Difference between revisions of "Esau" - New World Encyclopedia
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| − | [[Image:Jacob-and-esau.jpg|thumb|250px|Esau welcome Jacob back to Canaan]] | + | [[Image:Jacob-and-esau.jpg|thumb|250px|Esau welcome Jacob back to Canaan.]] |
| − | '''Esau''' ( | + | '''Esau''' (עֵשָׂו, '''Esav''') was the oldest son of [[Isaac]] and [[Rebekah]] and the twin brother of [[Jacob]] in the [[Hebrew Bible|biblical]] Book of [[Genesis]]. Although he stood first in the line of inheritance, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob, who later also cheated by him out of receiving Isaac's blessing. As a result, Esau planned to kill Jacob once Isaac died, but Rebekah wisely arranged for her younger son to flee to her relatives in [[Haran]]. |
| + | |||
| + | Esau became a wealthy man in his own right, and when Jacob returned 21 years later, Esau forgave and welcomed him. The two brothers lived separately but in peace thereafter. | ||
| − | In biblical tradition, Esau is considered to be the father of the [[Edom]]ites, a semitic people living east of the Jordan in the land of Canaan. Critical scholarship holds that the story of Esau reflects the relations between Edom and Israel in a later period and cannot be considered as historical in itself. | + | In biblical tradition, Esau is considered to be the father of the [[Edom]]ites, a semitic people living east of the [[Jordan River]] in the land of [[Canaan]]. Critical scholarship holds that the story of Esau reflects the relations between Edom and Israel in a later period and cannot be considered as historical in itself. |
[[Unificationism]] sees the unity of Esau and Jacob as the paradigm for peace which established the foundation to receive the [[Messiah]] in Jacob's lineage. (see ''Unification Aspects''.) | [[Unificationism]] sees the unity of Esau and Jacob as the paradigm for peace which established the foundation to receive the [[Messiah]] in Jacob's lineage. (see ''Unification Aspects''.) | ||
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==Biblical Account== | ==Biblical Account== | ||
| − | Esau was born | + | Esau was born miraculously to [[Isaac]] and [[Rebekah]] after 20 years of marriage. Rebekah had been barren, but Isaac's prayers for her were answered when she finally conceived. During Rebekah's pregnancy, "the children struggled together within her" (Genesis 25:22). A prophecy revealed that "two nations" wrestled within Rebekah's womb. "The one people shall be stronger than the other people; and the elder shall serve the younger." (Gen. 25:23) |
| − | Esau was born immediately before his twin brother [[Jacob]], whose hand grasped Esau's heel. Rabbinical commentators explain that Jacob was trying to hold Esau back from being the firstborn. His name, "Esau," derives from the Hebrew word for "red." The biblical | + | Esau was born immediately before his twin brother [[Jacob]], whose hand grasped Esau's heel. Rabbinical commentators explain that Jacob was trying to hold Esau back from being the firstborn. His name, "Esau," derives from the Hebrew word for "red." The biblical narrative explains that "the first to come out was red, and his whole body was like a hairy garment." Esau and his twin brother were markedly different not only in appearance, but also in character and behavior. Esau was a "skillful hunter, a man of the open country," but Jacob was a gentle man who prefered to stay close to home. Esau favored by his father, Isaac, while Jacob was favored by his mother, Rebekah. |
[[Image:Jacob-Esau-Birthright.jpg|thumb|225px|left|Esau sells Jacob his birthright.]] | [[Image:Jacob-Esau-Birthright.jpg|thumb|225px|left|Esau sells Jacob his birthright.]] | ||
| − | A major event in | + | A major event in Esau's life occurred one day when he returned home from [[hunting]]. Faint from hunger, Esau requested some of the stew that Jacob had been cooking. Jacob agreed to sell his brother this food only in excahnge for his [[birthright]] as the older brother. Feeling he was on the point of starvation, Esau agreed, saying, "I am going to die--what is this birthright to me?" (Genesis 25:29-34) |
| − | After this, because of a [[famine]], Isaac moved the family to the [[Philistines|Philistine]] town of | + | After this, because of a [[famine]], Isaac moved the family to the [[Philistines|Philistine]] town of Gerar. The text does not indicate whether Esau or Jacob accompanied them during this period, during which their mother was taken into the [[harem]] of the Philistine king Abimelech "for a long time." |
By the age of 40, Esau, had taken two [[Hittite]] women to be his wives: Judith daughter of Beeri, and Basemath daughter of Elon. (Gen. 26:34) This, however, displeased his parents, who preferred that Esau choose his mates from among the Hebrews. Esau's wives were thus "a grief of mind unto Isaac and to Rebekah." (Gen 26:35) | By the age of 40, Esau, had taken two [[Hittite]] women to be his wives: Judith daughter of Beeri, and Basemath daughter of Elon. (Gen. 26:34) This, however, displeased his parents, who preferred that Esau choose his mates from among the Hebrews. Esau's wives were thus "a grief of mind unto Isaac and to Rebekah." (Gen 26:35) | ||
