Difference between revisions of "Creek (people)" - New World Encyclopedia

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{{ethnic group|
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{{confuse|Cree}}
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{{Infobox Ethnic group
 
|group=Creek
 
|group=Creek
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|image        = [[Image:Opothleyahola.jpg|none|250px]]
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|image_caption = [[Opothleyahola]], Muscogee Creek Chief, 1830s
 
|poptime=50,000-60,000
 
|poptime=50,000-60,000
 
|popplace=[[United States]] ([[Oklahoma]], [[Alabama]])
 
|popplace=[[United States]] ([[Oklahoma]], [[Alabama]])
 
|rels=[[Protestantism]], other
 
|rels=[[Protestantism]], other
 
|langs=[[English language|English]], [[Creek language|Creek]]
 
|langs=[[English language|English]], [[Creek language|Creek]]
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|related=[[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]] peoples: [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Coushatta]], [[Miccosukee]], [[Seminole]]
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|related=[[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]] peoples: [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]], [[Coushatta]], [[Miccosukee]], [[Cherokee]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], and [[Seminole]]
 
}}
 
}}
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The '''Creek''' are an [[American Indians in the United States|American Indian]] people originally from the [[Southern United States|southeastern United States]], also known by their original name '''Muscogee''' (or '''Muskogee'''), the name they use to identify themselves today.<ref>[http://anpa.ualr.edu/digital_library/Additional%20Texts%20-%20Yuchi%20.htm Transcribed documents] Sequoyah Research Center and the American Native Press Archives</ref> ''Mvskoke'' is their name in traditional spelling. Modern Muscogees live primarily in [[Oklahoma]], [[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and [[Florida]]. Their language, ''[[Creek language|Mvskoke]]'', is a member of the Creek branch of the [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean language family]]. The [[Seminole (tribe)|Seminole]] are close kin to the Muscogee and speak a Creek language as well. The Creeks were considered one of the [[Five Civilized Tribes]].
  
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The '''Creek''' are an [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]] people originally from the southeastern [[United States]], also known by their original name '''Muscogee''' (or '''Muskogee'''), the name they use to identify themselves today.<ref>[http://anpa.ualr.edu/digital_library/Additional%20Texts%20-%20Yuchi%20.htm Transcribed documents] Sequoyah Research Center and the American Native Press Archives</ref> ''Mvskoke'' is their name in traditional spelling. Modern Muscogees live primarily in [[Oklahoma]], [[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and [[Florida]]. Their language, ''[[Creek language|Mvskoke]]'', is a member of the Creek branch of the [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean language family]]. The [[Seminole (tribe)|Seminole]] are close kin to the Muscogee and speak a Creek language as well. The Creeks are one of the [[Five Civilized Tribes]].
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==History==
  
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==Early history==
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[[Image:Selocta.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Selocta (or Shelocta) was a Muscogee chief.]]
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The early historic Creeks were probably descendants of the [[mound builder]]s of the [[Mississippian culture]] along the [[Tennessee River]] in modern [[Tennessee]]<ref name=Finger_2001>{{cite book | last = Finger | first = John R. | title = Tennessee Frontiers: Three Regions in Transition | pages = p. 19 | publisher = Indiana University Press | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-253-33985-5}}</ref>  and Alabama, and possibly related to the [[Utinahica]] of southern Georgia. More of a loose confederacy than a single tribe, the Muscogee lived in autonomous villages in river valleys throughout what are today the states of Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama and consisted of many ethnic groups speaking several distinct languages, such as the [[Hitchiti]], [[Alabama (tribe)|Alabama]], and [[Coushatta]]. Those who lived along the [[Ocmulgee River]] were called "Creek Indians" by British traders from [[South Carolina]]. Eventually the name was applied to all of the various inhabitants of Creek towns, which were divided into the Lower Towns of the Georgia frontier on the [[Chattahoochee River]], Ocmulgee River, and [[Flint River (Georgia)|Flint River]], and the Upper Towns of the [[Alabama River]] Valley.
  
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The early historic Creeks were probably descendants of the mound builders of the [[Mississippian culture]] along the [[Tennessee River]] in modern [[Tennessee]]<ref name=Finger_2001>{{cite book | last = Finger | first = John R. | title = Tennessee Frontiers: Three Regions in Transition | pages = p. 19 | publisher = Indiana University Press | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0-253-33985-5}}</ref>  and [[Alabama]], and possibly related to the [[Utinahica]] of southern Georgia. More of a loose confederacy than a single tribe, the Muscogee lived in autonomous villages in river valleys throughout what are today the states of Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama and consisted of many ethnic groups speaking several distinct languages, such as the [[Hitchiti]], [[Alabama (tribe)|Alabama]], and [[Coushatta]]. Those who lived along the [[Ocmulgee River]] were called "Creek Indians" by British traders from [[South Carolina]]; eventually the name was applied to all of the various natives of Creek towns becoming increasingly divided between the '''Lower Towns''' of the Georgia frontier on the [[Chattahoochee River]], Ocmulgee River, and [[Flint River (Georgia)|Flint River]] and the '''Upper Towns''' of the [[Alabama River]] Valley.  The Lower Towns included Coweta, Cusseta (Kasihta, Cofitachiqui), Upper Chehaw (Chiaha), Hitchiti, Oconee, Ocmulgee, Okawaigi, Apalachee, Yamasee (Altamaha), Ocfuskee, Sawokli, and Tamali. The Upper Towns included Tuckabatchee, Abhika, [[Coosa River|Coosa]] (Kusa; the dominant people of [[East Tennessee]] and [[North Georgia]] during the Spanish explorations), Itawa (original inhabitants of the [[Etowah Indian Mounds]]), Hothliwahi (Ullibahali), Hilibi, Eufaula, Wakokai, Atasi, Alibamu, Coushatta (Koasati; they had absorbed the Kaski/Casqui and the Tali), and Tuskegee ("Napochi" in the de Luna chronicles).
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The Lower Towns included Coweta, Cusseta (Kasihta, [[Cofitachequi|Cofitachiqui]]), Upper Chehaw ([[Chiaha]]), [[Hitchiti]], Oconee, Ocmulgee, Okawaigi, [[Apalachee]], [[Yamasee]] (Altamaha), Ocfuskee, Sawokli, and Tamali. The Upper Towns included Tuckabatchee, [[Abihka|Abhika]], [[Coosa chiefdom|Coosa]] (Kusa; the dominant people of [[East Tennessee]] and [[North Georgia]] during the Spanish explorations), Itawa (original inhabitants of the [[Etowah Indian Mounds]]), Hothliwahi (Ullibahali), Hilibi, Eufaula, Wakokai, Atasi, [[Alibamu]], [[Coushatta]] (Koasati; they had absorbed the Kaski/Casqui and the [[Toqua (Tennessee)|Tali]]), and Tuskegee ("Napochi" in the de Luna chronicles).
  
