental traits such as local origin and therefore reject patriotic selectivity. MacIntyre constructs an alternative conception of morality that he claims would be compatible with patriotism. [[Charles Blattberg]], in his book ''From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics'' (2000), has developed a similar conception of patriotism.
  
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A problem with treating patriotism as an objective virtue is that patriotisms often conflict. Soldiers of both sides in a war may feel equally patriotic, creating an ethical [[paradox]]. (If patriotism is a virtue, then the enemy is virtuous, so why try to kill them?)
+
Within nations, politicians may appeal to patriotic emotions in attacking their opponents, implicitly or explicitly accusing them of betraying the country. Minorities, on the other hand, may feel excluded from the political community and see no reason to be proud of it and instead side with the group that most supports their ethnicity or religious belief.
  
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Within nations, politicians may appeal to patriotic emotions in attacking their opponents, implicitly or explicitly accusing them of betraying the country. Minorities may reject a patriotic loyalty and pride, which the majority finds unproblematic. They may feel excluded from the political community, and see no reason to be proud of it. The [[Australia|Australian]] political conflict about the [[Black armband view of history]] is an example. Conservative Prime Minister [[John Howard]], who would undoubtedly describe himself as an Australian patriot, said of it in 1996:
+
In the United States, patriotic history has been criticized for de-emphasizing the post-Colombian [[Population history of American indigenous peoples|depopulation]], the [[Atlantic slave trade]], the [[Indian Removal|population expulsions]], and the [[Indian Wars|wars of conquest]] against [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. On the other hand, a number of recognized American patriots were outspoken opponents of slavery.
  
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:''The 'black armband' view of our history reflects a belief that most Australian history since 1788 has been little more than a disgraceful story of imperialism, exploitation, racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination.''
+
Patriotism is often portrayed as a more positive alternative to nationalism, which sometimes carries negative connotations. Some authors such as [[Morris Janowitz]], [[Daniel Bar-Tal]], or L. Snyder argue that patriotism is distinguished from nationalism by its lack of aggression or hatred for others, its defensiveness, and positive community building. Others, such as [[Michael Billig]] or [[Jean Bethke Elshtain]] argue that the difference is difficult to discern, and relies largely on the attitude of the labeler.<ref> Billig, Michael, 1995, p. 56-58.</ref>
  
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In the United States, patriotic history has been criticised for de-emphasising the post-Colombian [[Population history of American indigenous peoples|depopulation]], the [[Atlantic slave trade]], the [[Indian Removal|population expulsions]] and the [[Indian Wars|wars of conquest]] against [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]].
+
===Patriotism for other countries?===
 +
[[Image:Washington and Lafayette.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Washington and La Fayette at Valley Forge]]
 +
There are historical examples of individuals who fought for other countries, sometimes for their independence&mdash;for example the [[Marquis de Lafayette]], [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]], and [[Kazimierz Pułaski]] in the [[American Revolutionary War]], and the "Philhellenes," western Europeans who fought in the [[Greek War of Independence]], notably [[Lord Byron]]. Was Lafayette an American patriot, or the Philhellenes Greek patriots? Some see these and similar cases as instances of [[idealism]], but not of patriotism. Under this view, Lafayette was devoted to the ideals of political liberty that underlay the American Revolution, but was not specifically patriotic for America. In this view, patriotism by definition can only be a preference for one's ''own'' country, not a preference for the ideals that a country is believed to stand for. Other concepts of patriotism, however, allow that a true patriot can not only be critical of his or her country for failing to live up to its ideals, but may become a patriot for other nations whose causes coincide with one's own.
  
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Patriotism is often portrayed as a more positive alternative to nationalism, which sometimes carries negative connotations. Some authors such as [[Morris Janowitz]], [[Daniel Bar-Tal]], or L. Snyder argue that patriotism is distinguished from nationalism by its lack of aggression or hatred for others, its defensiveness, and positive community building. Others, such as [[Michael Billig]] or [[Jean Bethke Elshtain]] argue that the difference is difficult to discern, and relies largely on the attitude of the labeller. <ref> Billig, Michael.  ''[[Banal Nationalism]].'' London: Sage Publishers, 1995, p. 56-58.</ref>
+
==Notes==
 +
<references/>
  