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===Robbed of his blessing=== | ===Robbed of his blessing=== | ||
| − | When Isaac grew old and had become nearly blind, he decided give Esau his blessing | + | When Isaac grew old and had become nearly blind, he decided to give Esau his blessing. Isaac sent Esau out to hunt some game and prepare him a meal: |
:Now then, get your weapons—-your quiver and bow—-and go out to the open country to hunt some wild game for me. Prepare me the kind of tasty food I like and bring it to me to eat, so that I may give you my blessing before I die." | :Now then, get your weapons—-your quiver and bow—-and go out to the open country to hunt some wild game for me. Prepare me the kind of tasty food I like and bring it to me to eat, so that I may give you my blessing before I die." | ||
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:you will throw his yoke from off your neck. (Gen. 27:39-40) | :you will throw his yoke from off your neck. (Gen. 27:39-40) | ||
| − | Jacob's deception left Esau in a position of servitude which Isaac never intended. However, once Isaac had given his blessing to Jacob—even under false pretenses—it could not be rescinded. Esau, no doubt justifying himself on account of Jacob's deception and thievery, planned to kill Jacob as soon as Isaac died. However, Rebekah advised Jacob to flee to her relatives in Haran, winning Isaac's support for the plan on the grounds that Jacob could find a wife from among the Hebrew women there. Isaac agreed and commanded Jacob: "Do not marry a Canaanite woman." Esau then realized how displeasing | + | Jacob's deception left Esau in a position of servitude which Isaac never intended. However, once Isaac had given his blessing to Jacob—even under false pretenses—it could not be rescinded. Esau, no doubt justifying himself on account of Jacob's deception and thievery, planned to kill Jacob as soon as Isaac died. However, Rebekah advised Jacob to flee to her relatives in Haran, winning Isaac's support for the plan on the grounds that Jacob could find a wife from among the Hebrew women there. Isaac agreed and commanded Jacob: "Do not marry a Canaanite woman." |
| + | |||
| + | Esau then realized how displeasing his own wives were to Isaac. Still seeking to please his aging father, he went to is uncle [[Ishmael]], Isaac's half-brother, and received permission to marry Ishmael's daughter, Mahalath, in addition to the wives he already had. | ||
===Reconciliation=== | ===Reconciliation=== | ||
| − | Twenty years pass in the narrative with no report of Esau. During this period, Esau remained in Canaan with Isaac, who remained alive despite his great old age | + | Twenty years pass in the narrative with no report of Esau. During this period, Esau remained in Canaan with Isaac, who remained alive despite his great old age. In the twenty-first year, however, Esau learned of Jacob's approach, and not alone but with a major caravan of people and livestock. Although Jacob sent messengers ahead with assurances of his peaceful intent, Esau had been fooled by Jacob twice before. Sensing a threat, he took 400 men with him and rode out to meet his brother. |
[[Image:Esau-Jacob.jpg|thumb|350px|left|Esau, ready for war, reconciles with Jacob.]] | [[Image:Esau-Jacob.jpg|thumb|350px|left|Esau, ready for war, reconciles with Jacob.]] | ||
| − | On his way, however, Esau encountered three more messengers each with a rich gift of livestock, consisting of a total of 200 female goats and 20 male goats, 200 ewes and 20 rams, 30 female camels with their young, 40 cows and 10 bulls, and 20 female donkeys and 10 male donkeys. The next day, as Esau neared Jacob's train, he saw Jacob in the lead, followed by what must have been his wives and children, slaves, and a large herd of various livestock. As Jacob approached, he bowed to the ground seven times before Esau. | + | On his way, however, Esau encountered three more messengers each with a rich gift of livestock, consisting of a total of "200 female goats and 20 male goats, 200 ewes and 20 rams, 30 female camels with their young, 40 cows and 10 bulls, and 20 female donkeys and 10 male donkeys." The next day, as Esau neared Jacob's train, he saw Jacob in the lead, followed by what must have been his wives and children, slaves, and a large herd of various livestock. As Jacob approached, he bowed to the ground seven times before Esau. |
| + | |||
| + | Forgeting his anger, "Esau ran to meet Jacob and embraced him; he threw his arms around his neck and kissed him. And they wept." (Gen. 33:4) Jacob introduced Esau to his wives and children, and they, too, prostrated themselves before Esau. | ||
