Jesus of Nazareth

Mural painting from the catacomb of Commodilla. One of the first bearded images of Christ, late 4th century.

Jesus, or Jesus of Nazareth, also known as Jesus Christ, is Christianity's central figure, both as Messiah and, for most Christians, as God incarnate. Muslims and the Bahá'í Faith regard him as a major prophet. Many Hindus also recognize him as a manifestation of the divine, while some Buddhists identify him as a Bodhisattva. For Christians, Jesus' example, teaching, death and resurrection are not only inspirational of a life of service to others, of love-in-action but represent God's revelation to humanity, making communion with God possible.

Jesus has been described as a peacemaker, as a militant zealot, as a feminist, as a magician, as a homosexual, as a married man with a family and a political agenda, as a capitalist, as a social activist and as uninterested in social issues, as offering spiritual salvation in another realm of existence and as offering justice and peace in this world. Did he intend to establish a new religion, or was he a faithful Jew? He is said, one the one hand, to have visited India, to have been influenced by Buddhism or even to have been a Buddhist, on the other to have never left Palestine except for a few childhood years in Egypt. He has even been described as an gentile, not a Jew. He may have been subject to more attention and discusion than any other figure in history, which remains true even if he never did exist. Most acccounts represent him as a good person even if misunderstood and minsinterpreted. Uncovering the real Jesus from behind the clothes in which people dress him, making him reflect their own concerns and agendas, is a major critical task. Inability to say that this or that view of Jesus is definitive may actually result in our discovering fresh truths about God's intent for the world of God's creation, from a providential perspective.

For millions of people, Jesus represents the model of self-giving, sacrificial love of others. He invites people to value the spiritual dimension of life, to accept that God has a purpose for human lives, to serve and worship the Creator.

Sources for Jesus Life

The primary sources about Jesus are the four canonical Gospel accounts, Mathew, Mark and Luke and John. The first three are known as the synoptic Gospels because they follow the same basic narrative. If Mark was the earliest (as many scholars contend), Matthew and Luke probably had access to Mark, although a minority of scholars consider that Matthew was the earlier. Each writer added some additional material derived from their own sources, or memory, known as special Luke and special Matthew. John (known as the fourth gospel) has a different order with, for example, no account of Jesus' baptism and temptation and three not one visit to Jerusalem. Considered less historically reliable than the synoptics, with longer, more theological speeches John's treatment of the last days of Jesus is, however, wideley thought to be the more probable account. Luke, by tradition, also wrote the Acts of the Apostles. Jesus spoke Aramaic and perhaps some Hebrew. The gospels are written in common Greek. Dating of these texts is much debated but ranges from 70C.E. for Mark to 110C.E. for John. In addition to the four Gospels, a dozen or so non-canonical texts also exist, among which the Gospel of Thomas is believed by some textual critics to predate the Gospels of the traditional canon or to be at least as reliable as they are in reporting what Jesus said. The Gospel of Thomas does not contain narrative accounts of what Jesus did, so adds no biographical detail. It does not have a birth or death narrative. Many scholars believe that Matthew, Mark and Luke may have used an earlier text, called Q (Quelle) while John may have used a 'signs gospel'. These were not chronological narratives but contained Jesus sayings and signs (miracles) respectively, more in the style of Thomas.

Also considered important by some scholars are several apocryphal writings such as the Gospel of the Hebrews, the Gospel of Mary, the Infancy Gospels, the Gospel of Peter, the Unknown Berlin Gospel, the Naassene Fragment, the Secret Gospel of Mark, the Egerton Gospel, the Oxyrhynchus Gospels, the Fayyum Fragment and some others compiled in The Complete Gospels(see Miller, 1994). The status of the Secret Gospel of Mark, championed by Smith (1982) has been challenged by Carlson (2005). Columbia Professor Morton Smith (1915-91) used the contested Secret Gospel of Mark as well as other sources to construct his picture of Jesus as a Magician. In 2005, the Gospel of Judas was published again giving rise to controversy about its authenticity (the debate is not whether Judas wrote it but whether it is an early or late example of Christian refelction on Jesus). However, it adds no historical or biographical data.

The term 'canonical' is a Christian term for those gospels that were reconized as genuine, and as a term is rejected by some scholars who see no reason to privilege certain texts over others. For example, Elaine Pagels says that this language merely perpetuates "an old stereotype in which all the good…stuff is in the New Testament, all the bad other stuff out there is Gnostic" (1999: 40). Thomas and 51 other texts were discovered at Nag Hammadi, Egypt in 1945 but controversy over ownership delayed their translation until 1970, resulting in conspiracy theories about the Vatican trying to prevent publication because they challenged the foundations of Christianity (which informs the 1999 film, Stigmata, directed by Rupert Wainright)[1]. Much pupular and some scholarly literature also uses the Qumran Community's Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in a cave by the Dead Sea in 1946 or 1947 to interpret the life of Jesus. These documents shed light on what some Jews believed at roughly Jesus' time, and suggest that Jesus shared some ideas in common with the Qumran community and with the Essenes but many agree with the Jesus Seminar's conclusion that the Scrolls 'do not help us directly with the Greek text of the Gospels, since they were created prior to the appearance of Jesus' . Finally, some point to Indian sources, such as the Bahavishyat Maha Purana for an alternative account. This is said to date from 115C.E. There is no reliable extra-Biblical material, thus all the texts available for reconstructing Jesus life are written by his own followers (insiders). There are no non-insider references. Josephus's (d 100C.E.) much debated Testimonium Flaviniumis late, if authentic, as is the brief mention of Christ in Tacitus's Annals (d 117C.E.).

The earliest New Testament texts which refer to Jesus are Saint Paul's letters, usually dated from the mid-first century. Paul only saw Jesus in visions. He believed these visions were divine and authoritative. Many modern scholars hold that the gospels were initially communicated by oral tradition, then written down several decades after the Crucifixion. Some believe that these texts may not have retained the same level of historical accuracy accounts written earlier would have. Some scholars argue for a high degree of historical reliability, and some also for early dates of the entire New Testament.

Historicity

The canonical Gospels focus on Jesus' last one to three years, especially the last week before his crucifixion, which, based upon mention of Pilate, would have been anywhere from the years 26 to 36 in the current era. The earlier dating agrees with Tertullian (died 230) who, in Adversus Marcionem xv, expresses a Roman tradition that placed the crucifixion in the twelfth year of Tiberius Caesar. A faulty 6th century attempt to calculate the year of his birth (which according to recent estimates could have been from 8 B.C.E./BCE to 4 B.C.E./BCE became the basis for the Anno Domini system of reckoning years (and also the chronologically-equivalent Common Era system). Critics point out that the Gospels are not biographical but theological texts and that they contain very little information that can pass the tests of historical scholarship. Some question whether very much can be said for certain about Jesus, or whether he really existed at all. This, though, is not an issue for Christian who believe in Jesus, many of whom claim to enjoy a personal, spiritual relationship with Jesus. Among advocates of the Jesus-never-existed view are Joseph Wheless (1868-1950) (see 1930) and George Albert Wells (see 1975). Other dismiss the idea that Jesus never existed as beyond serious debate, for example the distinguished British Bible scholar, F.F. Bruce (1910-1990) has said: "Some writers may toy with the fancy of a 'Christ-myth,' but they do not do so on the ground of historical evidence. The historicity of Christ is as axiomatic for an unbiased historian as the historicity of Julius Caesar." (1982:100.) Doherty (2005) take the opposite view. E. P Sanders considers the quest for the "historical Jesus" to be much closer to that of Alexander than to Jefferson or Churchill because we know little about what Alexander thought, while we have access to the thought as well as to the deeds of the latter. Nevertheless, he concludes, "the sources for Jesus are better, however, than those that deal with Alexander" and "the superiority of evidence for Jesus is seen when we ask what he thought" (1993:3).

