Difference between revisions of "Mesha Stele" - New World Encyclopedia

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[[Image:mesha stele.jpg|right|thumb|The stele as photographed circa 1891]]
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[[Image:mesha stele.jpg|right|thumb|The Mesha Stele as photographed circa 1891]]
  
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The '''Mesha Stele''' (popularized in the 19th century as the '''"Moabite Stone"''') is a black [[basalt]] stone, bearing an inscription by the [[9th century B.C.E.]] [[Moabite]] King [[Mesha]], discovered in 1868 at Dhiban (biblical "Dibon," capital of Moab). The inscription of 34 lines is written in the [[Moabite language]]. It is the most extensive inscription ever recovered that refers to [[ancient Israel]]. It was set up by Mesha, about 850 B.C.E., as a record and memorial of his victories in his revolt against the [[Kingdom of Israel]], undertaken after the death of his overlord, [[Ahab]].
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The '''Mesha Stele,''' also known as the '''Moabite Stone,''' is a black [[basalt]] monument bearing an inscription by the ninth century B.C.E. [[Moabite]] King [[Mesha]]. Discovered in 1868 at Dhiban, [[Jordan]] (biblical "Dibon," the capital of [[Moab]]), the inscription of 34 lines is the most extensive document ever recovered referring contemporaneously to [[ancient Israel]].
  
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The stone is 124 cm high and 71 cm wide and deep, and rounded at the top. It was discovered at the ancient [[Dibon]] now [[Dhiban, Jordan]], in August 1868, by Rev. F. A. Klein, a German missionary in Jerusalem. "The Arabs of the neighborhood, dreading the loss of such a talisman, broke the stone into pieces; but a squeeze had already been obtained by [[Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau]], and most of the fragments were recovered and pieced together by him".[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/] A ''squeeze'' is a [[papier-mâché]] impression. The squeeze (which has never been published) and the reassembled stele (which has been published in many books and encyclopedias) are now in the [[Louvre Museum]].  
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The stele was erected by Mesha circa 850 B.C.E. as a memorial of his victories, especially his revolt against the [[Kingdom of Israel]], apparently undertaken after the death of Israel's King [[Ahab]]. Currently displayed at the [[Louvre Museum]] in Paris, it is 124 cm high and 71 cm wide and deep (44" x 27" x 27"), and rounded at the top. The monument was discovered in August 1868, by Reverend F. A. Klein, a German missionary to [[Jerusalem]].
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The inscription is remarkable not only for its confirmation of several biblical events and personalities, but also in that it provides important insights into the religion of Israel's neighbor Moab and the existence of a previously unknown Israelite shrine in Moabite territory. It also contains the earliest known reference to the Hebrew god [[Yahweh]] as the national god of Israel.
  
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==Contents==
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==History and contents==
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The stele, which measures 44"x27"<ref>1920 [[World Book]], Volume VI, page 3867</ref>, describes:
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[[Image:Dhiban.jpg|thumb|250px|Ancient site of biblical "Dibon" with the modern settlement of Dhiban in the background]]
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#How Moab was conquered by [[Omri]], King of Israel, as the result of the anger of the god [[Chemosh (Biblical)|Chemosh]]. Mesha's victories over Omri's son (not mentioned by name), over the men of [[Tribe of Gad|Gad]] at Ataroth, and at Nebo and Jehaz;
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The Mesha Stele was shattered by members of the local populace who objected to its removal, but was later reconstructed. In addition, a ''squeeze'' (a [[papier-mâché]] impression) had been taken of the monument before it was removed. Both the squeeze and the reassembled stele are now in the [[Louvre Museum]].
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#His public buildings, restoring the fortifications of his strong places and building a palace and reservoirs for water; and
 
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#His wars against the [[Horonaim]].
 
  
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[[Image:Omri.melek.israel.gif|thumb|200px|left|<font style="font-family:times; font-size:150%">עמרי מלך ישראל</font> ''(Omri king of Israel)'' explicitly mentioned on the stele]]
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The stele describes three basic events:
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The inscription has strong consistency with the historical events recorded in the Bible. The events, names, and places mentioned in the Mesha Stele correspond to those mentioned in the Bible. For example, Mesha is recorded as the King of Moab in 2 Kings 3:4: “Now Mesha king of Moab was a sheep breeder, and he had to deliver to the king of Israel 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams.”<ref>BibleGateway.com [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20kings%203:4&version=47]</ref>  Kemosh is mentioned in numerous places in the Bible as the national god of Moab (1 Kings 11:33, Numbers 21:29 etc...).<ref>BibleGateway.com[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20kings%2011:33;&version=47;]</ref>  The reign of Omri, King of Israel, is chronicled in I Kings 16<ref>BibleGateway.com [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20kings%2016;&version=47;]</ref>, and the inscription records many places and territories (Nebo, Gad, etc...) that also appear in the Bible.<ref>Driver, Samuel. (1890), Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=4udJAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PR85&lpg=RA1-PR85&dq=samuel+driver+mesha&source=web&ots=VxXYVLFSat&sig=lxfXcNdwa7fywJ0PCAplmq3aIeo&hl=en#PRA1-PR89,M1]</ref>  Finally, 2 Kings 3 recounts a revolt by Mesha against Israel, to which Israel responded by allying with Judah and Edom to suppress the revolt:
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#[[Moab]]'s subjection to King [[Omri]] of Israel as the result of the anger of the god [[Chemosh]] and Mesha's later victories over Omri's descendant (not mentioned by name) and over the Israelite [[tribe of Gad]] at Ataroth, Nebo, and Jehaz.
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#Mesha's public buildings, his dedication to Chemosh, the slaughter of foreign inhabitants of the cities which he captured, the restoration of fortifications, and the construction of a palace and reservoirs for water.
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#Mesha's wars against the [[Horonaim]].
  