| − | + | Esau, who himself had grown rich in Jacob's absence, said Jacob's gifts were not necessary, but Jacob insisted that Esau accept then as a token of peace: "If I have found favor in your eyes, accept this gift from me. For to see your face is like seeing the face of God, now that you have received me favorably." (Gen. 34:10) | |
| − | Esau then offered to accompany Jacob | + | Esau then offered to accompany Jacob as they traveled together; but Jacob declined, pleading that his wives and children would slow the [[caravan]] down. When Esau returned to his habitation in [[Seir]], however, Jacob turned away from the path and settled in Succoth. He is reported as later moving to [[Shechem]] and [[Bethel]]. |
| − | The two brothers and their growing clans apparently continued to live peacefully, but separately from then on. Their | + | The two brothers and their growing clans apparently continued to live peacefully, but separately, from then on. Their only reported reunion occurred at the time of the death and burial of their father Isaac near [[Hebron]]. (Genesis 35:29) |
===Legacy=== | ===Legacy=== | ||
| − | Esau is said to be the forefather of the [[Edom]]ites, one of Israel's neighbors and occasionally both a vassal and an enemy. A genealogical account of the growth of his clan to become the nation of Edom is given in Genesis 36. Esau intermarried with women of [[Hittite]], Hivite, and [[Ishmael]]ite origin and evenentually grew into the nation of Edom. Because they were related by blood to the Israelites, the Edomites were exempt from | + | Esau is said to be the forefather of the [[Edom]]ites, one of Israel's neighbors and occasionally both a vassal and an enemy. A genealogical account of the growth of his clan to become the nation of Edom is given in Genesis 36. Esau intermarried with women of [[Hittite]], Hivite, and [[Ishmael]]ite origin and evenentually grew into the nation of Edom. Because they were related by blood to the Israelites, the Edomites were exempt from God's command that Joshua "drive out" the Canaanites and slaughter those inhabitants who resisted conquest. However, in accordance with the earlier prophecies concerning Esau, the Israelites viewed the Edomites as destined to be subvervient to them, even though the Isaelites were latecomers to the land. Thus the Kings of the northern [[kingdom of Israel]] collected tribute from Edom, and Israel and Judah both went to war against Edom when it refused to accept its proper role as a vassal. |
| − | In New Testament times, the | + | In [[New Testament]] times, the Edomites were know as the [[Idumeans]]. Although they came to accept Judaism, they were seen by many Jews as racially impure and religiously suspect. Historically, the most famous Idumean Jew was King [[Herod the Great]]. His status as a descendant of Esau and the Edomites is one reason for his lack of popularity in [[Jerusalem]] and [[Judea]]. |
==Critical View== | ==Critical View== | ||
| − | Biblical scholars often view the story of Esau as a | + | Biblical scholars often view the story of Esau as a legendary account orginating in later Israelite traditions concerning their neighbors, the Edomites. Thus, Esau's character reflects the Israelite attitude that Edom is destined to "serve" Israel even though the Israelites were relative latecomers to Canaan and thus "the younger son." |
| − | |||
| − | |||
| + | The general narratives concerning Esau belong to both Elohist and the Yahwist sources (see [[documentary hypothesis]]. This explains the conflict between the genaelogy of Gen. 36 and earlier chapters. The Preistly source (P) is credited with the statement that Esau's marriage was so distasteful to his parents that they sent him away rather than allowing him to intermarry with local women.(Gen. xxvi. 34, 35). The multiple sources of the narrative also account for the Esau is assumed to be the progenitor of the Edomites. His character reflects the disposition of this warlike people. The stories in Genesis purpose to account for discrepancy betwwen the genealogy of Gen. 36 and earlier chapters. Here, Esau's native wives are named as Adah daughter of Elon and Oholibamah daughter of Anah and granddaughter of Zibeon the Hivite, rather than Basemath daughter of Elon and Judith daughter of Beeri. Basemath, meanwhile, is named as the daughter of Ishmael instead of Mahalath. | ||
==Rabbinical tradition== | ==Rabbinical tradition== | ||
Revision as of 22:51, 17 March 2007
Esau (עֵשָׂו, Esav) was the oldest son of Isaac and Rebekah and the twin brother of Jacob in the biblical Book of Genesis. Although he stood first in the line of inheritance, Esau sold his birthright to Jacob, who later also cheated by him out of receiving Isaac's blessing. As a result, Esau planned to kill Jacob once Isaac died, but Rebekah wisely arranged for her younger son to flee to her relatives in Haran.