The Traditional Account

Birth and Infancy

The traditional account of Jesus' life is that he was born at the beginning of the millenium, when Herod the Great was king. His birth took place in Bethlehem during a census and was marked by special signs and visitations. His mother, Mary, became pregant without any sexual contact with her husband, Joseph (Mtt 1: 20; 25). Jesus' birth had been announced to her by an angel. News that a king of the Jews had been born who was of the lineage of David reached Herod, who ordered the execution of all new born male babies. Some recognized Jesus as the one who had been promised, who would bring salvation to the world (Lk 2: 25-42). Matthew especially often cites Hebre Bible passages, saying that they have been fulfilled in Jesus. Angelic warning enabled Joseph, Mary and Jesus to flee to Egypt, where they remained for an unspecified period. They later returned to Nazareth in Galilee, their hometown (Mtt 2: 23). At age 12 Jesus visited the Temple in Jerusalem, where he (Luke 2: 39-52) where confounded the teachers with his wisdom. He spoke of 'doing his Father's business'. His cousin, John (whose birth had also been angelically announced) started to preach, calling for people to prepare themselves for the coming of he who would judge and restore Israel (Lk 3: 7-9). He babtized many as a sign that they were ready for the 'lord'.

There is a great deal of discussion about the dating of Jesus life. December 25th as his birthday was almost certainly chosen because it corresponded with existing winter solstice, and with various divine birthday festivals. The Eastern Church observes Christmas on January 6th. Clement of Alexandria (d. 215) suggested 20th May. As for Jesus' death, the exact date is also unclear. The Gospel of John depicts the crucifixion just before the Passover festival on Friday 14 Nisan, called the Quartodeciman]], whereas the synoptic gospels describe the Last Supper, immediately before Jesus' arrest, as the Passover meal on Friday 15 Nisan. Further, the Jews followed a lunisolar calendar with phases of the moon as dates, complicating calculations of any exact date in a solar calendar. According to John P. Meier's A Marginal Jew, allowing for the time of the procuratorship of Pontius Pilate and the dates of the Passover in those years, his death can be placed most probably on April 7, 30 or April 3, 33 or March 30, 36. Some people think that popular identification of Jesus with the sun-god may actually have been encouraged to make the new deity more acceptable.

Hyam Maccoby and other scholars have pointed out that several details of the Triumphant Entry into Jerusalem - the waving of palm fronds, the Hosanna cry, the proclamation of a king - are connected with the Festival of Sukkot or Tabernacles, not with Passover. It is possible that the Entry (and subsequent events, including the Crucifixion and Resurrection)in historical reality took place at this time - the month of Tishri in the Autumn, not Nisan in the Spring. There could have been confusion due to a misunderstanding, or a deliberate change due to doctrinal points.

Public Career

At about 30 years of age, Jesus himself accepted baptism from John but as one who was 'greater than' John.

The Baptism of Christ, by Piero della Francesca, 1449.

A heavenly voice proclaimed that Jesus was God's 'beloved son' (Mk 1: 1-9). Jesus then spent forty days praying in a wilderness, where he was tempted by Satan to use his gifts to serve himself, not others and to gain wordly power. He resisted. Instead, he started to preach. Entering the synagogue in Nazareth, he read from Isaiah 61L 17-25 that the Lord's spirit was on him, so he would release captives, restore sight to the blind and preach the acceptable year of the Lord (Luke 4: 18-19). He said that God's kingdom (basileia) was at hand, so people should repent of their sins. People could enjoy a sense of at-one-ness with God. People should love one another and forgive even their enemies (Mtt 5: 38-48). They should sell what they had and give to the poor (Lk 12: 33). When they gave feasts, they should invite the poor and the sick and the blind, not the great and the good (Lk 14: 13). Many regard the Sermon on the Mount (Mtt 5: 1-12) as a summary of Jesus' teaching; 'blessed are the peacemakers', he said, 'blessed are you when people ridicule and revile you'. He chose twelve men to be his disiplces, who appear to have spent most of the time in his company. Women also belonged to a larger inner circle, spending much time with him (John 11: 1-4). Jesus 'loved Martha and her sister, Mary' and their brother Lazarus. He brought Lazarus back to life. The gospels accounts make no mention of Jesus having any sexual relations, or of marriage. Christians believe that Jesus was celibate.

Jesus characteristically spoke in parables, earthly stories using metaphors drawn from faily life, often from agriculture and fishery with an inner spiritual meaning. He also used paradox. Most of all, he spoke about life in the Kingdom of God. He called God 'Abba' (Father) and spoke of enjoying an intimate relationship with him (see John 13: 10) and of sending a Spirit or a Comforter who, when he would no longer be with his followers, would continue to guide them (John 14: 16). Jesus himself lived simply, accepting hospitatlity when it was offered. He was critical of wealth accumulation and of luxurious living, of storing up treasure on earth (Mtt 6: 19-24). He enjoyed eating meals with the despised and rejected, challenging social and religious conventions, for which he was criticized (Mk 2: 16; Mtt 9: 11). The humble, he said, would be exalted and the proud brought low (Lk 18: 14). Most commonly, he appears to have referred to himself as the 'Son of Man', for example, saying 'foxes have holes, birds have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head' (Mtt 8: 19). Several passages refer to the Son of Man coming 'on a cloud with power and great glory' (Lk 21: 27), others to signs of the End of Days when the Son of Man will come although 'of that day and hour no man knows' (Mtt 25: 36). His end vision includes judgement between the nations (Mtt 25: 32). Those who fed the hungry, visited the sick and clothed the naked will be rewarde, those who did not will be punished.

Jesus healed, and fed people. He exorcised demons. Once he walked on water. He also calmed a storm. He was especially sympathetic towards lepers. He often spoke about the avilability of 'new life'. He invited people to be re-born spiritauly, to become childlike again (Mk 10: 15; John 3: 3). Sometimes, he forgave sins (Mk 2: 9). Once, he went to pray on a mountain top with three disciples, where Moses and Elijah appeared alongside him. This is known as Transfiguration because Jesus appeared to 'glow with a supernatural glory' (Bennett, 2001: 86). It was followed by Peter, who functioned as Jesus' chief disciples, confessing that he believed Jesus was the Messiah, the Son of the Living God (Mtt 17: 16). The Messiah was the god-sent servant or leader whom many Jews expected would deliver them from Roman rule and re-establish the Davidic kingdom, restoring peace and justice. Jesus, though, told Peter not to tell anyone about this, which was later dubbed the 'Messianic secret'. From this point, in the Synoptics, Jesus starts to travel towards Jeruslam and also speaks of the necessity of his own death; of being rejected like the prophets, even of the chief preists delivering him up to die (Mk 10: 33-4). Jerusalem, he said, would be surrounded by enemies and destroyed (Luke 21: 6; Mk 13: 2; Lk 21: 8) which sounded threatening. He is depicted as at odds with the religious leaders, who started to plot against him. They also tried to trick him in debate (Mk 8: 11; 10: 2; 11: 18; 12:13). They accused him of making himself God (Jh 10: 33). Perhaps with Isaiah 53's suffering servant in mind, Jesus said that before the 'restoration' he would have to suffer and be humiliated (Mk 9: 12). As he drew closer to Jerusalem, his popularity with the common people increased but so did oppostion from the religious leaders. Jesus' charismatic preaching, his teaching that people could have direct access to God, by-passed the Temple and the trained, official religious leaders. They challenged Jesus, asking on what or whose authority he did and said what he did? ( Mtt 21: 23). Jesus had no Rabbinical training (John 7: 14). He accused the religious leaders of loving the praise of people instead of God (Jh 12: 43) and of rank hypocrisy, of being blind guides fonder of gold than of piety (see Mtt 23), especially targetting the Pharisees.