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“4Now Mesha king of Moab was a sheep breeder, and he had to deliver to the king of Israel 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams. 5But when Ahab died, the king of Moab rebelled against the king of Israel. 6So King Jehoram marched out of Samaria at that time and mustered all Israel. 7And he went and sent word to Jehoshaphat king of Judah, "The king of Moab has rebelled against me. Will you go with me to battle against Moab?" And he said, "I will go. I am as you are, my people as your people, my horses as your horses." 8Then he said, "By which way shall we march?" Jehoram answered, "By the way of the wilderness of Edom." 9So the king of Israel went with the king of Judah and the king of Edom…26When the king of Moab saw that the battle was going against him, he took with him 700 swordsmen to break through, opposite the king of Edom, but they could not. 27Then he took his oldest son who was to reign in his place and offered him for a burnt offering on the wall. And there came great wrath against Israel. And they withdrew from him and returned to their own land.”<ref>BibleGateway.com [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20kings%203:4-27;&version=47;]</ref>
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With very few variations, the [[Moabite language]] of the inscription shares much in common with an early form of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], known as [[Biblical Hebrew]]. It is apparently an offshoot of the [[Canaanite language]] commonly in use between the fourteenth to eighth centuries B.C.E. in Syria-Palestine. The form of the letters supplies important information regarding the history of the formation of the [[alphabet]], as well as, incidentally, the arts of civilized life of those times in the land of [[Moab]].
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===Relation to biblical events===
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[[Image:Omri.melek.israel.gif|thumb|220px|left|<font style="font-family:times; font-size:150%">עמרי מלך ישראל</font> ''(Omri king of Israel)'' explicitly mentioned on the stele]]
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The inscription has strong consistency with historical events recorded in the [[Hebrew Bible]], as several events, names, and places mentioned in the Mesha Stele correspond to those mentioned in the biblical accounts. For example, Mesha himself is recorded as the king of [[Moab]] and tributary to Israel in 2 Kings 3:4: “Now Mesha king of Moab was a [[sheep]] breeder, and he had to deliver to the king of Israel 100,000 lambs and the [[wool]] of 100,000 rams.” The god [[Chemosh]] is mentioned in numerous places in the Bible as the national god of Moab (1 Kings 11:33, Numbers 21:29 etc.). The reign of [[Omri]] is chronicled in I Kings 16, and the Mesha inscription records many places and territories (Nebo, Gad, etc.) that also appear in the Bible. Finally, 2 Kings 3 recounts a revolt by Mesha against [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]], to which Israel responded by allying with [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and [[Edom]] to attempt to suppress the revolt.
  
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Some scholars have argued that an inconsistency exists between the Mesha Stele and the Bible regarding the timing of the revolt.<ref>Driver, Samuel. (1890), Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, [http://books.google.com/books?id=4udJAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PR85&lpg=RA1-PR85&dq=samuel+driver+mesha&source=web&ots=VxXYVLFSat&sig=lxfXcNdwa7fywJ0PCAplmq3aIeo&hl=en#PRA1-PR89,M1]</ref>  The argument rests upon the assumption that the following section of the inscription necessarily refers to Omri’s son Ahab: “Omri was the king of Israel, and he oppressed Moab for many days, for Kemosh was angry with his land. And his son replaced him; and he said, "I will also oppress Moab"…And Omri took possession of the whole land of Madaba; and he lived there in his days and half the days of his son: forty years: And Kemosh restored it in my days.” In other words, these scholars argue that the inscription indicates that Mesha’s revolt occurred during the reign of Omri’s son Ahab. Since the Bible speaks of the revolt taking place during Jehoram’s reign (Omri’s grandson), these scholars have argued that these two accounts are inconsistent.
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Some scholars have argued that an inconsistency exists between the Mesha Stele and the Bible regarding the timing of this rebellion. The argument rests upon the assumption that the inscription's reference to Omri’s "son" means [[Ahab]], while the Bible speaks of the revolt taking place during the reign of Omri’s grandson [[Jehoram of Israel]]. The accounts can be reconciled, however, by assuming that “son” means “descendant,” an interpretation consistent with the common use of language in the ancient Near East.
  