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Cusseta (Kasihta) and Coweta are the two principal towns of the Creek Nation to this day. Traditionally the Cusseta and Coweta bands are considered the earliest members of the Creek Nation.<ref>[http://anpa.ualr.edu/digital_library/Additional%20Texts%20-%20Yuchi%20.htm Transcribed documents] Sequoyah Research Center and the American Native Press Archives</ref>
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Cusseta (Kasihta) and Coweta are still the two principal towns of the Creek Nation. Traditionally, the Cusseta and Coweta bands are considered the earliest members of the Creek Nation.<ref>[http://anpa.ualr.edu/digital_library/Additional%20Texts%20-%20Yuchi%20.htm Transcribed documents] Sequoyah Research Center and the American Native Press Archives</ref>
  
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==Revolutionary era==
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===Revolutionary War era===
  
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Like many Native American groups east of the [[Mississippi River]], the Creeks were divided over which side to take in the [[American Revolutionary War]]. The Lower Creeks remained neutral; the Upper Creeks allied with the British and fought the colonial rebels.
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[[Image:Creeks in Oklahoma.png|thumb|255px|right|Members of the Creek Nation in Oklahoma around 1877. Notice the European and African ancestry members.]]
  
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[[Image:AMcgillvray.jpg|thumb|left|This sketch by [[John Trumbull]] shows Creek leader [[Hopothle Mico]], probably at the time of the signing of the [[Treaty of New York]] in 1790. [http://www.library.fordham.edu/trumbull/trumbulldetail.asp?imageID=3 (more)] ]]
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Like many Native American groups east of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] and Louisiana Rivers, the Creeks were divided in the [[American Revolutionary War]]. The Lower Creeks remained neutral; the Upper Creeks allied with the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] and fought the American [[Patriot]]s.
  
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After the rebellion officially ended in 1783, the Creeks discovered Great Britain had ceded Creek lands to the new [[United States]]. The State of Georgia began to expand into Creek territory. Creek statesman [[Alexander McGillivray]] rose to prominence as he organized pan-Indian resistance to this encroachment and received arms from the [[Spanish Florida|Spanish in Florida]] to fight trespassing Georgians. McGillivray worked to create a sense of Creek nationalism and to centralize Creek authority, struggling against village leaders who individually sold land to the United States. With the [[Treaty of New York]] in 1790, McGillivray ceded a significant portion of Creek lands to the United States under the administration of [[George Washington]] in exchange for federal recognition of Creek sovereignty within the remaining territory. However, McGillivray died in 1793 and Georgia continued to expand into Creek territory.
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After the war ended in 1783, the Creeks discovered that Britain had ceded Creek lands to the now independent [[United States]]. Georgia began to expand into Creek territory. Creek statesman [[Alexander McGillivray]] rose to prominence as he organized pan-Indian resistance to this encroachment and received arms from the [[Spanish Florida|Spanish in Florida]] to fight trespassers. McGillivray worked to create a sense of Creek nationalism and centralize Creek authority. He struggled against village leaders who individually sold land to the United States. By the [[Treaty of New York]] in 1790, McGillivray ceded a significant portion of the Creek lands to the United States under President [[George Washington]] in return for federal recognition of Creek sovereignty within the remainder. McGillivray died in 1793, however, and Georgia continued to expand into Creek territory.
  
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==Red Stick War==<!-- This section is linked from [[Seminole Wars]] —>
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In 1799 English adventurer William Augustus Bowles was elected director general of the State of Muskogee by a congress of Creeks and Seminoles.As both Spain and the USA claimed the land, Bowles hoped to be able to create an independent Creek nation, the [[State of Muskogee]].
  
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The [[Creek War]] of 1813-1814, also known as the ''Red Stick War'', began as a [[civil war]] within the Creek Nation, only to become enmeshed within the [[War of 1812]]. Inspired by the fiery eloquence of the [[Shawnee]] leader [[Tecumseh]] and their own religious leaders, Creeks from the Upper Towns, known to the Americans as [[Red Sticks]], sought to aggressively resist white immigration and the "civilizing programs" administered by U.S. Indian Agent [[Benjamin Hawkins]]. Red Stick leaders [[William Weatherford|William Weatherford (Red Eagle)]], [[Peter McQueen]] and [[Menawa]] violently clashed with the Lower Creeks led by [[William McIntosh]], who were allied with the Americans.
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===First to Civilize ===
  
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On August 30, 1813, Red Sticks led by Red Eagle attacked the American outpost of [[Fort Mims Massacre|Fort Mims]] near [[Mobile, Alabama]], where white Americans and their Indian allies had gathered. The Red Sticks took the fort and a bloody clash ensued, as prisoners &mdash; including women and children &mdash; were killed. Nearly 250 people were killed, spreading panic throughout the American southwestern frontier.
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[[Image:Benjamin Hawkins and the Creek Indians.jpg|thumb|left||300px|Benjamin Hawkins, seen on his plantation in this 1805 painting, teaches Creeks to use European technology.]]
  