Jesus Death

After approximately three years of teaching, at the age of 33, Jesus entered Jerusalem. He did so dramatically, riding on a donkey (Mtt 21: 9) while the crowd that gathered shouted, 'Hosanna to the Son of David' which 'looks very much like a public disclosure of Jesus' identity as the Davidic Messiah' and 'gives the impression that he was about to claim kingly authority' (Bennett: 87). Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve disciples, agreed to betray Jesus to the authorities, whom Jesus continued to annoy by storming into the Templ and up-turning the money changers' tables (Mtt 21: 12; John has this incident eralier in Jesus' career, Jh 3: 15). Apparently conscious that he was about to die, he gathered his disciple together for what he said would be his last meal with them before he had entered his father's kingdom (Mtt 26: 29) (Thursday). Following the format of a Shabbath meal, with a blessing over bread and wine, Jesus introduced new words, saying that the bread and wine were his 'body' and 'blood', and that the disciples should eat and drink in 'remembrance' of him. The cup, he said, was the 'cup of the new covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins' (Mtt 26: 26-28). Traditionally, this took place close to the Jewish Passover. Reference here to a new covenant evoked memories of Jeremiah 31: 31, 'behold I will make a new covenant with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah, I will put my law in their hearts and will be their God'. Jesus had spoken about a new relationship with God, and John's gospel, in its theological prologue, speaks of the law as being 'given by Moses', but of Jesus' bringing 'grace and truth' (Jh 1: 17). Salvation is not achieved by obeying the law but by faith in Jesus; 'whosever believes on him shall not perish' (3: 16). Following this event, Jesus retreats to a garden outside Jerusalem's walls to pray, asking that if God wills, the bitter cup of his impendinig death might be taken from him. While praying, Judas appears accompanied by soldiers, and Jesus is arrested. His trial follows (Friday). He is tried before the High Priest, accused of blasphemy. He is also tried before Herod, because his jurisdiction inclided Galilee and before the Roman governor, Pilate, who alone had the authority to pronounce a death sentence. Pilate hesitated. Jesus was causing public disturbance but Pilate's wife intervened, calling Jesus a 'righteous man'. The charge before pilate was treason, that Jesus claimed to be king of the Jews. Yet the public who had supported Jesus were now demanding his death. Pilate, remembering a custom that allowed him to release one prisoner at Passover, he offered Jesus or a prisoner called Barabbas, to the crowd. They chose Barabbas.

Jesus Ecce Homo ("Behold the Man!"), Antonio Ciseri's depiction of Pontius Pilate presenting a scourged Jesus of Nazareth to the people of Jerusalem

Pilate poured water over his hand, saying that he was innocent of Jesus' blood. However, he allowed him to be crucified. Jesus, who had already been whipped mercilessly, was now forced to carry his own cross to the place of execution, outside the city. When he stumbled, a passerby was conscripted to help him. Two other criminals were crucifeied either side of Jesus. Of his supporters, only his mother and one other disciple appear to have witnessed the crucifixion (Jh 19: 26). Peter, as Jesus had predicted, denied that he even knew Jesus. Jesus' side was pierced while he hung on the cross, and he was given vinegar to drink when he complained of thirst. Jesus spoke words of forgiveness from the Cross, declared that 'it was finished' and died. His body was taken down and placed in a guarded tomb, against the possibility that his disciples might steal it so that words he had spoken about rising after three days would apparently come true (see Mark 10: 31). Next morning (Sunday) a group of women went to embalm Jesus' body but instead saw that the stone had been rolled away and that the tomb, apart from Jesus' grave clothes, was empty. An angelic messenger told Mary Magdalene that Jesus had risen, and had gone on ahead to Galilee. She then encountered Jesus in the garden, at first mistaking him for a gardener (Jh 20: 15). Mary told Peter. A series of encounters between Jesus and his disciples follow, which include scenes in which he eats with them and they physically touch him. Finally, Jesus said farewell, telling them to wait in Jerusalem until the Holy Spirit comes upon them, commanding them to tell all people what he had taught and to baptise them in the name of the Father, the Son and the Spirit. Then he ascended into heaven. Fifty days later, at Pentecost, while the disciples waited in an upper room, the Spitit decendes onto them; 'And suddenly there was a sound from heaven, as of a rushing mighty wind, and it filled all the house where they were sitting. And there appeared unto them cloven tongues like as of fire, and it sat upon each of them. And they were all filled with the Holy Ghost, and began to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance (Acts 2: 1-4). Peter's speech to the multitude, which followed, estabishes the kerygma (proclamation, or basic message) of what the primitive Church believed about Jesus; he had been approved of God by miracles and signs, he had been crucified by wicked men but had risen. David had spoken of Jesus but he was dead and buried while Jesus is alive and seated at God's right hand, as both Lord and Messiah. Those who believe in his name, and accept baptism, will be cleansed of all sins and 'recieve the Holy Spirit'. Christians also believe that Jesus will return to earth before the Day of Judgement.

Christology - Christian beliefs about Jesus

The Nicene Creed (325) affirms that Jesus is the eternally begotten Son of God, the second person of the Trinity. The Trinity consists of God the Father, who is un-created and eternal, of God the Son who is eternally begotten of the Father and of God the Spirit who proceeds eternally from the Father (and some add from the Son, the filoque clause inserted at the Council of Toledo in 589). The Son became human in Jesus. He was also, therefore, wholly human. His human and divine natures were united yet without confusion. His mother, Mary, was a virgin. Jesus was wholly God but not the whole of God. He was pof the same substance as the Father. He entered the world for human salvation. He was crucified under Pontius Pilate, died, rose again, descended into hell, and ascended into heaven. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead. All will be raised up in order to be judged. These dogmas were not universally accepted. Some groups, inlcuding authors of the various gnostic texts, claimed that Jesus was a spiritual not a physical being. Some (including the Copts of Egypt) taught that Jesus had only one nature, which was divine. The docetics said that Jesus only appeared to be human, and therefore did not suffer on the Cross. For the gnostics, it is special knowledge that saves, and the God of creation was a demi-urge, not the true God. Some, followes of Marcion (d. 160) divorced Jesus from his Jewish background, contending that Jesus' God and the God of the Jews were different. Others, including Arius (d. 336) taught that he was not co-eternal with God, but had been created in time. Others taught that Jesus was an ordinary man, whom God adopted (perhaps at his baptism) as his Son. Some, the Ebionate or the James-led Jerusalem Christians, saw Jesus as a good Jew who never intended to establish a separate religion. Their Jesus pointed towards God but did not claim to be God. Discussion and debate on all these doctrinal issues continues within Christian theology. Many point out that the language the church chose to describe the 'persons' of the Trinity, or Jesus as 'God's son' used terms that were common at the time but which were not meant to be exact, scientific definitions. Rather, they expressed Christian conviction that God had acted and spoken through Jesus, who enjoyed an intimate relationship with God, and whose life and death connected them to God in a way that renewed their lives, overcame sin and set them on a new path of love, service and of spiritual health. Christians today might choose different language. The ninteenth century German theologian, Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834), dubbed the father of Modern theology, for example, rejected a pre-existent Christ but argued that Jesus can be distinguished from all other men and women because he achieved a complete state of dependence on God, of God-consciousness. Unitarians believe that Jesus was a good man but not God. Many Muslims writers believe that Christianity was originally Unitarian, and it has been suggested that Unitarians might help to bridge the differences between Christianity and Islam (see discussion in Bennett, 2001: 283-285). Bawany (1977) argued thus:

[Unitarianism can] act as a bridge between the Islamic and the Christian world, leading to a better understanding between the two so they can put up a united front to counteract the forces of anti-God movement that are out to destroy all the religions of the world' (193).