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However, as other scholars have pointed out, the inscription need not necessarily refer to Omri’s son Ahab.<ref>Davis, John. (1891), ''The Moabite Stone and the Hebrew Records''; see also Christiananswers.net [http://www.christiananswers.net/q-abr/abr-a019.html]</ref>  In modern English, the word “son” typically refers to a male child in relation to his parents. In the ancient Near East, however, the word was commonly used to mean male descendent.<ref>Ibid</ref>  Consequently, “son of Omri” was a common designation for any male descendent of Omri and would have been used to refer to Jehoram. Assuming that “son” means “descendent,” an interpretation consistent with the common use of language in the ancient Near East, the Mesha Stele and the Bible are consistent.
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[[Image:Dead Sea from Mt Nebo.jpg|thumb|280px|View toward the Dead Sea from [[Mount Nebo]]]]
  
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With the exception of a very few variations, such as ''-in'' for ''-im'' in plurals, the [[Moabite language]] of the inscription shares much in common with an early form of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], known as [[Biblical Hebrew]].<ref name=Young>{{cite book|title=Diversity in Pre-Exilic Hebrew|author=Ian Young|year=1993|isbn=3161460588|pages=p. 38-39|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=ieVbBzPBuGsC&pg=PA38&dq=moabite+hebrew+mesha&sig=Jf7vFYnPmw-gdK1cy7JlX9L0LiU}}</ref> The language of ninth century B.C.E. Moabite inscriptions is an offshoot of the [[Canaanite language]] commonly in use between the fourteenth to eighth centuries B.C.E. in Syria-Palestine.<ref name=Young/> The form of the letters here used supplies very important and interesting information regarding the history of the formation of the alphabet, as well as, incidentally, the arts of civilized life of those times in the land of [[Moab]]. This ancient monument, recording the heroic struggles of King Mesha with Omri and [[Ahab]], was erected about 850 B.C.E. Here "we have the identical slab on which the workmen of the old world carved the history of their own times, and from which the eye of their contemporaries read thousands of years ago the record of events of which they themselves had been the witnesses."
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The stele is also significant in that it mentions the Hebrew god [[Yahweh|YHWH]]. It is thought to be the earliest known reference to the sacred [[names of God in Judaism|name of God]] as the God of Israel in any artifact. The stele also mentions that Mesha captured an [[high place|Israelite shrine]] at [[Mount Nebo]] and dedicated its artifacts to Chemosh.
  
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In 1994, after examining both the Mesha Stele and the paper squeeze of it in the Louvre Museum, the French scholar André Lemaire reported that line 31 of the Mesha Stele bears the phrase "the house of [[David]]" (in ''Biblical Archaeology Review'' [May/June 1994], pp. 30-37).<ref>[http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=Assyrian&content=content/house_of_david "House of David" Restored in Moabite Inscription:A new restoration of a famous inscription reveals another mention of the "House of David" in the ninth century B.C.E.]</ref>  Lemaire had to supply one destroyed letter, the first "D" in "[D]avid," to decode the wording. The complete sentence in the latter part of line 31 would then read, "As for Horonen, there lived in it the house of [D]avid," וחורננ. ישב. בה. בת[ד]וד. (Note: square brackets [ ] enclose letters or words that have been supplied where letters were destroyed or were on fragments that are still missing.)  Most scholars find that no other letter supplied there yields a reading that makes sense. Baruch Margalit attempted to supply a different letter there: "m," along with several other letters in places after that. The reading that resulted was "Now Horoneyn was occupied at the en[d] of [my pre]decessor['s reign] by [Edom]ites."<ref>Baruch Margalit, "Studies in NWSemitic Inscriptions," ''Ugarit-Forschungen'' 26, p. 275</ref> However, Margalit's reading has failed to attract any significant support in scholarly publications.  
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Mesha also boasts of slaughtering the foreign (Israelite) inhabitants of Atarot and Nebo, the latter after being "told" to take the city by Chemosh. This shocking boast, however, is not unlike biblical descriptions of the actions of Israelite leaders like [[Joshua]] and [[David]], who likewise carried out mass slaughters in the cities they captured at the behest of [[Yahweh]]. Nebo was apparently a town and shrine located on [[Mount Nebo]], the legendary site where Moses glimpsed the Promised Land of [[Canaan]] before dying. The existence of such an Israelite shrine was previously unknown.
  
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In 2001, another French scholar, Pierre Bordreuil, reported (in an essay in French) that he and a few other scholars could not confirm Lemaire's reading of "the house of David" in line 31 of the stele.<ref>Pierre Bordreuil, "A propos de l'inscription de Mesha': deux notes," in P. M. Michele Daviau, John W. Wevers and Michael Weigl [Eds.], ''The World of the Aramaeans III'', pp. 158-167, especially pp. 162-163 [Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001]</ref>
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===Reference to the House of David?===
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In 1994, after examining both the Mesha Stele and the paper squeeze of it in the [[Louvre Museum]], the French scholar André Lemaire reported that line 31 of the Mesha Stele bears the phrase "the house of [[David]]," previously unattested outside of the biblical record.<ref>Jewish History, [http://www.jewishhistory.com/jh.php?id=Assyrian&content=content/house_of_david "House of David" Restored in Moabite Inscription.] Retrieved September 29, 2008.</ref>  To arrive at this conclusion, Lemaire had to supply one destroyed letter, the first "D" in "[D]avid," to decode the wording. In 2001, however, another French scholar, Pierre Bordreuil, reported that he and other scholars could not confirm Lemaire's reading of "the house of David" in line 31 of the stele.<ref>Pierre Bordreuil, "A propos de l'inscription de Mesha': deux notes," in ''The World of the Aramaeans III'', pp. 158-167.</ref> Another ancient mention of the "House of David"—on a [[Tel Dan Stele|Tel Dan]] stele fragment—is generally accepted as more certain.
  