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In response to the massacre at Fort Mims, [[Tennessee]], Georgia, and the [[Mississippi Territory]] sent armies deep into Creek country. Outnumbered and poorly armed, the Red Sticks put up a desperate fight from their wilderness strongholds. On March 27, 1814, General [[Andrew Jackson]]'s Tennessee [[militia]], aided by the 39th U. S. Infantry Regiment and [[Cherokee]] and Creek allies, finally crushed Red Stick resistance at the [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend]] on the [[Tallapoosa River]].  
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[[George Washington]], the first U.S. President, and [[Henry Knox]], the first U.S. Secretary of War, proposed a cultural transformation of the Native Americans.<ref name=perdue>
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{{cite book
 +
| last      = Perdue
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| first    = Theda
 +
| title    = Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South
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| origdate  = 2003
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| publisher = The University of Georgia Press
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| chapter  = Chapter 2 "Both White and Red"
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| page      = 51
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| id        = ISBN 082032731X
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}}
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</ref> Washington believed that Native Americans were equals, but that their society was inferior. He formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing" process, and it was continued under President [[Thomas Jefferson]].<ref name=remini_reform_begins>
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{{cite book
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| last      = Remini
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| first    = Robert
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| title    = Andrew Jackson
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| origdate  = 1977, 1998
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| publisher = History Book Club
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| chapter  = "The Reform Begins"
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| page      = 201
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| id        = ISBN 0965063107
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}} </ref> Noted historian Robert Remini wrote "they presumed that once the Indians adopted the practice of private property, built homes, farmed, educated their children, and embraced Christianity, these Native Americans would win acceptance from white Americans."<ref name=remini_submit_adoption>
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{{cite book
 +
| last      = Remini
 +
| first    = Robert
 +
| title    = Andrew Jackson
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| origdate  = 1977, 1998
 +
| publisher = History Book Club
 +
| chapter  = "Brothers, Listen ... You Must Submit"
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| page      = 258
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| id        = ISBN 0965063107
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}} </ref> Washington's six-point plan included impartial justice toward Indians; regulated buying of Indian lands; promotion of commerce; promotion of experiments to civilize or improve Indian society; presidential authority to give presents; and punishing those who violated Indian rights.<ref name=eric_miller>
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{{cite web
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| url        = http://www.dreric.org/library/northwest.shtml
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| title      = George Washington And Indians
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| accessdate = 2008-05-02
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| author    = Eric Miller
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| last      = Miller
 +
| first      = Eric
 +
| year      = 1994
 +
| chapter    = Washington and the Northwest War, Part One
 +
| format    = HTML
 +
| publisher  = Eric Miller
 +
}}
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</ref> The Creeks would be the first Native Americans to be civilized under Washington's six-point plan. The Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole would follow the Creeks efforts to benefit under Washington's new policy of civilization.
  
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Though the Red Sticks had been crushed &mdash; altogether, about 3,000 Upper Creeks died in the war &mdash; the remnants of the Upper Creek resistance held out for several months. In August of 1814, exhausted and starving, they surrendered to Jackson at [[Wetumpka, Alabama|Wetumpka]] (near the present city of [[Montgomery, Alabama]]). On August 9, 1814, the Creeks were forced to sign the [[Treaty of Fort Jackson]], which ended the conflict and required them to cede some 20 million acres (81,000 km²) of land - more than half of their ancestral territorial holdings - to the United States. Even those Creek who had fought alongside Jackson were compelled to cede territory, as Jackson held them responsible for allowing the Red Sticks to rise up. The State of Alabama was carved out of this domain and admitted to the United States in 1819.
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In 1796, Washington appointed [[Benjamin Hawkins]] as General Superintendent of Indian Affairs dealing with all tribes south of the [[Ohio River]]. He personally assumed the role of principal agent to the Creeks. He moved to the area that is now [[Crawford County, Georgia|Crawford County]] in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. He began to teach agricultural practices to the tribe, starting a farm at his home on the Flint River. In time, he brought in slaves and workers, cleared several hundred acres and established mills and a trading post as well as his farm.  
  
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Some of the Creeks migrated to Florida in the aftermath of the war, where some of them allied with the Seminoles and British against the Americans. They would later be involved in both sides of the [[Seminole War]] in Florida.
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For years, he would meet with chiefs on his porch and discuss matters. He was responsible for the longest period of peace between the settlers and the tribe, overseeing 19 years of peace. When a fort was built, in 1806, to protect expanding settlements, just east of modern [[Macon, Georgia]], it was named [[Fort Benjamin Hawkins]].
  
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==Removal to the West==
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Hawkins was dis-heartened and shocked with the Creek War which destroyed his life work of improving Creek Native Americans quality of life. Hawkins saw much of his work toward building a peace destroyed in 1812. A group of Creeks, led by [[Tecumseh]] were encouraged by British agents to resistance against increasing settlement by whites. Although he personally was never attacked, he was forced to watch an internal [[Creek War|civil war among the Creeks]], the war with a faction known as the ''Red Sticks'', and their eventual defeat by [[Andrew Jackson]].
  
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After the War of 1812, some Creek leaders such as [[William McIntosh]] signed a number of treaties that ceded more and more land to Georgia. Eventually, the Creek Confederacy enacted a law that made further land cessions a capital offense. Nevertheless, on February 12, 1825, McIntosh and other chiefs signed the [[Treaty of Indian Springs]], which gave up most of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia. [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0214.htm]
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===Red Stick War===
  
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[[Image:Menawa.jpg|thumb|[[Menawa]] visited Washington, D.C. in 1826 to protest the [[Treaty of Indian Springs]]. Painted by [[Charles Bird King]].]]
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[[Image:Menawa high resolution.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Menawa]] visited Washington, D.C. in 1826 to protest the [[Treaty of Indian Springs]]. Painted by [[Charles Bird King]].]]
  