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=== Patriotism for other countries? ===
+
==References==
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There are historical examples of individuals who fought for other countries, sometimes for their independence - for example the [[Marquis de Lafayette]], [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]] and [[Kazimierz Pułaski]] in the [[American Revolutionary War]], and the "Philhellenes," western Europeans who fought in the [[Greek War of Independence]], notably [[Lord Byron]]. Was Lafayette an American patriot, or the Philhellenes Greek patriots? Alasdair MacIntyre would claim that they were not; that these and similar cases are instances of [[idealism]], but not of patriotism. Under this view, Lafayette was only devoted to the ideals of political liberty that underlay the American Revolution, but was not specifically patriotic for America. For MacIntyre, patriotism by definition can only be a preference for one's ''own'' country, not a preference for the ideals that a country is believed to stand for. Charles Blattberg's conception of patriotism, however, is more nuanced: to him, a patriot can be critical of his or her country for failing to live up to its ideals.
+
* Bar-Tal, Daniel, and Ervin Staub. ''Patriotism''. Wadsworth Publishing, 1999. ISBN 0-8304-1410-X
−
 
+
* Billig, Michael. ''[[Banal Nationalism]].'' London: Sage Publishers, 1995. ISBN 978-0803975248
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=== Patriotism by country ===
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* Blattberg, Charles. ''From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First''. Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-829688-6
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Several surveys have tried to measure patriotism for various reasons. The [[Correlates of War]] project found some correlation between War propensity and patriotism.  
+
* Nussbaum, Martha C., and Joshua Cohen, ed. ''For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism''. Beacon Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8070-4313-3
−
 
+
* Primoratz, Igor, ed. ''Patriotism''. Humanity Books, 2002. ISBN 1-57392-955-7
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The results from different studies are time dependent. Patriotism in Germany before WWI ranks at or near the top, whereas today it ranks at or near the bottom of surveys.
+
* Viroli, Maurizio. ''For Love of Country: An Essay on Patriotism and Nationalism''. Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-829358-5
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The Patriotism Score table below is from the [[World Values Survey]] and refers to the average
 
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answer for high income residents of a country to the question: "Are you proud to
 
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be [insert nationality]?" It ranges from 1 (not proud) to 4 (very proud).<ref>Patriotism in Your Portfolio http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=406200 </ref>
 
  
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First Survey: 1990-1992
 
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{| class="wikitable"
 
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! Country !! Score
 
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|-
 
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| USA || 3.73
 
−
|-
 
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| South Africa || 3.55
 
−
|-
 
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| Canada || 3.53
 
−
|-
 
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| Slovenia || 3.46
 
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|-
 
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| Spain || 3.28
 
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|-
 
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| Denmark || 3.27
 
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|-
 
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| Italy || 3.25
 
−
|-
 
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| Sweden || 3.22
 
−
|-
 
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| France || 3.18
 
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|-
 
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| Finland || 3.17
 
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|-
 
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| Belgium || 3.07
 
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|-
 
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| Netherlands || 2.93
 
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|-
 
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| Germany || 2.75
 
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|-
 
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| India || 0.0
 
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|-
 
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| Average || 3.26
 
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|}
 
−
 
−
 
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Second Survey: 1995-1997
 
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{| class="wikitable"
 
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! Country !! Score
 
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|-
 
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| Venezuela || 3.92
 
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|-
 
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| South Africa || 3.73
 
−
|-
 
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| USA || 3.72
 
−
|-
 
−
| Peru || 3.68
 
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|-
 
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| Turkey || 3.64
 
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|-
 
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| Poland || 3.55
 
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|-
 
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| Australia || 3.54
 
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|-
 
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| Spain || 3.40
 
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|-
 
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| Chile || 3.38
 
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|-
 
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| Finland || 3.29
 
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|-
 
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| Argentina || 3.29
 
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|-
 
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| Sweden || 3.13
 
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|-
 
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| Moldova || 2.98
 
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|-
 
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| Japan || 2.85
 
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|-
 
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| Russia || 2.69
 
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|-
 
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| Switzerland || 2.59
 
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|-
 
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| Lithuania || 2.47
 
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|-
 
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| Latvia || 2.10
 
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|-
 
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| Germany || 1.37
 
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|-
 
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| Average || 3.12
 
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|}
 
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==See also==
 
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{{Ideology-small}}
 
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* [[Nationalism]] and [[Nation]]
 
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* [[National symbol]] and [[national flag]]
 
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* [[Jingoism]] and [[Chauvinism]]
 
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* [[Politics]]
 
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* [[Communitarianism]]
 
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* [[Cultural identity]]
 
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* [[Identity politics]]
 
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* [[Anti-patriotism]]
 
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==References==
 
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{{Reflist}}
 
  
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==Sources and further reading==
 
−
{{wikiquote}}
 
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* [[Alasdair MacIntyre]], 'Is Patriotism a Virtue?', in: R. Beiner (ed.), ''Theorizing Citizenship'', 1995, State University of New York Press, pp. 209 - 228.
 