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Whereas the later mention of the "House of David" on a [[Tel Dan Stele|Tel Dan]] stele fragment was written by an Aramaean enemy king, this inscription comes from a Moabite enemy of Israel, also boasting of a victory. If Lemaire is right, there are now two early references to David's dynasty, one in the Mesha Stele (mid-9th century) and the other in the Tel Dan Stele (mid-9th to mid-8th century).<ref>''[[Time (magazine)|]]'', December 18, 1995.</ref><ref>For a full but technical discussion, see Lawrence J. Mykytiuk, _Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200–539 B.C.E._, Academia Biblica series, no. 12 (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2004), pp. 265-277.</ref?
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===Differing perspectives===
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While confirming the biblical account of the relationship between [[Moab]] and Israel in many respects, the Mesha Stele also presents a fascinating and differing perspective from that of the [[Bible]]. For example, at a crucial moment in the campaign to repress Mesha's revolt, the Bible relates that the prophet [[Elisha]] directed the [[Israelites]] to dig a series of ditches between themselves and the enemy. During the night these channels were miraculously filled with blood-like reddish water from the Edomite hills, which fooled the Moabites into believing the Israelite coalition had turned against one another, causing the Moabites to fall into an enemy trap (2 Kings 3). Retreating to Kir Hareseth, Mesha reportedly sacrificed his first-born son on the city walls, raising the morale of his troops and causing the Israelite coalition to retreat.
  
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In 1998, another scholar, Anson Rainey, translated a puzzling two-word phrase in line 12 of the Mesha Stele, אראל. דודה, as "its Davidic altar-hearth".<ref>Anson F. Rainey, "Mesha and Syntax," in _The Land That I Will Show You_, edited by J. Andrew Dearman and M. Patrick Graham, Supplement Series, no. 343 [Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001], pp. 300-306)</ref>
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No mention of any military setback or the sacrifice of his son is mentioned in Mesha's own inscription on the [[Mesha Stele]]. Instead, he portrays himself as completely victorious, regaining all the territory of which Israel had previously deprived his nation. Rather than [[Yahweh]] miraculously defeating the Moabites with Elisha's help, it is the Moabite deity [[Chemosh]] who defeats Israel as a result of Mesha's piety and devotion.
  
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The identifications of the biblical Mesha, king of Moab, and of the biblical Omri, king of the northern kingdom of Israel, in the Mesha stele are generally accepted by the scholarly community, especially because what is said about them in the narrative of the Mesha stele agrees well with the narrative in the biblical books of Kings and Chronicles.  
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== Translation ==
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Note that in the original text on the Mesha Stele, some words start at the end of a line, but end at the beginning of the next. Where possible, this translation reflects this writing.
  
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The identification of [[David]] in the Mesha stele, however, remains controversial. This controversy stems partly from the fragmentary state of line 31 of the Mesha stele and partly from a tendency since the 1990s, largely among European scholars, to question or dismiss the historical reliability of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament). In Europe, P. R. Davies, [[Thomas L. Thompson]], and Niels P. Lemche show a strong tendency to reject biblical historicity, whereas André Lemaire, K. A. Kitchen, Jens Bruun Kofoed, and other European scholars are exceptions to this tendency. Many scholars lean in one direction or the other but actually occupy the middle ground. In general, North American and Israeli scholars tend to be more willing to accept the identification of the biblical King David in the Mesha stele. The controversy over whether ancient inscriptions confirm the existence of the King David mentioned in the Bible usually focuses less on the Mesha stele and more on the [[Tel Dan stele]].
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[[Image:Moab-map.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of ancient Moab shows Atarot and Dibon, the site where the Mesha Stele was discovered, due east of the [[Dead Sea]]. Nebo is located at the far north.]]
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The Stele is also significant in that it mentions the Hebrew name of God - [[YHWH]]. It is thought to be the earliest known reference to the sacred name in any artifact.
 
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== Text in Hebrew ==
 
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The text, in [[Moabite language|Moabite]], transcribed into modern [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew letters]]:
 
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<div dir="rtl" style="width: 100%;">
 
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<pre>
 
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1. אנכ. משע. בנ. כמש.. . מלכ. מאב. הד
 
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2. יבני | אבי. מלכ. על. מאב. שלשנ. שת. ואנכ. מלכ
 
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3. תי. אחר. אבי | ואעש. הבמת. זאת. לכמש. בקרחה | ב[נס. י]
 
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4. שע. כי. השעני. מכל. המלכנ. וכי. הראני. בכל. שנאי | עמר
 
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5. י. מלכ. ישראל. ויענו. את. מאב. ימנ. רבן. כי. יאנפ. כמש. באר
 
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6. צה | ויחלפה. בנה. ויאמר. גמ. הא. אענו. את. מאב | בימי. אמר. כ[...]
 