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McIntosh was a cousin of Georgia governor [[George Troup]], who saw the Creeks as a threat to white expansion in the region, and had been elected for the Democratic party on a platform of [[Indian removal]]. McIntosh's motives have been variously interpreted. Some believed he had been bribed to sell out his people; others insisted he had realized that the Creeks were going to lose their lands eventually, and that he got the best possible deal for them. After the [[U.S. Senate]] ratified the treaty, McIntosh was assassinated (31 May 1825) by Creeks led by Menawa. ([[Major Ridge]] of the [[Cherokee]]s later made the same choices as McIntosh, and paid the same price.)
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The [[Creek War]] of 1813-1814, also known as the ''Red Stick War'', began as a [[civil war]] within the Creek Nation, only to become enmeshed within the [[War of 1812]]. Inspired by the fiery eloquence of the [[Shawnee]] leader [[Tecumseh]] and their own religious leaders, Creeks from the Upper Towns, known to the Americans as [[Red Sticks]], sought to aggressively resist white immigration and the "civilizing programs" administered by U.S. Indian Agent [[Benjamin Hawkins]]. Red Stick leaders [[William Weatherford|William Weatherford (Red Eagle)]], [[Peter McQueen]] and [[Menawa]] violently clashed with the Lower Creeks led by [[William McIntosh]], who were allied with the Americans.
  
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The Creek National Council, led by [[Opothleyahola|Opothle Yohola]], protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President [[John Quincy Adams]] was sympathetic, and eventually the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the [[Treaty of Washington (1826)]]. [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0264.htm] Writes historian R. Douglas Hurt: "The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had ever done or would do again &mdash; achieve the annulment of a ratified treaty."<ref name=Hurt_2002>{{cite book | last = Hurt | first = R. Douglas | title = The Indian Frontier, 1763-1846 (Histories of the American Frontier) | pages = p. 148 | publisher = Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0826319661}}</ref>
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On August 30, 1813, Red Sticks led by Red Eagle attacked the American outpost of [[Fort Mims Massacre|Fort Mims]] near [[Mobile, Alabama]], where white settlers and their Indian allies had gathered. The Red Sticks captured the fort by surprise, and a[[massacre]] ensued, as prisoners &mdash; including women and children &mdash; were killed. Nearly 250 died, and panic spread across the American southwestern frontier.
  
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However, Governor Troup of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians under the terms of the earlier treaty. At first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, but Troup called out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. As he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to war over."
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Tennessee, Georgia, and the [[Mississippi Territory]] sent militia units deep into Creek territory. Although outnumbered and poorly armed, the Red Sticks put up a desperate fight from their strongholds. On March 27, 1814, General [[Andrew Jackson]]'s Tennessee [[militia]], aided by the 39th U. S. [[Infantry]] Regiment plus [[Cherokee]] and Creek allies, finally crushed Red Stick at the [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend]] on the [[Tallapoosa River]].
  
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Although the Creeks had been forced from Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the [[Indian Territory]], there were still about 20,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama. However, the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks. [[Opothle Yohola]] appealed to the administration of President [[Andrew Jackson]] for protection from Alabama; when none was forthcoming, the [[Treaty of Cusseta]] was signed on 24 March 1832, which divided up Creek lands into individual allotments. [http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/cre0341.htm] Creeks could either sell their allotments and received funds to remove to the west, or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws. Land speculators and squatters began to defraud Creeks out of their allotments, and violence broke out, leading to the so-called "[[Creek War of 1836]]." [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] [[Lewis Cass]] dispatched General [[Winfield Scott]] to end the violence by forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory west of the [[Mississippi River]].
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[[Image:Flag of the Creek Nation.svg|125px|left|thumb|<small>Flag of the dissolved Creek Nation located in Alabama, Georgia, and parts of Tenessee.</small>]]
  
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The official website of the Muscogees describes the next phase in their history:
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Though the Red Sticks had been soundly defeated and about 3,000 Upper Creeks died in the war, the remnants held out several months longer. In August 1814, exhausted and starving, they surrendered to Jackson at [[Wetumpka, Alabama|Wetumpka]] (near the present city of [[Montgomery, Alabama]]). On August 9, 1814, the Creek nation was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Fort Jackson]], which ended the war and required them to cede some 20 million acres (81,000 km²) of land&mdash;more than half of their ancestral territorial holdings&mdash;to the United States. Even those who had fought alongside Jackson were compelled to cede land, since Jackson held them responsible for allowing the Red Sticks to revolt. The state of Alabama was carved largely out of their domain and was admitted to the United States in 1819.
  
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:''In the new nation the Lower Muscogees located their farms and plantations on the Arkansas and Verdigris rivers. The Upper Muscogees re-established their ancient towns on the Canadian River and its northern branches. The tribal towns of both groups continued to send representatives to a National Council which met near High Springs. The Muscogee Nation as a whole began to experience a new prosperity.'' [http://www.muscogeenation-nsn.gov/history.html]
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Many Creeks refused to surrender and escaped to Florida. Some allied themselves with Florida Indians (who eventually become collectively called the Seminoles) and the British against the Americans. They were involved on both sides of the [[Seminole War]] in Florida.
  
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==Muscogees today==
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==Present==
  
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[[Image:Making Frybread.jpg|right|thumb|A Creek [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] soldier preparing [[frybread]] during a 2004 [[pow-wow]] in [[Iraq]].]]
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[[Image:Making Frybread.jpg|left|thumb|A Creek [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] soldier preparing [[frybread]] during a 2004 [[pow-wow]] in [[Iraq]].]]
  