Christians rarely refer to Jesus as 'Son of Man' but usually as 'Son of God'. In translation, Messiah as 'Christ' serves more or less as a part of Jesus' name, since the word 'Christ' carries little real meaning for most Christians.

The Jesus of History

Until the late eighteenth century, few Christian doubted that the Jesus in whom they believed, and the Jesus of history, were identical. In 1778, a book by Hermann Samual Reimarus (1694-1768) was posthumously published which ended this comfortable assumption. This laaunched what became known as the Quest of the Historical Jesus. Reimarus argued that the gospels contain a great deal of fabricated material that expressed the beliefs of the Church, not historical fact. He sliced huge portions of text from the Gospels, suggesting that angelic visits, miracles, Jesus resurrection and ascension, were all fabrications. Many incidents were borrowed from the Hebrew Bible, such as the slaughter of the innocents by Herod, to stress that Jesus had a lot in common with Moses. His forty day temptation was to emulate Moses' various period of forty years. His feeding crowds was to emulate Elijah. Reimaris argued that Jesus had aimed to construct a physical kingdom, not to launch a spiritual enterprise concerned with salvation in the nextlife. Jesus thought that God would intervene to establish the kingdon, and was surprised when he did not and he died on the cross. The idea of the resurrection, and of a message of spiritual salvation, was invented afterwards by the disciples. They had no desire to simply return to Galilee but wanted a message and a mission so that they could continue to live the life to which they had become accustomed. Reimarus points out, as do numerous others, that the dsiciples did not witness the main events of Jesus trial and execution, or the resurrection. Many scholars also thinik that explanations of Jesus' parables were back-projected.

The Issues and Debates

Reimarus opened up for debate many issues that remain the bread and butter of Jesus' studies and also of theological discussion. Did Jesus have any self-awareness of his divinity, or divine son-ship indeed did he consider himself anything other than an ordinary man? The exact charge made against Jesus at his trial, and the real reason for his execution, are widely debated. Was Jesus the Messiah? Reimarus assumed that Jesus thought himself the Messiah but suggests that he failed in his mission, because he did not establish an earthly kingom. He argued that the idea of a spiritual kingdom and of Jesus' message as primarilly about spiritual salvation, was a posthumous invention. There is still much debate about whether Jesus did preach a spiritual, or a worldly message. Was he concerned about peace, justice, equality and freedom in this world, or about slavation from sin for a life in paradise after death? Miller (2001) surveys this debate, asking whether Jesus was or was not an apocalyptic preacher. That is, did he think that the End was near? Scholarly consensus generally accepts that Jesus was probably born in Nazareth, not Bethlehem, that he did not perform miracles although he may have had some knowledge of healing and that the resurrection was not a physical event but expresses the disciples conviction that Jesus was still with them even though he had died. The seminar starkly declares that Jesus' body 'decayed as do other corpses' (1993: 462). Crossan (1996) thinks it may have been dug up by dogs (152). Various techniques are used to authenticate Jesus' words, such as characteristic style of speech, what fits the context of a Jesus who was really a good Jew and who did not regard himself as divine and what reflects later Christian theology. In its work, the members of the Jesus Seminar voted on whether they thought a verse was authentic or not. John's gospel attracted no positive votes. Many Christians regard Jesus as a pacifist but the work of Horsley among others questions this, suggesting that he did not reject violence. Three issues that attract a great deal of scholarly and popular interest are: Jesus' eschatology: whether he was the Messiah; whether he was divine.

An image in one of the oldest parts of the vatican portraying Jesus as the mythical Sol Invictus

Eschatology

Reimarus placed eschatology at the center of discussion. The great liberal scholars represented Jesus as a teacher of eternal truths, as a source of moral and ethical guidance. This stresses imitating Jesus, helping others, feeding the hungry, clothing the naked (Luke 6: 46) more than believing in Jesus. Classically, this was associated with Albrecht Ritschl (1822-89), whose own son in law, Jonannes Weiss (1863-1914) proposed the anti-thesis, that Jesus has been an apocalyptic preacer with no interest in eternal truths or ethical conduct because he thought the world as we know it would soon end. Albert Schweitzer developed this thesis in his classic Quest of the Historical Jesus (English, 1910). He said that the liberals merely dressed Jesus in their own clothes. The real Jesus, he said, remains alien and exotic, so much a product of his eschatological worldview, which we do not share, that he escapes us, constantly retreating back into his own time. Jesus believed that his death on the Cross, based on his understanding of himself as suffering Messiah, would usher in the kingdom. This did not happen. In a sense, then, Jesus failed yet from his example people can gain inspiration towards a life of self-sacrifice and love of others. We can, said Schweitzer, still respond to Jesus call to follow him. Although we can know little for certain about Jesus, a spirit flows from him to us calling us to existential sacrifice and service. However, the work of Borg, Crossan and of the Jesus Seminar in the twentieth century resurrected the idea that Jesus taught as sapiential, or here-and-now kingdom (see John 17: 20-21). Sanders is an example of a scholar who depicts Jesus as an apocalyptic pracher. We know from the Dead Sea Scrolls, however, that many Jews did expect a Messiah or even several Messiahs, who would liberate them from Rome. Certainly, the Qumran community did.

Jesus as Messiah and His Relationship with Judaism

Neither Borg nor Crossan think that Jesus saw himself as Messiah, or as Son of God, regarding these titles as later Christian additions. Rudolf Bultmann (1884-1976), who continued the process of stripping 'mythology' from the gospels, was of the same opinion. Miracles, Jesus' foreknowledge of his own fate, his self-consciousness as divine, the resurrection and ascenion, were all pious additions. Much of what Jesus said was back-projected onto his lips to support Christian theology. He did not think he was the Messiah, although others did. It was this that caused his death. Increasingly, there has been a tendecy in Biblical scholarship to see Jesus as a loyal but reformist Jew, who made no Messianic claims but was a teacher and prophet. Several writers stress similarity between Jesus and the Pharisees, suggesting that Jesus criticism of them in Matthew 25 makes more sense if directed at the Saducees. The Pharisees, like Jesus, were interested in inner piety; the Saducees, who controlled the Temple, were interested in ritual observance. Jesus, these writers point out, had a lot in common with Hillel and Honi the Circle drawer. Northern prophets, too, were habitually less pro-Temple than Southern propehts, and Jesus was from Nazareth. The Pharisees focused on the study of the law. The Sadducees' base was the Temple. Our information about these Jewish schools is laregly derived from the work of Josephus. Josephus also tells us about the Essenes, of which Qumran may have been a branch.

Map of First Century Palestine: the Land of Jesus

Much discussion focuses on whether Isiaih 53 was a Messianic passage, that is, did any Jews think that the Messiah might suffer, or would he be a lead a victorious revolt? (see especially Vermes, 1973: 171).