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7. וארא. בה. ובבתה | וישראל. אבד. אבד. עלמ. וירש. עמרי. את א[ר]
 
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8. צ. מהדבא | וישב. בה. ימה. וחצי. ימי. בנה. ארבענ. שת. ויש
 
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9. בה. כמש. בימי | ואבנ. את. בעלמענ. ואעש. בה. האשוח. ואבנ
 
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10. את. קריתנ | ואש. גד. ישב. בארצ. עטרת. מעלמ. ויבנ. לה. מלכ. י
 
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11. שראל. את. עטרת | ואלתחמ. בקר. ואחזה | ואהרג. את. כל. העמ. [מ]
 
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12. הקר. רית. לכמש. ולמאב | ואשב. משמ. את. אראל. דודה. ואס
 
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13. חבה. לפני. כמש. בקרית | ואשב. בה. את. אש. שרנ. ואת. אש
 
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14. מחרת | ויאמר. לי. כמש. לכ. אחז. את. נבה. על. ישראל | וא
 
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15. הלכ. הללה. ואלתחמ. בה. מבקע. השחרת. עד. הצהרמ | ואח
 
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16. זה. ואהרג. כלה. שבעת. אלפנ. גברנ. ו[גר]נ | וגברת. וגר
 
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17. ת. ורחמת | כי. לעשתר. כמש. החרמתה | ואקח. משמ. א[ת. כ]
 
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18. לי. יהוה. ואסחב. המ. לפני. כמש | ומלכ. ישראל. בנה. את
 
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19. יהצ. וישב. בה. בהלתחמה. בי | ויגרשה. כמש. מפני | ו
 
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20. אקח. ממאב. מאתנ. אש. כל. רשה | ואשאה. ביהצ. ואחזה.
 
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21. לספת. על. דיבנ | אנכ. בנתי. קרחה. חמת. היערנ. וחמת
 
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22. העפל | ואנכ. בנתי. שעריה. ואנכ. בנתי. מגדלתה | וא
 
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23. נכ. בנתי. בת. מלכ. ואנכ. עשתי. כלאי. האש[וח למי]נ. בקרב
 
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24. הקר | ובר. אנ. בקרב. הקר. בקרחה. ואמר. לכל. העמ. עשו. ל
 
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25. כמ. אש. בר. בביתה | ואנכ. כרתי. המכרתת. לקרחה. באסר
 
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26. [י]. ישראל | אנכ. בנתי. ערער. ואנכ. עשתי. המסלת. בארננ.
 
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27. אנכ. בנתי. בת. במת. כי. הרס. הא | אנכ. בנתי. בצר. כי. עינ
 
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28. ----- ש. דיבנ. חמשנ. כי. כל. דיבנ. משמעת | ואנכ. מלכ
 
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29. ת[י] ----- מאת. בקרנ. אשר. יספתי. על. הארצ | ואנכ. בנת
 
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30. [י. את. מה]דבא. ובת. דבלתנ | ובת. בעלמענ. ואשא. שמ. את. [...]
 
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31. --------- צאנ. הארצ | וחורננ. ישב. בה. ב
 
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32. --------- אמר. לי. כמש. רד. הלתחמ. בחורננ | וארד
 
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33. ---------[ויש]בה. כמש. בימי. ועל[...]. משמ. עש
 
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34. -------------- שת. שדק | וא
 
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</pre>
 
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</div>
 
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== Translation ==
 
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Note that in the original text some words start at the end of a line, but end at the beginning of the next. Where possible, this translation reflects this writing.
 
  
 
# I am Mesha, son of Kemosh[-yatti], the king of Moab, the Di-
 
# I am Mesha, son of Kemosh[-yatti], the king of Moab, the Di-
 
# -bonite. My father ruled over Moab thirty years, and I rul-
 
# -bonite. My father ruled over Moab thirty years, and I rul-
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# -ed after my father. And I made this high-place for [[Chemosh|Kemosh]] in Qarcho (or Qeriho, a sanctuary). [...]  
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# -ed after my father. And I made this [[high place]] for [[Chemosh|Kemosh]] in Qarcho (or Qeriho, a sanctuary). […]  
 
# because he has saved me from all kings, and because he has shown me to all my enemies. [[Omri|Omr-]]  
 
# because he has saved me from all kings, and because he has shown me to all my enemies. [[Omri|Omr-]]  
 
# [[Omri|-i]] was the king of Israel, and he oppressed Moab for many days, for Kemosh was angry with his la-
 
# [[Omri|-i]] was the king of Israel, and he oppressed Moab for many days, for Kemosh was angry with his la-
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# -nd. And his son replaced him; and he said, "I will also oppress Moab." In my days he said so[...].  
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# -nd. And his son replaced him; and he said, "I will also oppress Moab." In my days he said so[…].  
 
# But I looked down on him and on his house. And [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] has been defeated; has been defeated forever, And Omri took possession of the whole la-
 
# But I looked down on him and on his house. And [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] has been defeated; has been defeated forever, And Omri took possession of the whole la-
 
# -nd of [[Madaba]], and he lived there in his days and half the days of his son: forty years. And Kemosh restored
 
# -nd of [[Madaba]], and he lived there in his days and half the days of his son: forty years. And Kemosh restored
Line 107: Line 70:
 
# Israel. I have built Aroer, and I constructed the military road in Arnon.
 
# Israel. I have built Aroer, and I constructed the military road in Arnon.
 
# I have built [[Beth-Bamot]], for it had been destroyed. I have built [[Bezer]], for it lay in ruins.  
 
# I have built [[Beth-Bamot]], for it had been destroyed. I have built [[Bezer]], for it lay in ruins.  
−
# [...] men of [[Dibon]] stood in battle formation, for all Dibon were in subjection. And I rul-
+
# […] men of [[Dibon]] stood in battle formation, for all Dibon were in subjection. And I rul-
 