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Most Muscogees were removed to [[Indian Territory]], although some remained behind. There are a number of Muscogees in [[Alabama]] living near [[Poarch Creek Reservation]] in [[Atmore, Alabama|Atmore]] (northeast of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]), as well as a number of Creeks in essentially undocumented ethnic towns in [[Florida]]. The Alabama reservation includes a [[Indian gaming|bingo]] hall and holds an annual [[powwow]] on [[Thanksgiving]]. Additionally, Muscogee descendants of varying degrees of acculturation live throughout the southeastern United States.  
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Most Muscogees were removed to Indian Territory, although some remained behind. There are Muscogees in Alabama living near [[Poarch Creek Reservation]] in [[Atmore, Alabama|Atmore]] (northeast of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]), as well as Creeks in essentially undocumented ethnic towns in Florida. The Alabama reservation includes a [[Indian gaming|bingo]] hall and holds an annual [[powwow]] on [[Thanksgiving]]. Additionally, Muscogee descendants of varying degrees of acculturation live throughout the southeastern United States.  
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The tribal government operates a budget in excess of $106 million, has over 2,400 employees, and maintains tribal facilities and programs in eight administrative districts. The nation operates several significant tribal enterprises, including the Muscogee Document Imaging Company; travel plazas in Okmulgee, Muskogee and Cromwell, Oklahoma; construction, technology and staffing services; and major [[Native American gambling enterprises|casinos]] in [[Tulsa]] and Okmulgee. The tribal population is fully integrated into the larger culture and economy of Oklahoma, with Muscogee Nation citizens making significant contributions in every field of endeavor, while continuing to preserve and share a vibrant tribal identity through events such as annual festivals, ball-games, and language classes.  
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The tribal government operates a budget in excess of $106 million, has over 2,400 employees, and maintains tribal facilities and programs in eight administrative districts. The Nation operates several significant tribal enterprises, including the Muscogee Document Imaging Company; travel plazas in Okmulgee, Muskogee and Cromwell, Oklahoma; construction, technology and staffing services; and major [[Native American gambling enterprises|casinos]] in [[Tulsa]] and Okmulgee. The tribal population is fully integrated into the larger culture and economy of Oklahoma, with Muscogee Nation citizens making significant contributions in every field of endeavor, while continuing to preserve and share a vibrant tribal identity through events such as annual festivals, ball-games, and language classes. The Nation's historic old Council House, built in 1878 and located in downtown Okmulgee, was completely restored in the 1990's and now serves as a museum of tribal history.
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The Stomp Dance and Green Corn Ceremony are both highly revered gatherings and rituals that have largely remained non public and not by coincidence "Pure."
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The Nation's historic old Council House, built in 1878 and located in downtown Okmulgee, was completely restored in the 1990s and now serves as a museum of tribal history.
  
 
==Famous Creek==
 
==Famous Creek==
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*[[Lt. Col. Ernest Childers]], First American Indian to Receive World War II Congressional Medal of Honor[http://www.medalofhonor.com/ErnestChilders.htm]
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*[[William McIntosh]], Lower Creek Mico [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_McIntosh] [http://chiefmcintosh.com/]
 
*[[Acee Blue Eagle]], artist.
 
*[[Acee Blue Eagle]], artist.
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*[[Cytherea (porn star)|Cytherea]], adult film actress.{{fact|date=July 2007}}
 
 
*[[Johnnie Diacon]], artist, Thlopthlocco Tribal Town (Raprakko Etvlwv), Deer Clan (Ecovlke).
 
*[[Johnnie Diacon]], artist, Thlopthlocco Tribal Town (Raprakko Etvlwv), Deer Clan (Ecovlke).
 
*[[Joy Harjo]], Native American poet.
 
*[[Joy Harjo]], Native American poet.
 +
*[[Retha Gambaro]], artist.
 
*[[Suzan Shown Harjo]]
 
*[[Suzan Shown Harjo]]
 
*[[Jim Pepper]], jazz musician.
 
*[[Jim Pepper]], jazz musician.
 
*[[Will Sampson]], film actor, noted for his performance in ''[[One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film)|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]'' (1975).
 
*[[Will Sampson]], film actor, noted for his performance in ''[[One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film)|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]'' (1975).
−
*[[Carrie Underwood]], [[Grammy]]-award-winning [[United States|American]] [[country music]] [[singer]], has Creek ancestry.<ref>[http://www.rlnn.com/ArtFeb07/CreekNationUnderwood2GrannyAwards.html Creek Nation tribal member Carrie Underwood wins 2 Grammy Awards], ''Red Lake Net news''</ref>
+
*[[Synyster Gates]], lead guitar player from the band [[Avenged sevenfold]] has Creek ancestry.
−
*[[Greg T. Walker]], bassist and vocalist for [[Southern rock]] band [[Blackfoot (band)|Blackfoot]].{{fact|date=July 2007}}
+
*[[Frank Van Zant]], who also went by the name Chief Rolling Mountain Thunder. He built and lived in the Thunder Mountain Indian Monument in [[Imlay, Nevada]].<ref>[http://www.thundermountainmonument.com/background.htm Background of Thunder Mountain Monument], ''thundermountainmonument.com'', Retrieved on 2007-11-26.</ref>
 +
* [[Jack Jacobs]], football player
 +
* James McHenry, Confederate Major, Methodist minister, and important Creek leader
 +
* [[Cynthia Leitich Smith]], Children's book author noted for "Jingle Dancer"
 +
*[[Thomas Francis Meagher, Jr.]] (cousin of Brig. Gen. [[Thomas Francis Meagher]]) Creek Historian, [[Rough Rider]]
 +
*[[Micah Ian Wright]], film, television & videogame writer, chair of the Writers Guild of America's American Indian Writers Committee.
 +
*[[Carrie Underwood]], country singer.
 +
*[[William Harjo LoneFight]], noted Native American author, entrepreneur and nationally known expert in the revitalization of Native American Languages and Cultural Traditions.
 +
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
== Notes ==
 +
<references/>
 +
 
 +
== Suggested Media ==
 +
 
 +
* First Frontier, Docu-drama, Auburn University Educational Television, 1987. The docu-drama covers the encounter with [[Hernando DeSoto]] to the era of [[Trial of Tears|Indian Removal]]; the film focuses on the Creek peoples.
 +
* Creek Country: The Creek Indians and Their World. Robbie Ethridge, 2003, The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807854956
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
 +
*{{Cite book
 +
| publisher = University of Nebraska Press
 +
| last = Braund
 +
| first = Kathryn E. Holland
 +
| title = Deerskins & Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685-1815
 +
| location = Lincoln, NE
 +
| series = Indians of the Southeast
 +
| date = 1993
 +
| oclc = 45732303
 +
}}
 +
 +
* {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Harvey H. III |title=Rivers of History-Life on the Coosa, Tallapoosa, Cahaba and Alabama'' |year=1995 |publisher=The University of Alabama Press |location=Tuscaloosa, Alabama |isbn=0817307710 }}
 +
 +
*{{Cite book
 +
| publisher = US Government Printing Office
 +
| last = Swanton
 +
| first = John R.
 +
| title = Early History of the Creek Indians and their Neighbors
 +
| location = Washington, DC
 +
| series = Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 73
 +
| date = 1922
 +
| oclc = 18032096
 +
}}
  