The Qumran community was established as a righteous alternative to the Jerusalem Temple, whose priests were too influenced by Greek culture. The community practiced celibacy, was divided into twelve tribes under princes, engaged in Bible study, used scripture to explain contemporary and future events, wore white robes, practiced ritual purity and a strict observance of the law. Some writers, such as Thiering (1992) interpret Jesus wholly in the context of Qumran. Others point to some similarities - Jesus appointed twelve disciples, was celibate and may have had shared some of their apocalyptic ideas. Others point out that Jesus saw the law as serving women and men, not vice-versa and that he broke purity rules by associating with the poor and outcast. Crossan regards Jesus' open commensuality (table fellowship) as the most important aspect of his career; he affirmed the equal value of all, challenging barriers and divisions. Those who stress common ground between Jesus and the Pharisees suggest that passages referring to Jews as plotting to kill him or as trying to trick him, and Jesus' criticism of them, were back-projected by Christians to reflect their own estrangement from and hostility towards Judaism. Also, this deflected blame away from the Roman authorities, whom Christians wanted to appease. The scene where Pilate washed his hands would also be back projection. Some posit that the Gospels reflect a struggle between Jewish Christians, such as Peter and James, and the Paul-led Gentile Church. The Pauline victory saw an anti-Jewish and pro-Roman bias written into the gospel record (see Goulder, 1995). It was also Paul who imported pagan ideas of sacrifical death for sin and dying and rising saviors into Christian thought. Some depict Jesus as a Rabbi (see Chiltern, 2000). Some suggest that Jesus, if he was a Rabbi, probably married (Funk, 1993: 221; Phipps, 1996: 174).

Jesus' Divinity

Scholars such as Howard Marshall, Bruce Metzger and Thomas Wright defend the traditional view of Jesus as God's son, as well as that he was self-conscious of his Messiaship. The Jesus Seminar members are typical of those who think that all such notions were borrowed from paganism. They describe the Jesus of the creeds as a 'mythical or heavenly figure, whose connection with the sage from Nazarteh is limited to his suffering and death under Pontius Pilate' (1993: 7). Jesus' earthly or historical life, they point out, hardly features in Paul's scheme. Many humanist writers also suggest that Christiantiy is a hotch potch derived from pagan parallels (see Roberston, 1900, 1911; Wheless, 1930). Often, the similarity of the Jesus' story with that of other heroes or deities, including Krishna, Mithra, Horus and the Buddha, is used to suggest that all the material needed to compose the gospels was already avaible in the hero-myth format, explored by Joseph Campbell (1904-87) and others.

Islam

Mainstream Muslims believe that:

• Jesus (Isa in the Qur'an) was one of God's highest ranked and most beloved prophets, ranked amonmg the righteous. He was sent specifically to guide the Children of Israel (see Q6:85).
• He was neither God nor the son of God, but rather a human prophet, one of many prophets sent over history to guide mankind. Jesus' message to mankind was originally the same as all of the other prophets, from Adam to Muhammad, but has been distorted by those who claim to be its adherents. Q4: 171. Christians exaggerate Jesus' importance, committimg excess in their religion. He is not nor did he claim to be one of Three (4: 171). Q5: 117 appears to describe a Trinity of Father, mother and Son. Jesus taught his followers to 'worship Allah, my Lord'.
• Jesus was born miraculously without a human biological father by the will of God (Q19: 20-21). His mother, Mary ("Maryam" in Arabic), is among the most saintly, pious, chaste, and virtuous women ever (Q 19 is called Maryam).
• Jesus was able to perform miracles, but only by the will or 'permission' of God. Besides his miraculous birth, his first miracle was when, although only a few days old, Jesus spoke and defended his mother against accusations of adultery. The Qur'an mentions, among other miracles, that he raised the dead, restored sight to the blind, and cured lepers. He also made clay bird fly a story also found in the Arabic Infancy Gospel [2]. (seeQ3: 49 and Q5: 109-110).
• Jesus is compared with Adam, whom God 'created from dust' (Q3: 59).
• Jesus renounced all worldly possessions and lived a life of strict nonviolence, abstaining from eating animal flesh and from drinking alcohol. The simplicity of Jesus life-style, his kindness to animals and his other-worliness are stressed in Sufi writings (see Bennett, 2001: 279-280). Jalal al-Din Rumi (d 1273) founder of the Mevelvi order equated Jesus with divine love, whose selfless, other-centered nature poured out in 'healing love' of others.
• Jesus received a Gospel from God, called (in Arabic) the "Injeel", and corresponding to the New Testament (Q3: 3). However, Muslims hold that the New Testament we have today has been changed and does not accurately represent the original. Some Muslims accept the Gospel of Barnabas as the most accurate testament of Jesus. Muslims attribute this to Barnabas, who parted company from Saint Paul in Acts 16: 39. Almost all non-Muslim scholars regard this text as a medieval production, and thus not an authentic text.
• Jesus was neither killed nor crucified but God made it appear so to his enemies (Q4: 157). Some Muslim scholars (notably Ahmad Deedat) maintain that Jesus was indeed put up on the cross, but did not die on it. He was revived and then ascended bodily to heaven, while others say that it was actually Judas who was mistakenly crucified by the Romans. However, Q19: 34 has Jesus say, 'peace is on me the die I was born, the day I shall die and the day I shall be raised up', which gives the Christian order of events. Thus, the Qur'an does say that Jesus will die but most Muslims regard this as a future event, after his return. Q3:55 says that God will 'raise' Jesus to Himself.
• Jesus is called Al-Masih (Messiah) but the meaning of this is vague and carries little significance.
• Jesus is alive in heaven and will return to the world in the flesh with Imam Mahdi to defeat the dajjal (the anti-Christ in Islamic belief), once the world has become filled with injustice. Many Muslims think that Jesus will then marry, have children, and die a natural death.
• Jesus predicted Muhammad (see Q61: 6).
• Many Muslims (see Rahim, 1992) argue that what passes for Christianity was invented by Saint Paul and that Christianity was originally Unitarian (see below). Christianity is a concoction of pagan and other notions, a 'metaphysical fiction, a fantasy' (3, 5). Rahim also thinks that Jesus was essentially an Essene who 'took care not to deviate from their teaching' (33).

Ahmadiyya Muslim Movement

Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835-1908), the founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Movement, in Jesus in India (April 1896) claimed that Jesus survived the crucifixion and later travelled to India, where he lived as a prophet and died as Yuz Asaf. Ahmad argued that when Jesus was taken down from the cross, he had lapsed into a state similar to Jonah's state of 'swoon' in the belly of a fish [Matthew 12:40] . A medicine known as Marham-e-Issa (Ointment of Jesus) was applied to his wounds and he revived. Drawing from Biblical, Quranic and Buddhist scriptures, Ahmad wrote that Jesus appeared to Mary, his apostles and others with the same (not resurrected) human body, evidenced by his human wounds and his subsequent clandestine rendezvous over about forty days in the Jerusalem surroundings. The book uses historical documents to evidence Jesus' travel to Nasibain (Nisbis), Afghanistan and then to Kashmir, India in search of some of the lost tribes of Israel, who had settled in the east some 700 years prior.

Ahmadiyya Muslims also believe that references to the Second Coming of Jesus in religious scriptures are allegorical and refer to the arrival of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad.

Hinduism

Some distinguished Hindus have written on Jesus. Most regard him as a manifestation of God but not as the only one. Jesus is one among many. See Vivekananda (1963-6), who depicetd Jesus as a jibanmukti, one who had gained liberation while still alive and love for the service of others. Some point to similarities between Jesus and Krishan (see Bennett, 2001: 299-301). Mahatma Gandhi greatly admired Jesus but was disappointed by Christians, who failed to practice what they preach. Dayananda Sarasvati (1824-83) thought the gospels silly, Jesus ignorant and Christianity a 'hoax' (ibid: 327-328). Hindu scholars are less interested in the historicty of Jesus.