Esau became a wealthy man in his own right, and when Jacob returned 21 years later, Esau forgave and welcomed him. The two brothers lived separately but in peace thereafter.
In biblical tradition, Esau is considered to be the father of the Edomites, a semitic people living east of the Jordan River in the land of Canaan. Critical scholarship holds that the story of Esau reflects the relations between Edom and Israel in a later period and cannot be considered as historical in itself.
Unificationism sees the unity of Esau and Jacob as the paradigm for peace which established the foundation to receive the Messiah in Jacob's lineage. (see Unification Aspects.)
Biblical Account
Esau was born miraculously to Isaac and Rebekah after 20 years of marriage. Rebekah had been barren, but Isaac's prayers for her were answered when she finally conceived. During Rebekah's pregnancy, "the children struggled together within her" (Genesis 25:22). A prophecy revealed that "two nations" wrestled within Rebekah's womb. "The one people shall be stronger than the other people; and the elder shall serve the younger." (Gen. 25:23)
Esau was born immediately before his twin brother Jacob, whose hand grasped Esau's heel. Rabbinical commentators explain that Jacob was trying to hold Esau back from being the firstborn. His name, "Esau," derives from the Hebrew word for "red." The biblical narrative explains that "the first to come out was red, and his whole body was like a hairy garment." Esau and his twin brother were markedly different not only in appearance, but also in character and behavior. Esau was a "skillful hunter, a man of the open country," but Jacob was a gentle man who prefered to stay close to home. Esau favored by his father, Isaac, while Jacob was favored by his mother, Rebekah.
A major event in Esau's life occurred one day when he returned home from hunting. Faint from hunger, Esau requested some of the stew that Jacob had been cooking. Jacob agreed to sell his brother this food only in excahnge for his birthright as the older brother. Feeling he was on the point of starvation, Esau agreed, saying, "I am going to die—what is this birthright to me?" (Genesis 25:29-34)
After this, because of a famine, Isaac moved the family to the Philistine town of Gerar. The text does not indicate whether Esau or Jacob accompanied them during this period, during which their mother was taken into the harem of the Philistine king Abimelech "for a long time."
By the age of 40, Esau, had taken two Hittite women to be his wives: Judith daughter of Beeri, and Basemath daughter of Elon. (Gen. 26:34) This, however, displeased his parents, who preferred that Esau choose his mates from among the Hebrews. Esau's wives were thus "a grief of mind unto Isaac and to Rebekah." (Gen 26:35)
Robbed of his blessing
When Isaac grew old and had become nearly blind, he decided to give Esau his blessing. Isaac sent Esau out to hunt some game and prepare him a meal:
- Now then, get your weapons—-your quiver and bow—-and go out to the open country to hunt some wild game for me. Prepare me the kind of tasty food I like and bring it to me to eat, so that I may give you my blessing before I die."
Esau did as his father commanded, returning a few hours later with a dish of venison. "My father," Esau said, "sit up and eat some of my game, so that you may give me your blessing." Isaac however, seemed surprized to hear Esau's voice. "Who are you?" Isaac asked. "I am your son," Esau replied, "your firstborn, Esau." Isaac "trembled violently" and demanded to know who had just been in the tent pretending to be Esau. Answering his own question, he declared: "Your brother came deceitfully and took your blessing."