−
*{{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Harvey H. III |title=Rivers of History-Life on the Coosa, Tallapoosa, Cahaba and Alabama'' |year=1995 |publisher=The University of Alabama Press |location=Tuscaloosa, Alabama |isbn=0817307710 }}
+
*{{Cite book
 +
| publisher = US Government Printing Office
 +
| pages = 23-472
 +
| last = Swanton
 +
| first = John R.
 +
| title = Forty-Second Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology
 +
| chapter = Social Organization and the Social Usages of the Indians of the Creek Confederacy
 +
| location = Washington, DC
 +
| date = 1928
 +
| oclc = 14980706
 +
}}
  
−
== Notes ==
+
*{{Cite book
−
All Links Retrieved December 16, 2007.
+
| publisher = Smithsonian Institution
 +
| pages = 373-392
 +
| editor = Raymond D. Fogelson (ed.)
 +
| last = Walker
 +
| first = Willard B.
 +
| title = Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 14: Southeast
 +
| chapter = Creek Confederacy Before Removal
 +
| location = Washington, DC
 +
| date = 2004
 +
| oclc = 57192264
 +
}}
  
−
<references/>
+
*{{Cite book
 +
| publisher = University Press of Florida
 +
| pages = 265-298
 +
| editor = Bonnie G. McEwan (ed.)
 +
| last = Worth
 +
| first = John E.
 +
| title = Indians of the Greater Southeast: Historical Archaeology and Ethnohistory
 +
| chapter = The Lower Creeks: Origins and Early History
 +
| location = Gainesville, FL
 +
| date = 2000
 +
| oclc = 49414753
 +
}}
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
−
All Links Retrieved December 16, 2007.
 
  
 
*[http://www.perdidobaytribe.org/ Perdido Bay Tribe of Creek Indians]
 
*[http://www.perdidobaytribe.org/ Perdido Bay Tribe of Creek Indians]
 
*[http://www.muscogeenation-nsn.gov/ Muscogee (Creek) Nation of Oklahoma (official site)]
 
*[http://www.muscogeenation-nsn.gov/ Muscogee (Creek) Nation of Oklahoma (official site)]
−
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~itcreek Creek Nation Indian Territory Project]
+
*[http://www.genealogynation.com/creek/ Creek Nation Indian Territory Project]
 
*[http://www.LostWorlds.org/ocmulgee_mounds.html LostWorlds.org | Ocmulgee Mounds: Creek/Muskogee Origins]
 
*[http://www.LostWorlds.org/ocmulgee_mounds.html LostWorlds.org | Ocmulgee Mounds: Creek/Muskogee Origins]
 +
*[http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_009100_creek.htm Creek (Muskogee) by Kenneth W. McIntosh—Encyclopedia of North American Indians]
 
*[http://ourgeorgiahistory.com/indians/Creek/index.html History of the Creek Indians in Georgia]
 
*[http://ourgeorgiahistory.com/indians/Creek/index.html History of the Creek Indians in Georgia]
 
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cocoon/legacies/AL/200002663.html Poarch Creek Indians in Alabama]
 
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cocoon/legacies/AL/200002663.html Poarch Creek Indians in Alabama]
 
*[http://www.poarchcreekindians.org/ Poarch Band of Creek Indians]
 
*[http://www.poarchcreekindians.org/ Poarch Band of Creek Indians]
 +
*[http://www.tfn.net/Museum/language.html Comprehensive Creek Language materials online]
 
*[http://neptune3.galib.uga.edu/ssp/cgi-bin/ftaccess.cgi?_id=7f000001&dbs=ZLNA Southeastern Native American Documents, 1763-1842].
 
*[http://neptune3.galib.uga.edu/ssp/cgi-bin/ftaccess.cgi?_id=7f000001&dbs=ZLNA Southeastern Native American Documents, 1763-1842].
 +
*[http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-579 New Georgia Encyclopedia entry]
 +
*[http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/Article.jsp?id=h-1088 Encyclopedia of Alabama article]
 +
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~oktulsa2/photogallery/mchenrylewis.html Lewis and James McHenry]
 +
*[http://www.southernspaces.org/con_time.html#fife_cemetery "Fife Family Cemetery," ''Southern Spaces''—a short film on Creek Christian burial practices]
 
{{Five Civilized Tribes}}
 
{{Five Civilized Tribes}}
  
−
{{credits|Creek_people|144815334}}
+
 
 +
 
 +
 
 +
{{Creek_(people)|247245649|||}}

Revision as of 22:56, 26 October 2008


Add Green Corn Ceremony

Template:Confuse

Creek
Opothleyahola.jpg
Opothleyahola, Muscogee Creek Chief, 1830s
Total population
50,000-60,000
Regions with significant populations
United States (Oklahoma, Alabama)
Languages
English, Creek
Religions
Protestantism, other
Related ethnic groups
Muskogean peoples: Alabama, Coushatta, Miccosukee, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole

The Creek are an American Indian people originally from the southeastern United States, also known by their original name Muscogee (or Muskogee), the name they use to identify themselves today.[1] Mvskoke is their name in traditional spelling. Modern Muscogees live primarily in Oklahoma, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. Their language, Mvskoke, is a member of the Creek branch of the Muskogean language family. The Seminole are close kin to the Muscogee and speak a Creek language as well. The Creeks were considered one of the Five Civilized Tribes.

History

Selocta (or Shelocta) was a Muscogee chief.

The early historic Creeks were probably descendants of the mound builders of the Mississippian culture along the Tennessee River in modern Tennessee[2] and Alabama, and possibly related to the Utinahica of southern Georgia. More of a loose confederacy than a single tribe, the Muscogee lived in autonomous villages in river valleys throughout what are today the states of Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama and consisted of many ethnic groups speaking several distinct languages, such as the Hitchiti, Alabama, and Coushatta. Those who lived along the Ocmulgee River were called "Creek Indians" by British traders from South Carolina. Eventually the name was applied to all of the various inhabitants of Creek towns, which were divided into the Lower Towns of the Georgia frontier on the Chattahoochee River, Ocmulgee River, and Flint River, and the Upper Towns of the Alabama River Valley.