Judaism

Judaism does not see Jesus as a messiah and also rejects the Muslim belief that Jesus was a prophet. Religious Jews are still awaiting the coming of the Messiah (a notable exception concerns many members of the Chabad Lubavitch, who view their last Rebbe as being the Messiah). As for the historical personality of Jesus, Judaism has fewer objections to quotes attributed to him than they do with subsequent confessions by early Christian adherents, Paul in particular. Some Jewish scholars believe that Jesus is mentioned as Yeshu in the Jewish Talmud, usually in ridicule and as a mesith (enticer of Jews away from the truth) although other scholars dispute this. Joseph Klausner, a prominent Israeli scholar, was vigorous in asserting the Judaism of Jesus. Vermes thinks that Matthew may have been Greek, otherwise why did he not understand Hebrew parallelism (1973: 145).

The primary reasons why Jesus is not accepted as the Jewish Messiah are as follows:

• The many Biblical prophecies regarding the Messiah (bringing the Jews back to the Land of Israel and bringing peace on earth, the dead rising, all people knowing God, the Messiah ruling from the throne in Jerusalem, etc.) have not been fulfilled.
• According to the New Testament Jesus' father is God, but according to the Hebrew Bible, the Messiah must descend patrilineally from King David.
• According to the New Testament Jesus was killed. Maimonides rules (Laws of Kings 11:4) concerning one who is killed that “it is certain the he is not the one whom the Torah has promised.”

Other perspectives

Saviour Not Made by Hands is the most popular iconography of Christ in the Eastern Orthodoxy. This version was written by Simon Ushakov in 1658.

Atheists, by definition, have no belief in a divinity—and thus not in any divinity of Jesus. Some doubt he lived, some regard him as an important moral teacher, and some as a historical preacher like many others.

The Bahá'í Faith considers Jesus to be a manifestation (prophet) of God, while not being God incarnate. Some Buddhists believe Jesus may have been a Bodhisattva, one who gives up his own Nirvana to help others reach theirs. The 14th Dalai Lama and the Zen Buddhist, Thich Nhat Hanh, have both written sympathetically on Jesus. Kirsten (1986) thinks that Jesus and the Essenes were Buddhist. Many in the Surat Shabda Yoga tradition regard Jesus as a Sat Guru.

Mandaeanism regards Jesus as a deceiving prophet of the false Jewish god Adunay, and an opponent of the good prophet John the Baptist (whom they nonetheless believe to have baptised him).

The New Age movement has reinterpreted the life and teaching of Jesus in a large variety of ways. He has also been claimed as an Ascended Master by Theosophy and some of its offshoots; related speculations have him studying mysticism in the Himalaya or hermeticism in Egypt] in the period between his childhood and his public career. Prophet and Kersten both return Jesus to India after his crucifixion. Thiering (1993) is unusual in depicting Jesus as a manipulative, ambitious man. She places his death in France. This is taken up by a whole genre of blood-line literature, for whom Jesus established a political lineage whose true identity has been protected by secret socities, such as the kinghts Templars and Freemasons. The legendary 'holy grail' refers not to the cup used by Jesus at the Last Supper but to Jesus' blood line (see Baigent and Leigh). Dan Brown's novel, The Da Vinci Code, transforms this into fiction. Some line the idea that Jesus married to the suppression of the sacred feminine by a male dominated Roman church, as does Brown's book. Jesus did not teach a spirituality that is best achieved by celibate withdrawal from the world but within the midst of life. Sexualiity is not evil or dangerous, the devil's gateway to the soul, but sacred and holy. Spirituality also resonates with nature, which values fertility.

Jesus and Issues of Race and Gender

Much of the above literature also emphasises the role of Mary Magdalene in the Church, drawing on passages in some of the gnostic gospels. Again, the charge is that her true role was concealed, and her reputation stained, by the male led church (Brown, 2003: 274-279). Elizabeth S Fiorenza stresses that Jesus affirmed the feminine, that Sophia (wisdom) was feminine but laregly neglected by the Church. Jesus' message was inclusive of women. He honored their leadership, together with that of men. Rediscovery of Jesus Jewish identity makes many traditional Western depictions of him as an honorary European seem racist. Many Black people have been so alienated by that Jesus that they have repudiated Christianity. James Cone (1970) argued that Jesus was actiually Black, and that to be a true follower of Jesus all people, white as well as black, need to identify with the black-experience of oppression and powerlessness. Some white racists have claimed Jesus for themsleves. Houston Chambrlain (1855-1927) even argued that Jesus was an Aryan (Gentile), and not a Jew. His writing was popular in Nazi Germany. Cone (1970, 1990) argues that Jesus was actually Black, and that to truly follow him all people, whether black or white, need to experience what it means to be black, that is, oppressed. Jesus' aim is to liberate us all from prejudice, oppression and racism.

Relics

Many items that are purported to be authentic relics of Jesus. The most famous alleged relics of Jesus are the Shroud of Turin, said to be the burial shroud used to wrap his body, the Sudarium of Oviedo, which is claimed to be the cloth which was used to cover his face, and the Holy Grail which is said to have been used to collect his blood during his crucifixion and possibly used at the Last Supper. Many modern Christians, however, do not accept any of these as true relics. Indeed, this skepticism has been around for centuries, with Desiderius Erasmus joking that so much wood formed parts of the True Cross, that Jesus must have been crucified on a whole forest.

Artistic portrayals

Cristo Redentor - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Jesus has been portrayed in countless paintings and sculptures throughout the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and modern times. Often he is portrayed as looking like a male from the region of the artist creating the portrait. According to historians, forensic scientists, and genetics experts, he was most likely a bronze-skinned man—resembling a modern-day man of Middle Eastern descent.

Jesus has been featured in many films and media forms, sometimes seriously, and other times satirically. Many of these portrayals have attracted controversy, either when they were intended to be based on genuine Biblical accounts (such as Mel Gibson's 2004 film The Passion of the Christ and Pier Pasolini's The Gospel According to St. Matthew) or based on alternative interpretations (such as Martin Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ). In this film, Jesus is tempted to step down from the Cross, to marry and have children. Later, when he realizes that he had been tempted to do this by Satan, he returns to the Cross, and dies. Other portrayals have attracted less controversy, such as the television ministery's Jesus of Nazareth by Franco Zeffirelli. Another theme is bringing Jesus's story into the present day (such as in Jesus of Montreal) or imagining his Second Coming (in The Seventh Sign, for example). In many films Jesus himself is a minor character, used to develop the overall themes or to provide context. For example, in the screen adaptaion of Lew Wallace's classic Ben-Hur and The Life of Brian Jesus only appears in a few scenes.

In music, many songs refer to Jesus and Jesus provides the theme for classical works throughout music history.

In literature, we find Yeshua, the historical original of Jesus, as a character in the fantasy novel The Master and Margarita, by the 20th century Russian writer Mikhail Bulgakov and in the science fiction short novel Riverworld by the 20th century American writer Philip Jose Farmer. The portrayal in these two works is so similar that Farmer's narrative can easily be read as a sequel to Bulgakov's. A mystical version of Jesus as the Eternal Holy Child can be read in the story The Selfish Giant by Oscar Wilde. Also the Portuguese Nobel Prize winner José Saramago wrote his novel The Gospel According to Jesus Christ based on his atheist view of Jesus and the Gospels.