"Bless me too, my father!" Esau begged. "Haven't you reserved any blessing for me?" Isaac answered solemnly: "I have made him lord over you and have made all his relatives his servants, and I have sustained him with grain and new wine. So what can I possibly do for you, my son?" Brokenhearted, Esau wept, saying, "Do you have only one blessing, my father? Bless me too, my father!"
Isaac answered prophetically, predicting the fate of Esau's descendants, the Edomites, concerning their relations with the Isarelites in a much later age:
- Your dwelling will be away from the earth's richness,
- away from the dew of heaven above.
- You will live by the sword and you will serve your brother.
- But when you grow restless
- you will throw his yoke from off your neck. (Gen. 27:39-40)
Jacob's deception left Esau in a position of servitude which Isaac never intended. However, once Isaac had given his blessing to Jacob—even under false pretenses—it could not be rescinded. Esau, no doubt justifying himself on account of Jacob's deception and thievery, planned to kill Jacob as soon as Isaac died. However, Rebekah advised Jacob to flee to her relatives in Haran, winning Isaac's support for the plan on the grounds that Jacob could find a wife from among the Hebrew women there. Isaac agreed and commanded Jacob: "Do not marry a Canaanite woman."
Esau then realized how displeasing his own wives were to Isaac. Still seeking to please his aging father, he went to is uncle Ishmael, Isaac's half-brother, and received permission to marry Ishmael's daughter, Mahalath, in addition to the wives he already had.
Reconciliation
Twenty years pass in the narrative with no report of Esau. During this period, Esau remained in Canaan with Isaac, who remained alive despite his great old age. In the twenty-first year, however, Esau learned of Jacob's approach, and not alone but with a major caravan of people and livestock. Although Jacob sent messengers ahead with assurances of his peaceful intent, Esau had been fooled by Jacob twice before. Sensing a threat, he took 400 men with him and rode out to meet his brother.
On his way, however, Esau encountered three more messengers each with a rich gift of livestock, consisting of a total of "200 female goats and 20 male goats, 200 ewes and 20 rams, 30 female camels with their young, 40 cows and 10 bulls, and 20 female donkeys and 10 male donkeys." The next day, as Esau neared Jacob's train, he saw Jacob in the lead, followed by what must have been his wives and children, slaves, and a large herd of various livestock. As Jacob approached, he bowed to the ground seven times before Esau.
Forgeting his anger, "Esau ran to meet Jacob and embraced him; he threw his arms around his neck and kissed him. And they wept." (Gen. 33:4) Jacob introduced Esau to his wives and children, and they, too, prostrated themselves before Esau.
Esau, who himself had grown rich in Jacob's absence, said Jacob's gifts were not necessary, but Jacob insisted that Esau accept then as a token of peace: "If I have found favor in your eyes, accept this gift from me. For to see your face is like seeing the face of God, now that you have received me favorably." (Gen. 34:10)
Esau then offered to accompany Jacob as they traveled together; but Jacob declined, pleading that his wives and children would slow the caravan down. When Esau returned to his habitation in Seir, however, Jacob turned away from the path and settled in Succoth. He is reported as later moving to Shechem and Bethel.
The two brothers and their growing clans apparently continued to live peacefully, but separately, from then on. Their only reported reunion occurred at the time of the death and burial of their father Isaac near Hebron. (Genesis 35:29)
Legacy
Esau is said to be the forefather of the Edomites, one of Israel's neighbors and occasionally both a vassal and an enemy. A genealogical account of the growth of his clan to become the nation of Edom is given in Genesis 36. Esau intermarried with women of Hittite, Hivite, and Ishmaelite origin and evenentually grew into the nation of Edom. Because they were related by blood to the Israelites, the Edomites were exempt from God's command that Joshua "drive out" the Canaanites and slaughter those inhabitants who resisted conquest. However, in accordance with the earlier prophecies concerning Esau, the Israelites viewed the Edomites as destined to be subvervient to them, even though the Isaelites were latecomers to the land. Thus the Kings of the northern kingdom of Israel collected tribute from Edom, and Israel and Judah both went to war against Edom when it refused to accept its proper role as a vassal.
In New Testament times, the Edomites were know as the Idumeans. Although they came to accept Judaism, they were seen by many Jews as racially impure and religiously suspect. Historically, the most famous Idumean Jew was King Herod the Great. His status as a descendant of Esau and the Edomites is one reason for his lack of popularity in Jerusalem and Judea.