# -ed [over the] hundreds in the towns which I have added to the land. And I  
 
# -ed [over the] hundreds in the towns which I have added to the land. And I  
−
# have built Medeba and Beth-Diblaten and Beth-Baal-Meon, and I brought there ...
+
# have built Medeba and Beth-Diblaten and Beth-Baal-Meon, and I brought there .…
−
# ... flocks of the land. And [[Horonaim]], there lived
+
# … flocks of the land. And [[Horonaim]], there lived
−
# ... Kemosh said to me, "Go down, fight against Hauranen." And I went down
+
# … Kemosh said to me, "Go down, fight against Hauranen." And I went down
−
# ... and Kemosh restored it in my days . . .
+
# … and Kemosh restored it in my days …
−
# ...
+
# …
  
 
== See also ==
 
== See also ==
−
{{ANE portal}}
 
 
*[[Tel Dan Stele]]
 
*[[Tel Dan Stele]]
 
*[[Merneptah Stele]]
 
*[[Merneptah Stele]]
−
*[[David]]
+
*[[Moab]]
 +
*[[Chemosh]]
  
 
==Notes==
 
==Notes==
−
{{Reflist}}
+
<references/>
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
−
* Franz Praetorius (1905-6), "Zur Inschrift des Meša`," in: ''Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft'' 59, pp. 33-35; 60, p. 402.
+
* Daviau, P. M. Michele, John W. Wevers, and Michael Weigl (eds.). ''The World of the Aramaeans III.'' Sheffield Academic Press, 2001. OCLC 201621519.
−
*Dearman, J. Andrew (Ed.) (1989). ''Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab.'' Archaeology and Biblical Studies series, no. 2. Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press. ISBN 1-55540-357-3
+
* Dearman, John Andrew. ''Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab''. Archaeology and biblical studies, no. 02. Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press, 1989. ISBN 9781555403577.
−
*Davies, Philip R. (1992, 2nd edition 1995, reprinted 2004). ''In Search of 'Ancient Israel' '' Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
+
* European Seminar on Methodology in Israel's History, and Lester L. Grabbe. ''Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty''. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament studies, 421. London: T&T Clark, 2007. ISBN 9780567045409.
−
*Horn, Siegfried H., "The Discovery of the Moabite Stone," in The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth, Essays in Honor of David Noel Friedman in Celebration of His Sixtieth Birthday, (1983), Carol L. Meyers and M. O'Connor (eds.), pp. 488-505.
+
* Smelik, K. A. D. ''Converting the Past: Studies in Ancient Israelite and Moabite Historiography''. Oudtestamentische studiën, d. 28. Leiden: Brill, 1992. ISBN 9789004094802.
−
*Lemaire, André (1994). "'House of David' Restored in Moabite Inscription." ''Biblical Archaeology Review'' 20 (3) May/June, pp. 30-37.
+
 
−
*Margalit, Baruch ("1994"). "Studies in NWSemitic Inscriptions," ''Ugarit-Forschungen'' 26. Page 317 of this annual publication refers to "the recent publication (April, 1995) of two additional fragments" of another stele, therefore, the 1994 volume was actually published sometime after April 1995. On the Mesha stele inscription, see p. 275.
+
{{Eastons}}
−
*Parker, Simon B. (1997). ''Stories in Scripture and Inscriptions: Comparative Studies on Narratives in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions and the Hebrew Bible.'' New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511620-8. See pp. 44-46 for a clear, perceptive outline of the contents of the inscription on the Mesha stele.
 
−
*Rainey, Anson F. (2001). "Mesha and Syntax."  In J. Andrew Dearman and M. Patrick Graham (Eds.), ''The Land That I Will Show You'', pp. 300-306. Supplement Series, no. 343. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 1-84127-257-4
 
−
*Mykytiuk, Lawrence J. (2004). ''Identifying Biblical Persons in Northwest Semitic Inscriptions of 1200–539 B.C.E.'' Academia Biblica series, no. 12. Atlanta, Ga.: Society of Biblical Literature. See pp. 95-110 and 265-277. ISBN 1-58983-062-8
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
*[http://www.dinur.org/resources/resourceCategoryDisplay.aspx?categoryID=411&rsid=478 Biblical History] The Jewish History Resource Center—Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
+
All links retrieved November 9, 2022.
−
*[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=car_not_frame&idNotice=21796 Louvre collection] &mdash; includes a large modern photo of the stele
+
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=680&letter=M&search=moabite%20stone "Moabite Stone"] ''Jewish Encyclopedia''  
−
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/ ''The Jewish Encyclopedia''], 1901&ndash;6: "Moabite Stone," includes a translation of part of the inscription.
+
*[http://www.kchanson.com/ANCDOCS/westsem/mesha.html The Mesha Stele Translation from Northwest Semitic Inscriptions]
−
*[http://www.kchanson.com/ANCDOCS/westsem/mesha.html Translation from Northwest Semitic Inscriptions]
 
−
 
 
−
{{Eastons}}
 
  
 
[[Category:history]]
 
[[Category:history]]
 
[[Category:religion]]
 
[[Category:religion]]
 
[[category:archaeology]]
 
[[category:archaeology]]
 +
[[category:Judaism]]
  
 
{{credit|238092073}}
 
{{credit|238092073}}

Latest revision as of 16:16, 9 November 2022

The Mesha Stele as photographed circa 1891

The Mesha Stele, also known as the Moabite Stone, is a black basalt monument bearing an inscription by the ninth century B.C.E. Moabite King Mesha. Discovered in 1868 at Dhiban, Jordan (biblical "Dibon," the capital of Moab), the inscription of 34 lines is the most extensive document ever recovered referring contemporaneously to ancient Israel.