−
* Joshua Cohen and [[Martha C. Nussbaum]], ''For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism'', Beacon Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8070-4313-3.
 
−
* [[Jürgen Habermas]], “Appendix II: Citizenship and National Identity,” in ''Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy'', trans. William Rehg, MIT Press, 1996.
 
−
* Maurizio Viroli, ''For Love of Country: An Essay on Patriotism and Nationalism'', Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-829358-5.
 
−
* Daniel Bar-Tal and Ervin Staub, ''Patriotism'', Wadsworth Publishing, 1999. ISBN 0-8304-1410-X.
 
−
* [[Charles Blattberg]], ''From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First'', Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-829688-6.
 
−
* Igor Primoratz, ed., ''Patriotism'', Humanity Books, 2002. ISBN 1-57392-955-7.
 
−
* Paul Gomberg, “Patriotism is Like Racism,” in Igor Primoratz, ed., ''Patriotism'', Humanity Books, 2002, pp. 105-112. ISBN 1-57392-955-7.
 
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* Craig Calhoun, ''Is it Time to Be Postnational?'', in ''Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Minority Rights'', (eds.) Stephen May, Tariq Modood and Judith Squires. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004. pp 231-256. Online at [http://www.ssrc.org/programs/calhoun/publications/TimetoBePostnational.pdf www.ssrc.org].
 
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* [[George Orwell]], “[http://whitewolf.newcastle.edu.au/words/authors/O/OrwellGeorge/essay/nationalism.html Notes on Nationalism],” in ''England Your England and Other Essays'', Secker and Warburg, 1953.
 
  
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:philosophy and religion]]
 
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
[[Category:Politics and social sciences]]
 
{{Credit|152275644}}
 
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Latest revision as of 23:55, 3 April 2008


The statue in the courtyard of École polytechnique, Paris, commemorating the students' involvement in defending France in 1814.

Patriotism denotes positive and supportive attitudes to a 'fatherland' (Latin patria), by individuals and groups. The 'fatherland' (or 'motherland') can be a region or a city, but patriotism usually applies to a nation and/or a nation-state. Patriotism covers such attitudes as: pride in its achievements and culture, the desire to preserve its character and the basis of the culture, and identification with other members of the nation. Patriotism is closely associated with nationalism, and is often used as a synonym for it.

Patriotism has ethical connotations: it implies that one places the welfare of the nation above that of oneself. It may also imply that one's nation is more important than other nations. However, it does not necessarily imply that one should support the principle of "my country right or wrong," for patriots may also at times be strong critics of their nation's policies.

In wartime, sacrifice for one's nation may include death. Such sacrifices for the fatherland are indeed the archetype of patriotism.

Types of patriotism

The American patriot Nathan Hale epitomized the patriotic ideal when he declared, "I regret that I have but one life to give to my country."

Personal patriotism is emotional and voluntary. The patriot adheres to certain patriotic values, such as respect for the flag or the honoring of veterans. Other expressions of personal patriotism include enlisting in the army, public service, and participation in the political process through voting or other forms of activism.

Governments promote an official patriotism which has a high symbolic and ceremonial content. It is a logical consequence of the state itself, which derives legitimacy from being the expression of the common good of the political community. National monuments, and veterans days and commemoration ceremonies are typical examples. Often official patriotism is highly regulated by protocol, with specific methods for handling flags, or specific pledges and displays of allegiance.

Official patriotism relies heavily on symbolic acts, such as displaying the flag, singing the national anthem, saying a pledge, participating in a mass rally, placing a patriotic bumper sticker on one's vehicle, or any other way of publicly proclaiming allegiance to the state. Symbolic patriotism in wartime is intended to raise morale, in turn contributing to the war effort. Peacetime patriotism can not be so easily linked to a measurable gain for the state, but the patriot does not see it as inferior.

Levels of patriotism vary across time, and among political communities. Typically, patriotic intensity is higher when the state is under external threat.

The ethics of patriotism

Patriotic American women during WWI

In the hierarchy of moral values, patriotism ranks above family or local society, but below God and also below conscience. Thus, the saying "my country right or wrong" does not necessarily reflect "authentic patriotism," but a patriotism that confuses the national good with the highest good.