The Lower Towns included Coweta, Cusseta (Kasihta, Cofitachiqui), Upper Chehaw (Chiaha), Hitchiti, Oconee, Ocmulgee, Okawaigi, Apalachee, Yamasee (Altamaha), Ocfuskee, Sawokli, and Tamali. The Upper Towns included Tuckabatchee, Abhika, Coosa (Kusa; the dominant people of East Tennessee and North Georgia during the Spanish explorations), Itawa (original inhabitants of the Etowah Indian Mounds), Hothliwahi (Ullibahali), Hilibi, Eufaula, Wakokai, Atasi, Alibamu, Coushatta (Koasati; they had absorbed the Kaski/Casqui and the Tali), and Tuskegee ("Napochi" in the de Luna chronicles).

Cusseta (Kasihta) and Coweta are still the two principal towns of the Creek Nation. Traditionally, the Cusseta and Coweta bands are considered the earliest members of the Creek Nation.[3]

Revolutionary War era

Members of the Creek Nation in Oklahoma around 1877. Notice the European and African ancestry members.

Like many Native American groups east of the Mississippi and Louisiana Rivers, the Creeks were divided in the American Revolutionary War. The Lower Creeks remained neutral; the Upper Creeks allied with the British and fought the American Patriots.

After the war ended in 1783, the Creeks discovered that Britain had ceded Creek lands to the now independent United States. Georgia began to expand into Creek territory. Creek statesman Alexander McGillivray rose to prominence as he organized pan-Indian resistance to this encroachment and received arms from the Spanish in Florida to fight trespassers. McGillivray worked to create a sense of Creek nationalism and centralize Creek authority. He struggled against village leaders who individually sold land to the United States. By the Treaty of New York in 1790, McGillivray ceded a significant portion of the Creek lands to the United States under President George Washington in return for federal recognition of Creek sovereignty within the remainder. McGillivray died in 1793, however, and Georgia continued to expand into Creek territory.

In 1799 English adventurer William Augustus Bowles was elected director general of the State of Muskogee by a congress of Creeks and Seminoles.As both Spain and the USA claimed the land, Bowles hoped to be able to create an independent Creek nation, the State of Muskogee.

First to Civilize

Benjamin Hawkins, seen on his plantation in this 1805 painting, teaches Creeks to use European technology.

George Washington, the first U.S. President, and Henry Knox, the first U.S. Secretary of War, proposed a cultural transformation of the Native Americans.[4] Washington believed that Native Americans were equals, but that their society was inferior. He formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing" process, and it was continued under President Thomas Jefferson.[5] Noted historian Robert Remini wrote "they presumed that once the Indians adopted the practice of private property, built homes, farmed, educated their children, and embraced Christianity, these Native Americans would win acceptance from white Americans."[6] Washington's six-point plan included impartial justice toward Indians; regulated buying of Indian lands; promotion of commerce; promotion of experiments to civilize or improve Indian society; presidential authority to give presents; and punishing those who violated Indian rights.[7] The Creeks would be the first Native Americans to be civilized under Washington's six-point plan. The Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole would follow the Creeks efforts to benefit under Washington's new policy of civilization.

In 1796, Washington appointed Benjamin Hawkins as General Superintendent of Indian Affairs dealing with all tribes south of the Ohio River. He personally assumed the role of principal agent to the Creeks. He moved to the area that is now Crawford County in Georgia. He began to teach agricultural practices to the tribe, starting a farm at his home on the Flint River. In time, he brought in slaves and workers, cleared several hundred acres and established mills and a trading post as well as his farm.

For years, he would meet with chiefs on his porch and discuss matters. He was responsible for the longest period of peace between the settlers and the tribe, overseeing 19 years of peace. When a fort was built, in 1806, to protect expanding settlements, just east of modern Macon, Georgia, it was named Fort Benjamin Hawkins.

Hawkins was dis-heartened and shocked with the Creek War which destroyed his life work of improving Creek Native Americans quality of life. Hawkins saw much of his work toward building a peace destroyed in 1812. A group of Creeks, led by Tecumseh were encouraged by British agents to resistance against increasing settlement by whites. Although he personally was never attacked, he was forced to watch an internal civil war among the Creeks, the war with a faction known as the Red Sticks, and their eventual defeat by Andrew Jackson.

Red Stick War

Menawa visited Washington, D.C. in 1826 to protest the Treaty of Indian Springs. Painted by Charles Bird King.

The Creek War of 1813-1814, also known as the Red Stick War, began as a civil war within the Creek Nation, only to become enmeshed within the War of 1812. Inspired by the fiery eloquence of the Shawnee leader Tecumseh and their own religious leaders, Creeks from the Upper Towns, known to the Americans as Red Sticks, sought to aggressively resist white immigration and the "civilizing programs" administered by U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. Red Stick leaders William Weatherford (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen and Menawa violently clashed with the Lower Creeks led by William McIntosh, who were allied with the Americans.

On August 30, 1813, Red Sticks led by Red Eagle attacked the American outpost of Fort Mims near Mobile, Alabama, where white settlers and their Indian allies had gathered. The Red Sticks captured the fort by surprise, and amassacre ensued, as prisoners — including women and children — were killed. Nearly 250 died, and panic spread across the American southwestern frontier.

Tennessee, Georgia, and the Mississippi Territory sent militia units deep into Creek territory. Although outnumbered and poorly armed, the Red Sticks put up a desperate fight from their strongholds. On March 27, 1814, General Andrew Jackson's Tennessee militia, aided by the 39th U. S. Infantry Regiment plus Cherokee and Creek allies, finally crushed Red Stick at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River.

File:Flag of the Creek Nation.svg
Flag of the dissolved Creek Nation located in Alabama, Georgia, and parts of Tenessee.