The stele was erected by Mesha circa 850 B.C.E. as a memorial of his victories, especially his revolt against the Kingdom of Israel, apparently undertaken after the death of Israel's King Ahab. Currently displayed at the Louvre Museum in Paris, it is 124 cm high and 71 cm wide and deep (44" x 27" x 27"), and rounded at the top. The monument was discovered in August 1868, by Reverend F. A. Klein, a German missionary to Jerusalem.

The inscription is remarkable not only for its confirmation of several biblical events and personalities, but also in that it provides important insights into the religion of Israel's neighbor Moab and the existence of a previously unknown Israelite shrine in Moabite territory. It also contains the earliest known reference to the Hebrew god Yahweh as the national god of Israel.

History and contents

Ancient site of biblical "Dibon" with the modern settlement of Dhiban in the background

The Mesha Stele was shattered by members of the local populace who objected to its removal, but was later reconstructed. In addition, a squeeze (a papier-mâché impression) had been taken of the monument before it was removed. Both the squeeze and the reassembled stele are now in the Louvre Museum.

The stele describes three basic events:

  1. Moab's subjection to King Omri of Israel as the result of the anger of the god Chemosh and Mesha's later victories over Omri's descendant (not mentioned by name) and over the Israelite tribe of Gad at Ataroth, Nebo, and Jehaz.
  2. Mesha's public buildings, his dedication to Chemosh, the slaughter of foreign inhabitants of the cities which he captured, the restoration of fortifications, and the construction of a palace and reservoirs for water.
  3. Mesha's wars against the Horonaim.

With very few variations, the Moabite language of the inscription shares much in common with an early form of Hebrew, known as Biblical Hebrew. It is apparently an offshoot of the Canaanite language commonly in use between the fourteenth to eighth centuries B.C.E. in Syria-Palestine. The form of the letters supplies important information regarding the history of the formation of the alphabet, as well as, incidentally, the arts of civilized life of those times in the land of Moab.

Relation to biblical events

עמרי מלך ישראל (Omri king of Israel) explicitly mentioned on the stele

The inscription has strong consistency with historical events recorded in the Hebrew Bible, as several events, names, and places mentioned in the Mesha Stele correspond to those mentioned in the biblical accounts. For example, Mesha himself is recorded as the king of Moab and tributary to Israel in 2 Kings 3:4: “Now Mesha king of Moab was a sheep breeder, and he had to deliver to the king of Israel 100,000 lambs and the wool of 100,000 rams.” The god Chemosh is mentioned in numerous places in the Bible as the national god of Moab (1 Kings 11:33, Numbers 21:29 etc.). The reign of Omri is chronicled in I Kings 16, and the Mesha inscription records many places and territories (Nebo, Gad, etc.) that also appear in the Bible. Finally, 2 Kings 3 recounts a revolt by Mesha against Israel, to which Israel responded by allying with Judah and Edom to attempt to suppress the revolt.

Some scholars have argued that an inconsistency exists between the Mesha Stele and the Bible regarding the timing of this rebellion. The argument rests upon the assumption that the inscription's reference to Omri’s "son" means Ahab, while the Bible speaks of the revolt taking place during the reign of Omri’s grandson Jehoram of Israel. The accounts can be reconciled, however, by assuming that “son” means “descendant,” an interpretation consistent with the common use of language in the ancient Near East.

View toward the Dead Sea from Mount Nebo

The stele is also significant in that it mentions the Hebrew god YHWH. It is thought to be the earliest known reference to the sacred name of God as the God of Israel in any artifact. The stele also mentions that Mesha captured an Israelite shrine at Mount Nebo and dedicated its artifacts to Chemosh.

Mesha also boasts of slaughtering the foreign (Israelite) inhabitants of Atarot and Nebo, the latter after being "told" to take the city by Chemosh. This shocking boast, however, is not unlike biblical descriptions of the actions of Israelite leaders like Joshua and David, who likewise carried out mass slaughters in the cities they captured at the behest of Yahweh. Nebo was apparently a town and shrine located on Mount Nebo, the legendary site where Moses glimpsed the Promised Land of Canaan before dying. The existence of such an Israelite shrine was previously unknown.

Reference to the House of David?

In 1994, after examining both the Mesha Stele and the paper squeeze of it in the Louvre Museum, the French scholar André Lemaire reported that line 31 of the Mesha Stele bears the phrase "the house of David," previously unattested outside of the biblical record.[1] To arrive at this conclusion, Lemaire had to supply one destroyed letter, the first "D" in "[D]avid," to decode the wording. In 2001, however, another French scholar, Pierre Bordreuil, reported that he and other scholars could not confirm Lemaire's reading of "the house of David" in line 31 of the stele.[2] Another ancient mention of the "House of David"—on a Tel Dan stele fragment—is generally accepted as more certain.