Notes

1. ^ Paul Barnett, Is the New Testament Reliable?, p.1.
2. ^  catechism entry on grace and justification catechism. Nostra Aetate, declaration of Vatican II
3. ^ Joint declaration ELCA Vatican
4. ^  Jewish Encyclopedia on Pentecost
5. ^ E. P. Sanders in Jesus and Judaism, pp.264-269, states: "I am one of a growing number of scholars who doubt that there were any substantial points of opposition between Jesus and the Pharisees ... We find no criticism of the law which would allow us to speak of his opposing or rejecting it."

Sources and further reading

• Aland, Kurt The Greek New Testament, American Bible Society, 4th ed, 1998 ISBN ISBN: 3438051133
• Albright, William F. Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan: An Historical Analysis of Two Contrasting Faiths, NY: Doubleday, 1969 ISBN 0931464013
• Baigent, Michael and Leigh, Richard and Lincoln, Henry Holy Blood, Holy Grail: The Secret History of Jesus, NY: Delacore Press, 1982 illustrated ed 2005 ISBN 038534001X
• Bawany, E. A Islam: The First and Final Religion, Karachi, Begum Aisha Bawany Waqf, 1977 ISBN
• Baigent, Michael and Leigh, Richard The Dead Seas Scrolls Deception, NY: Simon and Schuster, 3rd ed 1992 ISBN 0671734547
• Barnett, Paul Is the New Testament Reliable?, London: Inter-Varsity Press, 2005 ISBN 0830827684
• Bennett, Clinton In Search of Jesus: Insider and Outsider Images, NY & London: Continuum, 2001 ISBN 0826449166. Examines a wide range of views of Jesus including Buddhist, Hindu, humanist, Jewish and Muslim.
• Borg, Marcus J Conflict, Holiness and Politics in the Teaching of Jesus, Harrisburg, PA: Trinity, 2nd ed 1998 ISBN 156338227X
• Brown, Dan The Da Vinci Code, NY: Random House, 2003 ISBN 0307277674
• Brown, Raymond. Does the NT call Jesus God?, Theological Studies #26, 1965
• Browne, Sir Thomas. Pseudodoxia Epidemica, 6th edition, 1672, V:vi.
• Bruce, F. F New Testament Documents: Are they reliable? London: Inter-Varsity Press, 1982 ISBN 097784691X
• Campbell, Joseph The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970 ISBN 0691017840
• Carlson, Stephen C The Gospel Hoax: Morton Smith's Invention of Secret Mark, Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, 2005 ISBN 1932792481
• Chamberlain, Houston S Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, NY: John Lane and Co, 1899
• Chiltern, Bruce Rabbi Jesus, NY: Doubleday, 2000 ISBN 038549792X
• Cone, James A Black Theology of Liberation, Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 20th anniversary issue, 1990 ISBN 0883446855
• Crossan, John Dominic. Who Killed Jesus?: Exposing the Roots of Anti-Semitism in the Gospel Story of the Death of Jesus, San Fransisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996 ISBN 0060614803
• Davenport, Guy and Urrutia, Benjamin. The Logia of Yeshua: The Sayings of Jesus, Jackson, TN: Counterpoint, 1996 ISBN 1887178708
• Doherty, Earl. The Jesus Puzzle. Did Christianity Begin with a Mythical Christ?: Challenging the Existence of an Historical Jesus, Age of Reason Publications, 2005 ISBN 0968601405 [3]
• Dalai Lama, the 14th The Good Heart: A Buddhist Perspective on the Teaching of Jesus, Boston, Wisdom Publications, 1996 ISBN 0861711386
• Dunn, James D.G. Jesus, Paul and the Law, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1990 ISBN 0664250955
• Eisenman, Robert James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls, NY: Penguin (Non-Classics), 1998. ISBN 014025773X
• Fiorenza, Elizabeth S Sharing Her World: Feminist Interpretations in Context, Boston: Beacon Press, 1998 ISBN 0807012335
• Fredriksen, Paula. Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity New York: Vintage, 2000 ISBN 0679767460
• Fredriksen, Paula. From Jesus to Christ: The Origins of the New Testament Images of Christ New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0300084579, ISBN 0300040180
• Funk, Robert W. The Five Gospels: What Did Jesus Really Say? The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus, San Fransisco, CA: HarperSanFransisco, 1993, reprint ed 1997 ISBN 006063040X
• Gaus, Andy. The Unvarnished New Testament, A new translation from the original Greek free of doctrines and dogmas, York Beach, NE: Phanes Press, 1991 ISBN 0933999992
• Gandhi, M. K The Message of Jesus Christ, Canton, Maine: Greenleaf Books, (original 1940), 1980 ISBN 0934676208
• Goulder, Michael St Paul versus St Peter: A Tale of Two Missions, Louisville, KT: Westminster/John Knox, 1995 ISBN 0664255612
• Hahn, Thich Naht Living Buddha, Living Christ, New York, Riverhead, 1995 ISBN 1573225681
• Kersten, Holger Jesus Lived in India, Shaftesbury, Dorset: Element Books, 1986 ISBN 1852305509
• Klausner, Joseph Jesus of Nazareth, NY: Macmillan, original 1925; NY: Bloch Publishing Company, 1997 ISBN 0819705659
• Lewis, C.S. "Mere Christianity" A book on Christianity and logical support for Jesus as God. Nashville, TE: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1999 ISBN 0805493476
• Marshall, Ian H I Believe in the Historical Jesus, Vancouver, BC: Regent College Publishing, 2001 ISBN 1573830194
• McDowell, Josh. The New Evidence that Demands a Verdict, Two volumes looking at Jesus from the point of view of evidence. Nashville, TE: Nelson Reference, 1999Vol I: ISBN 0918956463 , Vol. II: ISBN 0918956730
• Meier, John P. A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus NY: Doubleday, 1991 ISBN 0385264259
• Mendenhall, George E. Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction to the Bible in Context, Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001. ISBN 0-664-22313-3. Another, less technical, study of the earliest traditions of Israel from linguistic and archaeological evidence which also treats the teachings and followers of Jesus in that context.
• Messori, Vittorio Jesus hypotheses, introudction by Malcolm Muggeridge, Slough: St Paul Publications, 1977, ISBN 0854391541; The translation from Italian Ipotesi su Gesù. An amazing and very readable book that shows how Messori, a recognized Italian historian, explores the question of Jesus, starting from two points of view, mythical (Jesus never lived) and critical (Jesus was not God) and finally comes to the third hypothesis, the one of the faith. The author is also famous for his rare interview with Pope John Paul II.
• Metzger, Bruce Textual Commentary on the Greek NT, Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2nd ed 1994 ISBN 3438060108
• Metzger, Bruce, The Canon of the New Testament Canon, NY: Oxford University Press, 1997 ISBN (page 254)0198269544
• Miller, Robert, The Complete Gospels, the Scholars Version translation of gospels from the first three centuries, includes canonical gospels, Thomas, James, Mary, infancy gospels, fragments, Santa Rosa, CA: Polebridge Press, expanded ed 1994 ISBN 0944344305
• Miller, Robert J (ed) The Apocalyptic Jesus: A Debate, Santa Rosa, CA: Polebridge Press, 2001 ISBN 0944344895
• Pagels, Elaine 'The Meaning of Jesus', Books and Culture: A Christian Review, March/April 1999 (page 40)
• Pelikan, Jaroslav. Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985 ISBN 0300034962; NY: HarperCollins reprint, 304 pages, ISBN 0060970804; Yale University Press, 1999, ISBN 0300079877
• Prophet, Elizabeth Clare The Lost Years of Jesus, Corwin Springs, MT: Summit University Press, 1987 ISBN 091676687X
• Phipps, William The Sexuality of Jesus, Cleveland: The Pilgrim Press, 1996 ISBN 0829811443
• Rahim, Muhammad 'Ata-ur, Jesus: Prophet of Islam, Elmhurst, New York: Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an, 1992 ISBN 1879402114
• Robertson, John M Christianity and Mythology, London: Rationalist Press, 1900
• Robertson, John M Pagan Christs, London: Watts & Co, 1911
• Sanders, E.P. The historical figure of Jesus, NY: Penguin, 1993 ISBN 0140144994. An up-to-date, popular, but thoroughly scholarly book.
• Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism, Philadeslphia: Fortress Press, 1987, ISBN 0800620615. More specialistic than the previous book, though not inaccessible.
• Schaberg, Jane. Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theological Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives, NY: Crossroad Press, ISBN 0940989603
• Schwietzer, Albert The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede, NY: Scribner, 1968 ISBN 0020892403
• Smith, Morton Jesus the Magician, San Fransisco, Harper & Rowe, 1978 ISBN 0060674121
• Talbert, Charles (ed) Reimarus' Fragments, Philadeslphia: Fortress Press, 1970 ISBN 0800601521
• Theissen, Gerd, and Annette Merz. The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide, Philadephia: Fortress Press, 2003, ISBN 0800631226. Exceptionally detailed.
• Theissen, Gerd. The Shadow of the Galilean: The Quest of the Historical Jesus in Narrative Form. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987 ISBN 0800620577
• Thiering, Barbara Jesus the Man, London, Doubleday, 1992 ISBN 0868244449
• Tolstoy, Leo The Kingdom of God is Within You Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1985 ISBN 0803294042
• Vermes, Geza. Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels London: SCM, 1973 ISBN 0800614437
• Walvoord, John F. Jesus Christ Our Lord. Chicago: Moody Press, 1969. ISBN 0802443265
• Wilson, Ian Jesus: The evidence London: Pan Books, 1985 ISBN 0297835297
• Yoder, John H The Politics of Jesus Grand Rapids, MI: William B Eerdmans, 1994 ISBN 0802807348
• In some editions of Jewish Antiquities by the Jewish historian Josephus Book 18, chapter 3, paragraph 3 www.josephus-1.com refer to Jesus. Most scholars believe that these passages were added to Josephus's text by later Christians. The Arabic version of Josephus is free of these apparent Christian interpolations, but still makes it clear that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus.
• Vivekananda, Swami "Christ the Messenger", Complete Worls, V4, 138-53, Calcutta, Advaita Ashrama, 1963-6[4]
• Wallace, Lewis Ben Hur, NY: Oxford University Press, (1880) original 1998ISBN 0192831992
• Weiss, Johannes Jesus Proclamation of the Kingdomm of God, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971 (German original, 1892) ISBN 080060153X
• Wells, George Herbert Did Jesus Exist?, London: Elek Books, 1975 ISBN 0236310011
• Wheless, Joseph Forgery in Christianity: A Documented Record of the Foundations of the Christian Religion, New York, A. A. Knopf, 1930: Kila, MT: Kessinger Publishing (first published 1930), 1997 ISBN 1564592251
• Wright, Tom Who was Jesus? London: SPCK, 1992; Grand Rapids, MI: William Eermands, North American ed 1993 ISBN 0802806945
• Wright, Tom Jesus and the Victory of God London, SPCK 1996 ISBN 0281047170. The author is now Bishop of Durham (Church of England) and enjoys a friendship with Marcus Borg.