Critical View
Biblical scholars often view the story of Esau as a legendary account orginating in later Israelite traditions concerning their neighbors, the Edomites. Thus, Esau's character reflects the Israelite attitude that Edom is destined to "serve" Israel even though the Israelites were relative latecomers to Canaan and thus "the younger son."
The general narratives concerning Esau belong to both Elohist and the Yahwist sources (see documentary hypothesis. This explains the conflict between the genaelogy of Gen. 36 and earlier chapters. The Preistly source (P) is credited with the statement that Esau's marriage was so distasteful to his parents that they sent him away rather than allowing him to intermarry with local women.(Gen. xxvi. 34, 35). The multiple sources of the narrative also account for the Esau is assumed to be the progenitor of the Edomites. His character reflects the disposition of this warlike people. The stories in Genesis purpose to account for discrepancy betwwen the genealogy of Gen. 36 and earlier chapters. Here, Esau's native wives are named as Adah daughter of Elon and Oholibamah daughter of Anah and granddaughter of Zibeon the Hivite, rather than Basemath daughter of Elon and Judith daughter of Beeri. Basemath, meanwhile, is named as the daughter of Ishmael instead of Mahalath.
Rabbinical tradition
While at least one traditional source praises Esau's filial piety (Tan., Kedoshim, 15), the vast majority of rabbincal authorities strongly condemn his character, while justifying Jacob's seemingly unethical behavior toward his older brother.
One report holds that Esau sought to harm Jacob even in their mother's womb. (Gen. R. 63). His "hairy" appearance marked him a sinner (Gen. R. 65) and his "red" color indicated his bloodthirsty character (Gen. R. 63) While one tradition affirms hims as physically indistinguishable from Jacob until they were teenagers, antother describes him as a misshapen dwarf from birth. (Gen. R. 65)
The reason Jacob demanded such a high price for the pottage of lentils he sold to Esau was that this was a dish he had prepared of Isaac, who was mourning the death of Abraham while Esau was out hunting. (Pirke R. El. 33) To make matters worse, Esau had not only been out hunting but had committed murder that very day. Esau adopted a blasphemous attitude in accepting the bargain and proved himself to be no filial son. (Gen. R. 63) Moreover, whevever Esau had succeeded in his hunting, he had always refused to share his own meals with Jacbob. (Pirke R. El. 50)
Esau won the affection of Isaac not by his own merit but through lying and insincere flattery. (Targ. Pseudo-Jon.) Isaac's blindness was caused either by his grief because of the idolatry of Esau's wives (Tan., Toledot) of from trying not to see Esau's own evil deeds. (Gen. R. 65) In fact, Esau spent much of his time visiting idolatrous shrines. (Gen. R. 63) Esau not only planned to kill Jacob, but actually attempted to murder him. It was this act that caused Rebekah to send Jacob to her brother Laban. Esau then conspired with his son Eliphaz to ambush Jacob on the road to Haran, but Eliphaz failed to fulfill this mission after Jacob bribes him. (Sefer ha-Yashar 50).
Increasing in wealth, Esau relocated from Canaan to Seir after he and his children feuded with the inhabitants of Canaan. (Sefer ha-Yashar 50). When Jacob returned to Canaan, Esau was disuaded from his warlike purpose by four mighty angels, each of whom appeared to Esau like and army of 2,000 soldiers. Only because he thought himself outnumbered, Esaud resolved meet Jacob; and it was Jacob who received Esau with brotherly affection, rather than the other way around. (Sefer ha-Yashar 50). Some rabbis hold that Esau really repented at this meeting; while others maintain that even in this scene he played the hypocrite. (Gen. R. 78; Ab. R. N. 34; Ex. R. 5).
The reason that Jacob turned aside and did not follow Esau after their meeting is because he knew that Esau lay in wait to ambush him. Nevertheless, Jacob and Esau did meet amicably and compete in showing filial piety at the death of Isaac. Esau's death was brought about in an argument with Jacob's sons over their right to bury their father in the cave of Machpelah. (Sotah 13a) To summarize the account given in the Sefer ha-Yashar: Esau resorted to war, and was slain by Dan's son, Hushim.
ReferencesISBN links support NWE through referral fees
- Metzeger, Bruce M. (ed) and , Michael D. Coogan (ed) (1993). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504645-5.
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