Differing perspectives

While confirming the biblical account of the relationship between Moab and Israel in many respects, the Mesha Stele also presents a fascinating and differing perspective from that of the Bible. For example, at a crucial moment in the campaign to repress Mesha's revolt, the Bible relates that the prophet Elisha directed the Israelites to dig a series of ditches between themselves and the enemy. During the night these channels were miraculously filled with blood-like reddish water from the Edomite hills, which fooled the Moabites into believing the Israelite coalition had turned against one another, causing the Moabites to fall into an enemy trap (2 Kings 3). Retreating to Kir Hareseth, Mesha reportedly sacrificed his first-born son on the city walls, raising the morale of his troops and causing the Israelite coalition to retreat.

No mention of any military setback or the sacrifice of his son is mentioned in Mesha's own inscription on the Mesha Stele. Instead, he portrays himself as completely victorious, regaining all the territory of which Israel had previously deprived his nation. Rather than Yahweh miraculously defeating the Moabites with Elisha's help, it is the Moabite deity Chemosh who defeats Israel as a result of Mesha's piety and devotion.

Translation

Note that in the original text on the Mesha Stele, some words start at the end of a line, but end at the beginning of the next. Where possible, this translation reflects this writing.

Map of ancient Moab shows Atarot and Dibon, the site where the Mesha Stele was discovered, due east of the Dead Sea. Nebo is located at the far north.
  1. I am Mesha, son of Kemosh[-yatti], the king of Moab, the Di-
  2. -bonite. My father ruled over Moab thirty years, and I rul-
  3. -ed after my father. And I made this high place for Kemosh in Qarcho (or Qeriho, a sanctuary). […]
  4. because he has saved me from all kings, and because he has shown me to all my enemies. Omr-
  5. -i was the king of Israel, and he oppressed Moab for many days, for Kemosh was angry with his la-
  6. -nd. And his son replaced him; and he said, "I will also oppress Moab." In my days he said so[…].
  7. But I looked down on him and on his house. And Israel has been defeated; has been defeated forever, And Omri took possession of the whole la-
  8. -nd of Madaba, and he lived there in his days and half the days of his son: forty years. And Kemosh restored
  9. it in my days. And I built Baal Meon, and I built a water reservoir in it. And I built
  10. Qiryaten. And the men of Gad lived in the land of Atarot from ancient times; and the king of Israel built
  11. Atarot for himself. and I fought against the city and captured it. And I killed all the people of
  12. the city as a sacrifice for Kemosh and for Moab. And I brought back the fire-hearth of his uncle from there; and I brou-
  13. -ght it before Kemosh in Qerioit, and I settled the men of Sharon there, as well as the men of
  14. Maharit. And Kemosh said to me, "Go, take Nebo from Israel." And I w-
  15. -ent in the night and fought against it from the daybreak until midday, and I t-
  16. -ook it and I killed it all: seven thousand men and (male) aliens, and women and (female) ali-
  17. -ens, and servant girls. Since for Ashtar Kemosh I banned it. And from there I took the ve-
  18. -ssels of Yahweh, and I brought them before Kemosh. And the king of Israel had built
  19. Jahaz, and he stayed there while he fought against me. And Kemosh drove him away from me. And
  20. I took from Moab two hundred men, all its division. And I led it up to Yahaz, And I took it
  21. in order to add it to Dibon. I have built Qarcho, the wall of the woods and the wall
  22. of the citadel. And I have built its gates; And I have built its towers. And
  23. I have built the house of the king; and I have made the double reservoir for the spring inside
  24. the city. And there was no cistern in the city of Qarcho, and I said to all the people, "Make
  25. yourselves a cistern at home." And I cut the moat for Qarcho by using prisoners of
  26. Israel. I have built Aroer, and I constructed the military road in Arnon.
  27. I have built Beth-Bamot, for it had been destroyed. I have built Bezer, for it lay in ruins.
  28. […] men of Dibon stood in battle formation, for all Dibon were in subjection. And I rul-
  29. -ed [over the] hundreds in the towns which I have added to the land. And I
  30. have built Medeba and Beth-Diblaten and Beth-Baal-Meon, and I brought there .…
  31. … flocks of the land. And Horonaim, there lived
  32. … Kemosh said to me, "Go down, fight against Hauranen." And I went down
  33. … and Kemosh restored it in my days …
  34. …

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Jewish History, "House of David" Restored in Moabite Inscription. Retrieved September 29, 2008.
  2. ↑ Pierre Bordreuil, "A propos de l'inscription de Mesha': deux notes," in The World of the Aramaeans III, pp. 158-167.

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Daviau, P. M. Michele, John W. Wevers, and Michael Weigl (eds.). The World of the Aramaeans III. Sheffield Academic Press, 2001. OCLC 201621519.
  • Dearman, John Andrew. Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab. Archaeology and biblical studies, no. 02. Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press, 1989. ISBN 9781555403577.
  • European Seminar on Methodology in Israel's History, and Lester L. Grabbe. Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty. Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament studies, 421. London: T&T Clark, 2007. ISBN 9780567045409.
  • Smelik, K. A. D. Converting the Past: Studies in Ancient Israelite and Moabite Historiography. Oudtestamentische studiën, d. 28. Leiden: Brill, 1992. ISBN 9789004094802.

This entry incorporates text from the public domain Easton's Bible Dictionary, originally published in 1897.

External links

All links retrieved November 9, 2022.

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