External links

Christian views

• [5] - The Tony Alamo Christian Ministries, worldwide evangelical organisation
• Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia - The latin harmony of the Gospels (1)
• Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia - The latin harmony of the Gospels (2)
• Directory of sites about Jesus
• rejesus: UK interdenominational web site about Jesus
• Jesus claims to be God
• Was he God?
• 864 pictures
• Jesus Christ Only — Articles, Sermons & Quotes Dedicated to Jesus Christ
• Literature about Jesus in english and many other languages
• Jesus Gallery Full from http://St-Takla.org
• Christology from The Biblical Resource Database
• Did Jesus Claim To Be God?
• ISBN 0-310-22655-4 The Case for Christ by Lee Strobel

Islamic views

• Status of Jesus in Islam
• An Islamic perspective on Jesus - Islamic Perspective
• The Qur'an on Jesus' divinity
• Jesus' second coming in Islam
• Jesus the prophet of Allah
• Jesus in the Quran

Other religious views

• Jesus Christ (Christology) – Essays on the Deity of Jesus, Jesus' Offices of Prophet, Priest & King & The Historic Jesus.
• Christ Notes
• Jesus Christ Catholic Encyclopedia article
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Jesus of Nazareth
• EWTN's Jesus Christ webpage
• The Words – Website that organises Jesus' sayings by topic
• Jehovah's Witnesses' perspective
• Latter-day Saint (Mormon) beliefs about Jesus
• A Jewish response to Christian missionaries
• Jesus in Heaven on Earth: A Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement perspective - Ahmadiyya perspective
• Jesus Christ – A conservative Christian view
• Is Jesus God? – A fundamentalist view
• What think ye of Christ?
• Jesus'Divinity
• Unitarian Universalist Views of Jesus: prophet; dissident; one of many Christs

Other views

• The Jesus Puzzle
• Skeptic's Guide to Jesus
• Jesus Never Existed
• The Creation of Christ The theory that Jesus was a myth based on Julius Caesar.
• The theory that the story of Jesus is based on the older Hindu story of Krishna
• Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance - article about existence of Jesus
• The Many Quests for the Historical Jesus (Unitarian summary of historical quests)
• What did Jesus Really Say
• The theory and evidence of Jesus having lived in Ladakh, in the Himalaya from 12 to 29 years
• Jesus was actually called Yahushua
• Various articles related to the natural death of Jesus
• Jesus the Messiah at Hebrew for Christians.
• Jesus' Secret Message Estimated guess that Jesus was teaching how to exercise conscious thought
• Light and Sound in Three Great Religions in From Light to Sound, The Spiritual Progression
• http://www.truthbeknown.com/origins.htm - The Origins of Christianity and the Quest for the Historical Jesus Christ
• Evidence that Jesus Never Existed

Historical

• Contemporary Scholarship and the Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of JesusArticle concerning the consensus of New Testament historians in regards to the historical facts surrounding the resurrection narrative.
• Overview of the Life of Jesus A summary of New Testament accounts.
• Perspectives on the Resurrection ABC News 20/20 Special
• From Jesus to Christ – A Frontline PBS_TV_series documentary on Jesus and early Christianity.
• Why I Believe The New Testament Is Historically Reliable by Dr. Gary Habermas
• The New Testament Documents Are they Reliable? By F. F. Bruce
• A reconstructed portrait of Jesus of Nazareth, based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
• The Words and Life of Historical Jesus by Jesus Institute
• Jesus Gallery Portraits of Jesus Christ.. past and present
• The Unknown Life of Jesus Christ by Nicholas Notovitch
• The Jewish Roman World of Jesus
• Into His Own: Perspective on the World of Jesus
• A Portrait of Jesus: From Galilean Jew to the Face of God
• University of Birmingham: The Historical Jesus
• Did Jesus really rise from the dead?
• The Christ of India Alleged evidence of what happened during the "lost years".
• Historical context of Jesus' time
• Jewish sects during Jesus' time
• Christ and the Other Religions
• Free Video — renowned scholar Bruce Chilton discusses Jesus as the Rabbi
• The Unknown Lives of Jesus and Mary from the Apocrypha and other little known sources.
• The Mistaken J
• Missing J
• The Reliability of the Secular References to Jesus
• Confronting the pagan copycat Christs thesis

Credits

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• Jesus of Nazareth  ^history

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