The primary implication of patriotism in ethical theory is that a person's moral duty is to place the interests of the nation above one's own needs. One may also have a higher duty to fellow members of the national community than to non-members. Patriotism may thus be selective in its altruism.

Criticism of patriotism in ethics is mainly directed at this moral preference. Universalist beliefs reject such specific preferences, in favor of an alternative, wider, community. In the European Union, thinkers such as the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas have advocated a European-wide patriotism, but patriotism in Europe is usually directed at the nation-state. Similarly, patriots in any nation may (or may not) see a need for the nation to sacrifice for the world. For example, many Americans saw it as their patriotic duty to fight against totalitarianism in Europe, while others—at least until the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor—felt that the United States ought to stay out of the war.

Many religious believers place God or their religion above their nation. This sometimes results in suspicion that they are not patriotic enough. As a result, in the United Sates, the Knights of Columbus emphasized patriotism as one of their four principle virtues. Muslims are sometimes seen as owing loyalty to the Islamic community (ummah) rather than to the nation, even though many Muslims voluntarily enlist in the army and fight against Islamic extremists in other countries. Some groups find a serious conflict between certain patriotic acts and religious beliefs. Jehovah's Witnesses, Quakers, Amish, and Mennonites, for example, often choose to refuse to engage in certain patriotic acts or to display patriotic symbols or serve in the army.

Soviet-era patriotic monument

A problem with treating patriotism as an objective virtue is that patriotism often conflicts with other ideas. Soldiers of both sides in a war may feel equally patriotic, creating an ethical paradox. In his influential article "Is patriotism a virtue?" (1984) the philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre notes that most contemporary conceptions of morality insist on a blindness to accidental traits such as local origin and therefore reject patriotic selectivity. MacIntyre constructs an alternative conception of morality that he claims would be compatible with patriotism. Charles Blattberg, in his book From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics (2000), has developed a similar conception of patriotism.

Within nations, politicians may appeal to patriotic emotions in attacking their opponents, implicitly or explicitly accusing them of betraying the country. Minorities, on the other hand, may feel excluded from the political community and see no reason to be proud of it and instead side with the group that most supports their ethnicity or religious belief.

In the United States, patriotic history has been criticized for de-emphasizing the post-Colombian depopulation, the Atlantic slave trade, the population expulsions, and the wars of conquest against Native Americans. On the other hand, a number of recognized American patriots were outspoken opponents of slavery.

Patriotism is often portrayed as a more positive alternative to nationalism, which sometimes carries negative connotations. Some authors such as Morris Janowitz, Daniel Bar-Tal, or L. Snyder argue that patriotism is distinguished from nationalism by its lack of aggression or hatred for others, its defensiveness, and positive community building. Others, such as Michael Billig or Jean Bethke Elshtain argue that the difference is difficult to discern, and relies largely on the attitude of the labeler.[1]

Patriotism for other countries?

Washington and La Fayette at Valley Forge

There are historical examples of individuals who fought for other countries, sometimes for their independence—for example the Marquis de Lafayette, Tadeusz Kościuszko, and Kazimierz Pułaski in the American Revolutionary War, and the "Philhellenes," western Europeans who fought in the Greek War of Independence, notably Lord Byron. Was Lafayette an American patriot, or the Philhellenes Greek patriots? Some see these and similar cases as instances of idealism, but not of patriotism. Under this view, Lafayette was devoted to the ideals of political liberty that underlay the American Revolution, but was not specifically patriotic for America. In this view, patriotism by definition can only be a preference for one's own country, not a preference for the ideals that a country is believed to stand for. Other concepts of patriotism, however, allow that a true patriot can not only be critical of his or her country for failing to live up to its ideals, but may become a patriot for other nations whose causes coincide with one's own.

Notes

  1. ↑ Billig, Michael, 1995, p. 56-58.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Bar-Tal, Daniel, and Ervin Staub. Patriotism. Wadsworth Publishing, 1999. ISBN 0-8304-1410-X
  • Billig, Michael. Banal Nationalism. London: Sage Publishers, 1995. ISBN 978-0803975248
  • Blattberg, Charles. From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First. Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-829688-6
  • Nussbaum, Martha C., and Joshua Cohen, ed. For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism. Beacon Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8070-4313-3
  • Primoratz, Igor, ed. Patriotism. Humanity Books, 2002. ISBN 1-57392-955-7
  • Viroli, Maurizio. For Love of Country: An Essay on Patriotism and Nationalism. Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-829358-5

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