Though the Red Sticks had been soundly defeated and about 3,000 Upper Creeks died in the war, the remnants held out several months longer. In August 1814, exhausted and starving, they surrendered to Jackson at Wetumpka (near the present city of Montgomery, Alabama). On August 9, 1814, the Creek nation was forced to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, which ended the war and required them to cede some 20 million acres (81,000 km²) of land—more than half of their ancestral territorial holdings—to the United States. Even those who had fought alongside Jackson were compelled to cede land, since Jackson held them responsible for allowing the Red Sticks to revolt. The state of Alabama was carved largely out of their domain and was admitted to the United States in 1819.

Many Creeks refused to surrender and escaped to Florida. Some allied themselves with Florida Indians (who eventually become collectively called the Seminoles) and the British against the Americans. They were involved on both sides of the Seminole War in Florida.

Present

A Creek U.S. Army soldier preparing frybread during a 2004 pow-wow in Iraq.

Most Muscogees were removed to Indian Territory, although some remained behind. There are Muscogees in Alabama living near Poarch Creek Reservation in Atmore (northeast of Mobile), as well as Creeks in essentially undocumented ethnic towns in Florida. The Alabama reservation includes a bingo hall and holds an annual powwow on Thanksgiving. Additionally, Muscogee descendants of varying degrees of acculturation live throughout the southeastern United States. The tribal government operates a budget in excess of $106 million, has over 2,400 employees, and maintains tribal facilities and programs in eight administrative districts. The nation operates several significant tribal enterprises, including the Muscogee Document Imaging Company; travel plazas in Okmulgee, Muskogee and Cromwell, Oklahoma; construction, technology and staffing services; and major casinos in Tulsa and Okmulgee. The tribal population is fully integrated into the larger culture and economy of Oklahoma, with Muscogee Nation citizens making significant contributions in every field of endeavor, while continuing to preserve and share a vibrant tribal identity through events such as annual festivals, ball-games, and language classes. The Stomp Dance and Green Corn Ceremony are both highly revered gatherings and rituals that have largely remained non public and not by coincidence "Pure." The Nation's historic old Council House, built in 1878 and located in downtown Okmulgee, was completely restored in the 1990s and now serves as a museum of tribal history.

Famous Creek

  • Lt. Col. Ernest Childers, First American Indian to Receive World War II Congressional Medal of Honor[1]
  • William McIntosh, Lower Creek Mico [2] [3]
  • Acee Blue Eagle, artist.
  • Johnnie Diacon, artist, Thlopthlocco Tribal Town (Raprakko Etvlwv), Deer Clan (Ecovlke).
  • Joy Harjo, Native American poet.
  • Retha Gambaro, artist.
  • Suzan Shown Harjo
  • Jim Pepper, jazz musician.
  • Will Sampson, film actor, noted for his performance in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975).
  • Synyster Gates, lead guitar player from the band Avenged sevenfold has Creek ancestry.
  • Frank Van Zant, who also went by the name Chief Rolling Mountain Thunder. He built and lived in the Thunder Mountain Indian Monument in Imlay, Nevada.[8]
  • Jack Jacobs, football player
  • James McHenry, Confederate Major, Methodist minister, and important Creek leader
  • Cynthia Leitich Smith, Children's book author noted for "Jingle Dancer"
  • Thomas Francis Meagher, Jr. (cousin of Brig. Gen. Thomas Francis Meagher) Creek Historian, Rough Rider
  • Micah Ian Wright, film, television & videogame writer, chair of the Writers Guild of America's American Indian Writers Committee.
  • Carrie Underwood, country singer.
  • William Harjo LoneFight, noted Native American author, entrepreneur and nationally known expert in the revitalization of Native American Languages and Cultural Traditions.


Notes

  1. ↑ Transcribed documents Sequoyah Research Center and the American Native Press Archives
  2. ↑ Finger, John R. (2001). Tennessee Frontiers: Three Regions in Transition. Indiana University Press, p. 19. ISBN 0-253-33985-5. 
  3. ↑ Transcribed documents Sequoyah Research Center and the American Native Press Archives
  4. ↑ Perdue, Theda [2003]. "Chapter 2 "Both White and Red"", Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South. The University of Georgia Press. ISBN 082032731X. 
  5. ↑ Remini, Robert [1977, 1998]. ""The Reform Begins"", Andrew Jackson. History Book Club. ISBN 0965063107. 
  6. ↑ Remini, Robert [1977, 1998]. ""Brothers, Listen ... You Must Submit"", Andrew Jackson. History Book Club. ISBN 0965063107. 
  7. ↑ Miller, Eric (1994). George Washington And Indians (HTML). Eric Miller. Retrieved 2008-05-02.
  8. ↑ Background of Thunder Mountain Monument, thundermountainmonument.com, Retrieved on 2007-11-26.

Suggested Media

  • First Frontier, Docu-drama, Auburn University Educational Television, 1987. The docu-drama covers the encounter with Hernando DeSoto to the era of Indian Removal; the film focuses on the Creek peoples.
  • Creek Country: The Creek Indians and Their World. Robbie Ethridge, 2003, The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807854956

References
ISBN links support NWE through referral fees

  • Braund, Kathryn E. Holland (1993). Deerskins & Duffels: The Creek Indian Trade with Anglo-America, 1685-1815, Indians of the Southeast. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. OCLC 45732303. 
  • Jackson, Harvey H. III (1995). Rivers of History-Life on the Coosa, Tallapoosa, Cahaba and Alabama. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: The University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0817307710. 
  • Swanton, John R. (1922). Early History of the Creek Indians and their Neighbors, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 73. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. OCLC 18032096. 
  • Swanton, John R. (1928). "Social Organization and the Social Usages of the Indians of the Creek Confederacy", Forty-Second Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 23-472. OCLC 14980706. 
  • Walker, Willard B. (2004). "Creek Confederacy Before Removal", in Raymond D. Fogelson (ed.): Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 14: Southeast. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 373-392. OCLC 57192264. 
  • Worth, John E. (2000). "The Lower Creeks: Origins and Early History", in Bonnie G. McEwan (ed.): Indians of the Greater Southeast: Historical Archaeology and Ethnohistory. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 265-298. OCLC 49414753. 

External links

Five Civilized Tribes



Template:Creek (people)

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